MAIN IDEA

Walter Benjamin's essay discusses how technology, specifically mechanical reproduction (like
photography and film), has changed the way we think about art.

Before, art was closely connected to rituals and considered unique and authentic.

But now, technology allows us to make many copies of an artwork -> "authenticity" becomes
less important.

Implications:
1. This shift in art's role is connected to politics and society.

2. Art is no longer just for special occasions or rituals; it's part of our everyday lives
through mass media.

3. This essay raises questions about what's special or unique about art and how technology
is changing our relationship with it.

PREFACE

(1) Karl Marx analyzed and criticized the early stages of capitalism.

He looked at the fundamental aspects of how capitalism works

He predicted what might happen in the future.

In the future, capitalism would increasingly exploit the working class (proletariat) and
eventually create conditions that could lead to its own downfall (BIG NO NO FOR MARX)

Too much capitalism = too much exploitation = capitalism destroying itself

(2)The passage also talks about how the culture and art in society change more slowly than the
economic system.

Only now, after more than half a century, can we fully understand the impact of changes
in the way we produce things on art and culture.

It suggests that we should focus on understanding how art is developing under the
current economic conditions (do it daw)

rather than making predictions about art in a future society (do not do it daw) without
classes or after a working-class revolution.

Cultural and artistic change = slow

Economic change = fast
(3) The passage introduces new concepts in the theory of art that are different from traditional
ideas like creativity, genius, and eternal value.

These new concepts are designed to be helpful for advocating for revolutionary changes in
the world of art. They are seen as unsuitable for fascist purposes but can be used to push
for art that aligns with radical political goals.

Usual ideas about art = creativity; eternal value

New ideas about art = revolutionary changes

PART I: THE ADVENT OF MECHANICAL REPRODUCTION

(1)
This passage discusses the idea of reproducing works of art.

Traditionally, people could make copies of art by hand, like students practicing their skills,
artists spreading their work, or others trying to profit from it.

However, the introduction of make copies of art by mechanical reproduction, like

printing and engraving, brought a new way to replicate art more easily.

Historically, the Greeks had limited methods for making copies of art, mostly with things like

bronze sculptures,
terra cotta pieces, and
coins.

Other forms of art were unique and couldn't be copied mechanically. The development of
woodcut printing was one of the earliest ways to mechanically reproduce graphic art,
even before printing was used for text.

This passage also mentions how printing, which allowed the mass production of written
materials, had a significant impact on literature.

Printing is just one example of the broader trend of mechanical reproduction, which also
includes techniques like engraving, etching, and lithography that were developed over
time.

(2) This passage is discussing advancements in the technique of reproducing art.

1. Lithography allowed for a more direct way of copying artwork.

How?
 Instead of carving or etching on materials like wood or copper, artists could now draw
their designs directly onto a stone, and this stone could then be used to make copies of
the art.

Why is it important?

possible to produce graphic art not only in larger quantities but also with more frequent
updates.

easier for graphic art to reflect everyday life and keep up with the pace of printing
technology. However, shortly after lithography was invented, it was surpassed by
photography.

2. Photography was a groundbreaking development in the world of image reproduction

How?

because, for the first time, it didn't rely on the artist's hand for creating copies. Instead,
it depended on a camera and a lens to capture images,

What is its implication?

freeing art from manual reproduction and placing it squarely in the realm of visual
representation.

(3) Photography and Film

This passage discusses the rapid advancement in the process of reproducing images, both
visually and with sound. Because our eyes can perceive things more quickly than an artist can
draw them, innovations like photography and eventually film allowed for much faster image
reproduction.

A film operator, for instance, can capture images at the same speed as an actor's speech,
making it possible to convey images in real-time alongside spoken words.

Just as lithography led to illustrated newspapers, photography foreshadowed the development

of sound films.

The ability to reproduce sound was explored at the end of the 19th century. All of these efforts
led to a situation where people could easily access visual and auditory images with a simple
hand movement, much like how we receive utilities like water, gas, and electricity in our homes
with minimal effort.

You can have visual and sound arts in the swipe of a hand

Conclusion:
By around 1900, technical reproduction had advanced to a point where it could faithfully
reproduce existing works of art and significantly change how the public experienced them.

It also became a distinct form of artistic expression in its own right.

The passage suggests that understanding the impact of these technical advances on traditional
art forms is essential, especially when considering how the reproduction of art and the art of
filmmaking have influenced and transformed traditional art.

PART II: PROBLEMS WITH MECHANICAL REPRODUCTION

1. This passage emphasizes that even the most accurate reproduction of a work of art is
missing a crucial element:

the fact that it physically exists in a particular time and space, with a unique presence in
the place where it is located. This unique existence of the artwork has a significant impact
on its history and how it has evolved over time.

The history of a work of art includes

1. not only its physical changes over the years

The physical changes can only be identified through chemical or physical analysis,
which is not possible with a reproduction.

2. but also its various changes in ownership.

Changes in ownership are influenced by a tradition that must be traced back to the
original situation where the artwork was created.

In essence, this passage underscores the importance of the original work's physical
presence and its history, which are elements that cannot be fully replicated in a
reproduction.

(2) This passage discusses the concept of authenticity in the context of art and how it relates to
the original work of art.

Authenticity is closely tied to the presence of the original.

Authenticity
- exists outside the realm of technical reproduction and is
- influenced by historical and physical factors.

For instance, the authenticity of a bronze sculpture can be confirmed through chemical
analysis of its patina, or the authenticity of a medieval manuscript can be verified by
tracing its origin to a fifteenth-century archive.
However, when a work of art is manually reproduced, the original maintains its authority and
authenticity. It is not typically considered a forgery. In contrast, when it undergoes technical
reproduction, such as in photography, it becomes a bit more complicated.

Technical reproduction is more independent of the original because it can reveal aspects of
the original that are not visible to the naked eye but can be captured by a camera with
adjustable settings. This means that technical reproduction can put the copy of the original into
situations that the original itself could never reach.

For example, a photograph or phonograph record can bring the original work of art to
people who may never visit its physical location.

A photograph allows an art lover to experience a cathedral from the comfort of their
studio, and a phonograph record lets a choral performance be heard in someone's
drawing room, even if the original performance took place in an auditorium or outdoors.

This passage highlights how technical reproduction changes the relationship between the
original work of art and the audience, making the original more accessible and adaptable
in different contexts.

(3) This passage discusses how the quality of presence of a work of art or any object is often
diminished when it undergoes mechanical reproduction.

This reduction in quality occurs even if the reproduced product doesn't directly affect the
actual work of art. It's not just limited to art; it can apply to things like a landscape seen in
a movie.

In the case of an artwork, its most sensitive core aspect, which is its authenticity, is
compromised when it's mechanically reproduced.

Authenticity here means the essence of everything that can be passed down from the
beginning of the work's existence, including its actual existence over time and its
connection to the history it has been a part of.

This is crucial because historical evidence is based on the authenticity of the object. When
reproduction becomes prevalent and the original's substantive existence becomes less
important, the historical testimony it provides is also put at risk.

Ultimately, what is most at risk when historical testimony is affected is the authority of the
object. In other words, the trustworthiness, credibility, and significance of the original work of
art or object may be diminished when it's mechanically reproduced because it loses some of its
unique and historical attributes.

Mechanically reproduced art = diminish authenticity = historical testimony at risk = diminished

authority of an object
 4. This passage introduces the concept of "aura" in the context of art and the impact of
mechanical reproduction.

The term "aura" refers to the unique and authentic quality that an original work of art
possesses.

The author suggests that in the age of mechanical reproduction, this aura of authenticity
begins to fade away. This is a significant process that goes beyond the realm of art and has
broader implications.

The technique of mechanical reproduction, such as photography and film, separates the
reproduced object from its traditional context.

Instead of having a single, unique existence, it creates multiple copies.

Moreover, it allows the reproduced object to meet the viewer or listener in their own
individual circumstances, essentially reactivating it in different contexts.

These processes result in a significant break from tradition, which is closely tied to the
contemporary societal changes and renewal.

The author highlights the role of film as a powerful agent in this process.

Film, both in its positive and negative aspects, plays a crucial role in contemporary society.
- It not only contributes positively by entertaining and informing but also
- has a destructive aspect in which it challenges and sometimes undermines the
traditional cultural values and heritage.

This is especially evident in epic historical films that bring historical figures, legends,
myths, and religious stories back to life on the screen, often challenging the
traditional way these stories were preserved and interpreted.

PART III
(1) This passage explores how human sense perception has evolved throughout history and
how it is influenced not only by nature but also by historical circumstances. It highlights how
changes in the way people perceive the world are tied to broader shifts in human existence.

For instance, in the fifth century, there were significant population movements and changes,
leading to the emergence of late Roman art and the Vienna Genesis. These developments
represented a departure from the art of antiquity and reflected a new way of perceiving the
world. Scholars from the Viennese school, such as Riegl and Wickhoff, recognized the shift in
perception during that time, but their focus was primarily on the formal aspects of this change.
They didn't delve into the social factors and transformations that underpinned these shifts in
perception.
The passage suggests that it is more feasible in the present day to explore and understand the
social causes behind changes in the way we perceive the world.

In particular, the idea that contemporary changes in perception might be linked to the
diminishing of the "aura" can help reveal the societal reasons for these shifts.

The "aura" here likely refers to the unique and authentic qualities of an original work of art, and
its diminishing could signify broader societal changes affecting how we perceive and value
various aspects of our world.

(2) This passage discusses the concept of "aura" in relation to natural objects and how it helps us
understand the changes in perception in contemporary society.

The "aura" of a natural object is described as the unique feeling it conveys, even when it's
physically close to us.

- For example, when you're sitting outside on a summer day and you gaze at a distant
mountain range or the shadow of a branch above you, you experience the aura of those
natural elements. T

- This sense of aura is related to the idea that the farther something is from us, the more
unique and special it seems.

The passage then connects this concept of aura to contemporary society, emphasizing two key
factors related to the growing importance of the masses in modern life.

First, there's a strong desire among contemporary people to bring things physically and
emotionally closer, as well as a tendency to accept reproductions of objects in place of
the original.

People increasingly want to get a very close look at things by viewing their
reproductions. The images presented in picture magazines and newsreels, while different
from what we see with our naked eye, satisfy this desire.

In essence, the desire to get close to objects and the acceptance of reproductions are related to
the idea that

uniqueness and permanence are closely connected with the original object, while

transitoriness and reproducibility are closely connected with their reproductions.

Modern perception tends to extract the universal qualities from unique objects through
reproduction, which reflects the contemporary sense of the equality of things.

This shift in perception is akin to the increasing importance of statistics in the theoretical
sphere, and it signifies an ongoing process of aligning reality with the masses and the masses
with reality, both in terms of thinking and perception.
PART IV
(1)
This passage delves into the relationship between the uniqueness of a work of art and its
connection to tradition. The uniqueness of an artwork is tied to its place within a particular
cultural tradition, which is both alive and subject to change. For instance, an ancient statue of
Venus held different meanings in the context of Greek culture, where it was revered, compared
to its interpretation by medieval clerics who saw it as a foreboding idol. In both cases, the
statue's uniqueness, or its "aura," played a significant role.

Originally, art was integrated into tradition through rituals. The earliest artworks were created
to serve rituals, beginning with magical practices and later evolving into religious ones. The
passage underscores that even when considering the aura of a work of art, its connection to
ritual function is never completely severed.

In other words, the unique value of an "authentic" work of art is rooted in its original ritual use.
This ritualistic foundation, although distant in time, is still evident in secularized forms of the cult
of beauty, which developed during the Renaissance and persisted for several centuries.
However, this secularized cult of beauty began to wane, especially with the advent of
revolutionary means of reproduction like photography and the rise of socialism. Art started to
sense an impending crisis, which would become more apparent a century later.

At that time, art reacted by adopting the doctrine of "art for art's sake" (l'art pour l'art), which
emphasized the intrinsic value of art rather than its social function. This led to what could be
termed a "negative theology" of art, represented by the idea of "pure" art. This form of art
denied any social function and avoided categorization based on subject matter. For example, in
the realm of poetry, Stephane Mallarmé was one of the first to embrace this position.

(2)
This passage highlights a significant shift in the nature of art in the age of mechanical
reproduction. It points out that mechanical reproduction, like photography, liberates art from its
previous dependence on ritual. Traditionally, art had a close relationship with rituals, whether
they were magical, religious, or otherwise. The work of art was often created for these rituals
and relied on them for its significance.

However, with mechanical reproduction, the work of art is no longer bound by this parasitical
relationship to ritual. Instead, it becomes designed for reproducibility. For example, from a
photographic negative, you can create numerous copies, and there's no need to identify one as
the "authentic" version. This notion of authenticity becomes less relevant in artistic production.

The consequence of this change is that the entire function of art is transformed. Instead of being
rooted in ritual, art begins to be based on a different practice, namely, politics. This suggests
that art, in the age of mechanical reproduction, takes on new roles and functions that are more
closely linked to political and social contexts rather than ritualistic or religious ones. The
relationship between art and politics becomes more pronounced as art becomes more
reproducible and less tied to a specific, singular original.

PART V

(1) This passage explains that works of art can be valued in two distinct ways: cult value and
exhibition value.

1. Cult Value: This refers to art created for rituals, often with religious or magical purposes.
These artworks were typically hidden from the public view and meant for spiritual or
divine purposes. For example, ancient cave paintings may have been created for magical
reasons, even though they were occasionally shown to others.

2. Exhibition Value: This pertains to art created for public display. As art became less
associated with rituals, it was made to be exhibited to a broader audience. It's easier to
exhibit a painting or sculpture in different places than, say, a statue inside a temple.
Art's transition from cult value to exhibition value also mirrors the shift from art meant
for rituals to art intended for public appreciation.
In simpler terms, the passage discusses how art started with hidden and ritualistic purposes and
evolved into something meant for public viewing and appreciation, as seen in museums and
galleries today. The focus shifted from being exclusively for spiritual or magical uses to art that is
accessible and exhibited to the public.

(2)
This passage discusses how the various methods of technical reproduction have significantly
enhanced the suitability of artworks for public exhibition. This transformation is so substantial
that it changes the very nature of art. This shift can be compared to the situation in prehistoric
times when art was primarily associated with its cult value, serving as a magical tool before it
came to be seen as art. Today, the emphasis is on the exhibition value, and this has given art
entirely new functions.

In this contemporary context, the artistic function of a work of art, while still significant, can be
seen as just one of its many functions. What's clear is that the emphasis on exhibition value has
brought about this transformation. The passage highlights photography and film as prime
examples of how this new function of art is realized in the modern world, where reproduction
and display play vital roles in how we perceive and appreciate art.

PART VI

(1)
This passage discusses how the introduction of photography brought about a shift from the cult
value of art (associated with rituals and spirituality) to the exhibition value (focused on public
display and viewing).

In the early days of photography, portraits were the central focus because they allowed people
to keep a form of the cult value. They could remember loved ones through these portraits. The
aura of early photographs, which made them special, came from capturing the fleeting
expressions of people's faces, which gave them a melancholic and unique beauty.
However, as people gradually moved away from viewing photos of loved ones as sacred or cult-
like objects, the exhibition value became more prominent. The focus shifted to using
photographs as evidence and for historical purposes. The French photographer Eugène Atget, in
particular, is noted for his images of deserted Paris streets, which he photographed like scenes
of a crime for historical documentation. The use of photographs as evidence also takes on a
hidden political significance.

With the rise of picture magazines, captions became important to guide viewers and provide
context for the images. This trend becomes even more pronounced in the film industry, where
the meaning of each image seems to be shaped by the sequence of preceding ones. In essence,
captions and sequences of images become essential in conveying the intended message to the
audience in a way that differs from traditional painting titles.

PART VII

This passage discusses the shift in the perception of art and the rise of photography and film. In
the 19th century, there was a debate about whether photography could be considered art, but
the real question was whether these inventions were fundamentally changing the nature of art.
The emergence of photography and later film altered the role and function of art in society,
moving it away from its traditional connections with rituals and religious contexts.

Early theories about film often struggled to understand its true nature and potential. Some
theorists likened film to hieroglyphs or even prayer, highlighting their struggle to categorize it as
an art form. They perceived film as a powerful and mysterious medium for expressing both the
real and the supernatural. Even in the face of early film masterpieces like "L'Opinion Publique"
and "The Gold Rush," some theorists clung to these unconventional comparisons.

The passage underscores that the advent of photography and film had a profound impact on
how art was perceived, transcending the boundaries of traditional aesthetics. It also highlights
the initial challenges and misunderstandings in defining and categorizing these new forms of
visual expression, as they broke away from established artistic traditions.

PART VIII

(1) This passage discusses the fundamental difference between stage actors and screen actors.
When a stage actor performs, they are physically present on stage and their artistic performance
is delivered directly to the live audience. In contrast, the performance of a screen actor is
presented through a camera.

The camera, as a medium for presenting the screen actor's performance, offers two important
consequences:

3. Camera Control: The camera can be guided by a cameraman to change its position
continually during the filming. This allows for flexibility in capturing different angles,
shots, and perspectives of the performance. In essence, the camera can "direct" the
performance to a certain extent.
 4. Film Editing: The material recorded by the camera is later assembled by an editor to
create the final film. The editor arranges and combines various shots to construct the
complete film. This process may involve selecting specific camera angles, close-up shots,
and other cinematic techniques to enhance the overall viewing experience.

In summary, the passage highlights how the camera, in the context of filmmaking, plays a crucial
role in shaping the final presentation of a screen actor's performance. This stands in contrast to
the live and unaltered nature of a stage actor's performance.

(2) This passage discusses the consequences of a film actor's performance being presented
through a camera, which is quite different from the experience of a stage actor. Here are the
main points:

5. Optical Tests: Because the film actor's performance is captured by a camera, it

undergoes a series of optical tests. In other words, the camera's technical capabilities
and the editing process can affect how the actor's performance is ultimately presented
in the film.

6. Lack of Interaction: Unlike a stage actor, a film actor doesn't have the opportunity to
adapt to the live audience during their performance because they aren't physically
present in front of the audience. This creates a gap between the actor and the audience,
as there is no direct personal contact.

7. Audience as Critics: In a film, the audience can assume the role of a critic rather than an
interactive participant. They don't experience a personal connection with the actor but
rather identify with the camera. This identification leads the audience to evaluate and
analyze the performance from a critical standpoint.

In essence, the passage highlights how the use of a camera in film changes the dynamics
between the actor, the audience, and the presentation of the performance. Unlike the direct
and immediate interaction in live theater, film allows the audience to take a more distant and
critical perspective, with the camera serving as the intermediary. This shift in the audience's role
is distinct from the way cult values are traditionally experienced.

PART IX

(1)
This passage explores the transformation that occurs when an actor performs for a camera in
film, as opposed to a live audience in theater. Here are the main points:

8. Actor's Self-Representation: In film, what matters most is that the actor presents
themselves to the camera, rather than representing a character to an audience. The
actor is essentially performing for the mechanical device of the camera.

9. Sense of Exile: The Italian playwright Luigi Pirandello was one of the first to recognize
this shift in the actor's experience. He noted that actors in the silent film era felt a sense
 of exile and discomfort because they were not performing for a live audience. Instead,
they were acting for a machine that transformed them into a silent image on the screen.

10. Loss of Aura: The film actor has to use their entire living person for the performance, but
in doing so, they lose the aura associated with their physical presence. Aura is the
unique and charismatic quality that surrounds a live performance on stage. However, in
the film studio, the camera takes the place of the live audience, and the actor's aura
disappears. As a result, the aura of the character they portray also vanishes because it's
tied to the actor's presence.

In summary, the introduction of the camera in filmmaking profoundly changes the actor's
experience, making them perform for a mechanical contraption rather than a live audience. This
shift results in the loss of the aura associated with live performances, affecting both the actor
and the characters they portray on screen.

(2)
This passage discusses the fundamental differences between traditional stage plays and films,
with a focus on the role and performance of actors. Here are the main points:

11. Contrast Between Stage and Film: There is a significant contrast between stage plays
and works of art that rely on mechanical reproduction, like film. Experts have noted that
in film, the most impactful moments often occur when the actors "act" as little as
possible. This means that in film, the actor's performance is quite different from that of
a stage actor.

12. Character Identification: In traditional stage plays, the actor typically identifies
themselves with the character they are portraying. They become the character during
the performance. However, in film, this identification is not always possible. A film's
creation is made up of many separate performances, often shot in different locations
and times. The actor's work is divided into episodes, and the final unified scene on
screen is achieved through editing, montage, and different shots.

13. Technical Considerations: Technical aspects, such as lighting and set equipment, require
the actor's performance to be broken down into separate shots. For example, a scene
involving a character jumping from a window may be shot in the studio, and the
subsequent flight scene might be shot weeks later when outdoor scenes are filmed. This
division of the actor's performance into separate parts is a departure from the
traditional notion of art as a "beautiful semblance" and highlights the unique
characteristics of film as a medium.

In summary, the passage highlights the technical and artistic differences between stage plays
and film. It explains how the nature of the actor's performance in film is often fragmented and
requires a different approach compared to the unity of character identification in traditional
theater.

PART X
(1) This passage discusses the actor's experience when performing before a camera in the
context of the film industry. Here are the key points:

14. Estrangement and Separation: The feeling of strangeness that actors experience before
the camera is compared to the sense of estrangement felt when looking at one's own
reflection in a mirror. In this case, the reflected image can be separated and
transported, and the destination is the public. The screen actor is always aware that
their performance will eventually be seen by the audience, the consumers of the film.

15. Distance from the Market: The actor offering their labor and entire being to the market,
which consists of consumers, experiences a disconnect. During filming, the actor has
little direct contact with the market, similar to a factory worker who produces goods but
is distant from the end users. This separation may contribute to the anxiety and sense of
oppression that actors feel when performing for the camera.

16. Artificial Build-Up of Personality: To compensate for the shrinking aura of the actor's
presence, the film industry promotes the "personality" of movie stars. This is not about
preserving the unique aura of the individual but creating a manufactured, commodity-
like personality. It's driven by the film industry's financial interests in promoting these
personalities to the public.

17. Revolutionary Critique of Art: The passage suggests that the film industry, by challenging
traditional concepts of art and the notion of the aura, indirectly fosters a revolutionary
criticism of established artistic norms. It acknowledges that some films can also critique
social conditions and property distribution, but the primary focus of the discussion is on
the impact of film on art and the film industry's role in shaping new concepts of art.

In summary, this passage delves into the actor's relationship with the camera and the market,
emphasizing the separation between the actor and the audience. It also explores how the film
industry's promotion of movie stars is driven by commercial interests and how this can impact
traditional artistic concepts.

(2)
In this passage, the text discusses how both the film industry and sports create a situation where
those who watch them can feel like experts. It's similar to when newspaper delivery boys, while
discussing a bicycle race, feel like they understand it very well. Some newspaper publishers even
organize races for their delivery boys, giving them a chance to become professional racers.
Similarly, when people watch newsreels (short films in the news) and see regular people in
them, it can make anyone feel like they could become a movie extra. This means that in today's
world, anyone might end up being part of a work of art, just like in certain movies or
documentaries. The passage also suggests that in contemporary literature (books and writing),
the situation is different, and being part of a story is not as accessible as in film or sports.

(3)
This passage talks about how the relationship between writers and readers has changed over
time. In the past, there were only a few writers, and many readers. But in recent times,
especially towards the end of the last century, more and more readers have started writing too,
even if it's just occasionally. This began with newspapers and magazines allowing readers to
send in their thoughts and opinions in the form of "letters to the editor." Now, it's common for
anyone with a job to find a way to share their thoughts, complaints, reports, or anything else
they want to say. So, the clear line between being an author (a writer) and a member of the
public (a reader) is fading away. The passage suggests that anyone can turn into a writer at any
moment, and readers, who have become experts in their own specialized areas of work, can also
become authors. This shift is not based on formal training in writing but is instead connected to
their expertise in their jobs. It's a change that makes writing more accessible to many people. In
the Soviet Union, this idea is taken further, where people express their work through speaking
and writing. In a way, the ability to write and speak about your work is considered part of the
job itself. In this context, becoming a writer doesn't necessarily require traditional writing
training; it's something many people can do based on their practical knowledge and skills.

(4)
This passage is talking about how changes in literature that took a very long time have
happened much more quickly in the world of film. In Russia, and to some extent, this change has
already happened. Russian films have some people who aren't traditional actors in the way we
usually think of them. Instead, they are real people portraying themselves, especially in their
own work processes.

However, in Western Europe, where the film industry is focused on making money, it often
doesn't consider the ordinary person's right to be represented in films. In this situation, the film
industry tries to attract the interest of the masses through shows that create illusions and some
questionable financial practices. So, in simple terms, it's saying that in some parts of the world,
films have started to show real people in their real jobs, but in other places, the film industry is
more focused on making money and creating flashy shows.