RUNNING WATER AND GROUNDWATER (For The Students)

UNIT 12
RUNNING WATER
AND
GROUNDWATER
Learning Objectives:
1. List the hydrosphere’s major reservoirs and describe the different paths that water
takes through the hydrologic cycle.
2. Describe the nature of drainage basins and river systems. Sketch four basic
drainage patterns.
3. Discuss streamflow and the factors that cause it to change.
4. Outline the ways in which streams erode, transport, and deposit sediment.
5. Contrast bedrock and alluvial stream channels. Distinguish between two types of
alluvial channels.
6. Contrast narrow V-shaped valleys and broad valleys with floodplains.
7. Discuss the formation of deltas and natural levees
8. Discuss the causes of floods and some common flood control measures.
9. Discuss the importance of groundwater and describe its distribution and
movement.
10. Compare and contrast springs and wells.
11. List and discuss three important environmental problems associated with
groundwater.
12. Explain the formation of caverns and the development of karst topography.
Prepared by: Mary Sheenalyn P. Rodil, Ph.D. 9/7/2020

Faculty, Chemistry Department, TUP
Reference: Tarbuck & Lutgens, Earth Science.
12.1 DISTRIBUTION OF EARTH’S WATER
Earth is known as the blue planet because it consists mainly of water,
estimating to 1.36 billion cubic kilometers (326 million cubic miles). Roughly 96.5 % of the
water is stored in the global ocean, 1.76% in ice sheets and glaciers and 2% in lakes,
streams, groundwater, and the atmosphere.
Figure 12.1 Distribution of Earth’s Water

12.2 HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
The hydrologic cycle shows that Earth’s water is continuously moving in the four
spheres namely: hydrosphere, atmosphere, geosphere, and biosphere with the help of
the energy powered by the sun. The water cycle, collects, purifies, and distributes the
earth’s fixed supply of water. It consists of various including evaporation, condensation,
precipitation, runoff, infiltration and transpiration.
Figure 12.2 The Hydrologic Cycle

 Evaporation - the conversion of water from liquid to vapor from the earth’s oceans,
lakes, rivers, soil, and plants.
 Condensation – the transformation of water vapour to liquid in the form of clouds.
 Precipitation – any form of water that falls from the atmosphere to the ground.
 Runoff- occurs when surplus water flows over the surface into lakes and streams.
 Infiltration – happens when water soaks into the ground, slowly moving downward,
then moving laterally, and finally seeping into lakes, streams, or directly into the
ocean.
 Transpiration – occurs when water that soaks into the ground is absorbed by
plants, which then release it into the atmosphere.
The total amount of moisture in the air remains about the same, this indicates that
the average annual precipitation worldwide is equal to the quantity of water evaporated.
However, taking separately the continent and oceans, precipitation exceeds evaporation
over the continent whereas evaporation exceeds precipitation over the ocean.
12.3 RUNNING WATER

Runoff occurs when there is more water than land can absorb. The excess water
flows across the surface of the land and into nearby creeks, streams, and rivers which
are all types of running water.
The amount of water that runs off rather than infiltrating into the ground is
influenced by several factors including: (1) the intensity and duration of rainfall, (2) the
amount of water already in the soil, (3) the nature of the surface material, (4) the slope of
the land, and (5) the extent and type of vegetation. More runoffs are present in an areas
with heavy precipitations, saturated soils, non-porous land surfaces, steep slope and few
vegetation.
12.3.1 STREAM FLOW

Water may flow in one of two ways, either as laminar flow or turbulent flow.
Laminar flow means slow-moving water that moves in roughly straight-line paths that
parallel the stream channel. On the other hand, in turbulent flow, the water is moving
in an irregular manner characterized by whirlpool currents. A significant factor
influencing stream turbulence is velocity of the stream which when increases, the flow
of water becomes more turbulent.

12.3.2 FACTORS AFFECTING VELOCITY
The time it takes for the stream to reach the sea and its erosional and
transportation supremacy is directly related to its flow velocity, which is influenced by
different factors including:
 Channel slope or gradient - the vertical drop of a stream over a specified
distance. If two streams were identical in every respect except gradient, the
stream with the higher gradient would have the greater velocity.
 Channel size, shape, and roughness - channel is a conduit that guides the flow
of water and its characteristics influence the amount of friction which is
encountered by the water. Smaller channels have less efficient flow than larger
channels because greater proportion of water is in contact with the channel. A
smooth channel promotes laminar flow, whereas an irregular channel filled with
boulders creates enough turbulence to slow the stream.
 Discharge - the amount of water flowing past a certain point in a given unit of
time. Flow velocity increases as the discharge increases because to
accommodate the high discharge of water, channel size increases which make
the flow velocity higher. Furthermore, high discharge makes the stream
smoother, and thus more efficient.
Discharges of a running water are far from constant. Stream flow tends to
be highest during the wet season and lowest during the dry season.
Furthermore, some streams (1) exhibit flow only during wet periods and some
streams (2) carry water only occasionally, after a heavy rainstorm. The first is
called intermittent stream and the latter is called ephemeral stream.

12.3.3 LONGITUDINAL PROFILE OF A STREAM
Longitudinal profile of the stream is
simply a cross-sectional view of a stream
from head (source area) to mouth (the
point downstream where it empties into
another water body—a river, a lake, or an
ocean). As can be seen in Figure 12.4,
from upstream (head) to downstream
(mouth), the:
 gradient decreases
 discharge increases since more
and more tributaries contribute
water to the main channel.
 channel size increases to
accommodate more volume of
water
 velocity increases as a
consequence of a high discharge.
Figure 12.4 Profile of the Stream
 roughness decreases
Meaning, although the gradient decreases toward the mouth, increases in

discharge and channel size and decreases in roughness more than offset the decrease
in slope. Consequently, flow velocity usually increases toward the mouth. In addition, local
irregularities exist in the profiles of most streams; the flatter sections may be associated
with lakes or reservoirs, and the steeper sections are sites of rapids or waterfalls.
12.4 THE WORK OF RUNNING WATER

Running water performs three major functions – erosion, transportation, and
deposition. Furthermore, running waters have the ability to downcut and widen their
channels, transport and deposit sediments to create a variety of landforms.
1. Erosion - is the incorporation and transportation of a material from one place to
another place. Surface runoff carries loose soil particles into local stream systems.
Erosion can be splash erosion (caused by raindrop) occur by sheet erosion (no
defined channels), rill erosion (shallow channels), and gully erosion (greater than
25 cm deep).
 In splash erosion, the impact of a falling raindrop creates a small crater in
the soil, ejecting soil particles.
 Sheet erosion is the transport of loosened soil particles by overland flow.
It occurs if the soil is saturated, or if the rainfall rate is greater than the rate
at which water can infiltrate into the soil

 Rill erosion is the removal of soil by concentrated water running through
little streamlets. As detachment continues or flow increases, rills will
become wider and deeper and become gully.
Splash Erosion Sheet and Rill Erosion Gully Erosion

Figure 12. 5 Types of Erosion
A stream’s ability to erode bedrock is greatly enhanced by the particles it

carries. Sand and gravel carried by a stream can scrape a bedrock channel.
Moreover, pebbles can act like “drills” and bore circular potholes into the channel
floor.
2. Transportation - Streams transport their load of sediment in three ways: (1) in

solution (dissolved load), (2) in suspension (suspended load), and (3) sliding or
rolling along the bottom (bed load).
 Dissolved load- is the total portion of a stream’s total sediment load that is
carried in solution. This includes ions from chemical weathering.
 Suspended load – is the portion of the sediment uplifted by the water. It
consists of smaller particles, like clay, silt and fine sand.
 Bed load- material that moves by rolling, sliding and or saltating.
The kind of load the sediment becomes depend on the settling velocity (speed at
which a particle falls through a still fluid). Larger particles have high settling velocity, thus
when the velocity of water decreases, they are first to settle. Because of this reason,
water has also a “sorting” ability, wherein particles of similar size are deposited together.
A stream’s ability to carry solid particles is described in terms of capacity
(maximum amount of solid particles a stream can transport per unit of time) and
competence (the size of particles that the water can carry). Capacity is directly propotional
to discharge thus the greater the discharge, the greater the stream’s capacity for carrying
sediment. On the other hand, a stream’s competence is directly proportional to water
velocity. Specifically, competence increases proportionately to the square of its velocity.
Thus, if the velocity of a stream doubles, the impact force of the water increases four
times; if the velocity triples, the force increases nine times, and so forth.
During floods when the volume of water is high and velocity is fast, high
competence and capacity can be observed.

3. Deposition
Deposition occurs whenever a stream slows causing the sediments to settle. As
mentioned earlier, deposition depends on the critical settling velocity of a material. As
a rule of thumb, since critical settling velocity of larger particles is high as compared to
smaller particles, largest particles settle first. Sediment that is deposited by the stream
is called alluvium.
12. 5 STREAM CHANNELS

There are two kinds of stream channels namely – bedrock channels and alluvial
channels.
1. Bedrock channels – are composed mostly of solid rocks.
2. Alluvial channels- are composed mostly of unconsolidated sediments. Two types
of alluvial channels are meandering channels and braided channels.
 Meandering channel – is one of series of regular curves, bends, loops,
turns, or windings in the channel of a river. It is produced by a stream or
river swinging from side to side as it flows across floodplain. Most of the
erosion is focused at the outside of the meander, where velocity and
turbulence are greatest. By eroding its outer bank and depositing material
on the inside of the bend, a stream is able to shift its channel, leading to the
formation of cutoff (abandoned channel) and oxbow lake (abandoned
bend).
 Braided channel – consists of a network of river channels separated by
small, often temporary islands called braid bars.
Figure 12.6 Meander and Braided Channel
12. 6 SHAPING STREAM VALLEY

Stream cannot erode its channel continuously – there is a lowest limit to how deep
a stream can erode its channel, which is called base level. There are two types of base
level – ultimate and temporary or local base level.
 Ultimate Base Level – is the sea level because it is the lowest level to which
stream erosion could lower the land.

 Temporary or Local Base Level – include lakes, resistant layers of rock, and
main streams that act as base levels for their tributaries. For example, when a
stream enters a lake, its velocity quickly approaches zero, and its ability to erode
ceases. However, the outlet of the lake can cut downward and drain the lake,
thus allowing sediments to be eroded and transported.
Note that any change in base level causes modification of stream activities. For
example, presence of a dam along a stream raises the base level of the stream. This
lowers the gradient of the stream, lowers the stream’s velocity and sediment-transporting
ability and increases deposition.
Figure 12.7 Building a Dam
12.7 DEEP (NARROW V) AND WIDE VALLEY

Stream energy can be directed side to side or can be used in downcutting the base
level. These abilities of the water causes the formation of two valleys- the narrow V- valley
and the wide valley.
 Narrow V-valley - shows that the stream’s primary work has been downcutting
toward base level. The most prominent features of a V-shaped valley are rapids
and waterfalls. Rapids are sections of a river where the river bed has relatively
steep gradient, causing an increase in water velocity and turbulence. On the other
hand, waterfalls are places where the stream makes an abrupt vertical drop.
 Wide Valley – unlike narrow V-valley, the downward erosion in wide valley is less
dominant. Stream energy is directed from side to side. Wide valley takes on a
meandering pattern and continuous lateral erosion caused by shifting of the
stream’s meanders produces an increasingly broader, flat valley floor covered with
alluvium, called a floodplain. Alluvium deposited during floods covers the valley
floor.

Figure 12.8 Development of Floodplain
12.8 DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS

Aside from downcutting and widening their channels, water in a stream can also
create a variety of landforms including deltas, natural levees, backswamps and yazoo
tributaries.
 Deltas- form when the channels become choked with sediment deposited from the
slowing water. As a consequence, the river seeks a shorter, higher-gradient route
forming a distributary. Distributaries carry water away from the main channel and
after numerous shifts of the channel, a delta may grow.
Figure 12. 9 Development of a Delta
 Natural Levees- they are elongate ridges of mud and or/silt that form on the river
floodplains immediately adjacent to the cut banks. They are formed when a stream
overflows its banks, leaving coarse sediment bordering the channel. Because
water cannot flow up the levee, backswamp is developed, which is
characteristically poorly drained. Parallel to the levee is a yazoo tributary, which

is a tributary that cannot enter a river because levees block the way often has to
flow parallel to the river until it can breach the levee.
Figure 12.10 Formation of a Natural Levees
12.9 DRAINAGE BASIN, SYSTEMS AND

PATTERNS
The land area that contributes water to a
river system is called a drainage basin and they are
separated from one another by an imaginary line
called a divide. On the other hand, drainage
systems are networks of streams that together
form distinctive patterns. Four patterns are known
namely: dendritic, radial, rectangular and trellis.
 Dendritic - resembles the branching pattern
of a deciduous tree.
 Radial - diverge from a central area like
spokes from the hub of a wheel.
 Rectangular - exhibits many right-angle
bends.
 Trellis - is a rectangular drainage pattern in
which tributary streams are nearly parallel to
one another and have the appearance of a Figure 12.11 Drainage Basin
garden trellis.

Figure 12.12 Drainage Pattern
RESEARCH WORK 12.1
1. Contrast regional floods and flash floods. Which type of flood is

more deadly?
2. List and briefly describe three basic flood-control strategies. What
are some drawbacks of each?
3. What is meant by a nonstructural approach to flood control?
4. List 5 major flashfloods that occur in the Philippines. Outline the
damages to the human, environment and economy.
Image Data and Cause Impact to
Location Human Environment Economy
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
12.10 GROUNDWATER: WATER BENEATH THE SURFACE

Groundwater represents the largest reservoir of freshwater that is readily available
to humans. Groundwater provide water for cities, crops, livestock, and industry. It is a
source of drinking water and for irrigation. Since it slowly removes rock, allowing the
formation of caverns and sinkholes, it is considered as an erosional agent. It sustains
streams during periods when rain does not fall.
The amount of water varies greatly from time to time and place to place depending
on the steepness of the slope, the nature of the surface material, the intensity of the
rainfall, and the type and amount of vegetation. Heavy rains falling on gradual slopes
underlain by porous materials result to more water infiltrating causing more groundwater.
Figure 12.13 illustrates the relative positions of many features associated with
subsurface water. It includes:
 Zone of saturation - a zone where all the open spaces in sediment and rock are
completely filled with water. Water within it is called groundwater.
 Water table – The upper limit of the zone of saturation. Its shape is similar to the
surface, reaching its highest elevations beneath hills and decreasing in height
toward valleys.
 Zone of unsaturation or aeration -area above the water table where the soil,
sediment, and rock are not saturated or filled with air.
 Aquifers - are permeable rock layers or sediments that transmit groundwater freely
 Aquitards- layers of rocks that hinder the flow of water.
 Perched water table - a localized zone of saturation created by the aquitards.
Figure 12.3 Water Beneath the Surface
Factors Influencing the Storage and Movement of Groundwater

Two factors namely- porosity and permeability strongly influence the rate of
groundwater movement and the amount of groundwater that can be stored.
 Porosity- is the percentage of the total volume of rock or sediment that consists of
pore spaces. More water soak into the ground if bedrock, sediment, and soil
contain countless voids or openings. Porosity tends to be higher in well- sorted
sediments compared to poorly sorted sediments.
Unconsolidated sediments tend to have higher porosity than consolidated
ones because they have no cement, and most have not been strongly
compressed. Silt and clay (50-70 % porosity) has higher porosity than gravel (40%
porosity). Intrusive igneous and metamorphic rocks have the lowest porosity
because they are formed at depth and have interlocking crystals (10% porosity).
Volcanic rocks with numerous vesicles and limestone that have opening produced
by dissolution have also high porosity (50%).
 Permeability- describes how the pores are shaped and interconnected and
determined how easy it is for the water to flow from one pore to the next. A
permeable materials have greater number of larger, well- connected pore spaces.
12.11 SPRINGS, GEYSERS, AND WELLS

Groundwater moves in the surface in the form of spring and well. Through these,
human can get freshwater that they may drink.
 Spring – forms whenever the water table intersects the ground surface. It is
produced when an aquitard blocks the downward movement of groundwater and
forces it to move horizontally.
 Hotspring- contains water which is 6–9ºC warmer than the mean air
temperature of the locality. It forms when groundwater circulates at great depths
and becomes heated by cooling of igneous rocks.
 Geysers - Intermittent fountains in which columns of hot water and steam are
ejected 30 to 60 meters into the air with great force. Geysers occur where
extensive underground chambers exist within hot igneous rocks.
Figure 12.14 Formation of Geysers
1) The great pressure at the bottom prevents the water from boiling at the
normal surface temperature of 100°C (212°F). Usually, 300-meter below,
the water boil nearly 230°C.
2) The heating causes the water to expand, and as a result, some of the water
is forced out at the surface.
3) This loss of water reduces the pressure on the remaining water in the
chamber, which lowers the boiling point. As a result, a portion of the water
deep within the chamber quickly turns to an expanding mass of steam,
which causes the geyser to erupt.
 Well - a hole bored into the zone of saturation. Wells serve as small reservoirs into
which groundwater migrates and from which it can be pumped to the surface.
When the wells are heavily pumped, cone of depression is formed.
Figure 12. 15 Cone of Depression
RESEARCH WORK 12.2

Discuss the following environmental problems of groundwater namely: (1)
treating groundwater as a non-renewable resource, (2) land subsidence caused
by rapid water withdrawal, and (3) Groundwater contamination.
12.12 THE GEOLOGIC WORK OF GROUNDWATER

Ground water is an erosional agent because it dissolves rock creating
geologic features such as cavern and sinkholes.
 Cavern- are formed by the dissolution of limestone. Rainwater picks up carbon
dioxide from the air and as it percolates through the soil, it turns into a weak acid.
This slowly dissolves out the limestone along the joints and fractures, some of
which are enlarged enough to form caves.

Two dripstones features found in the caverns are stalactites (hang from the
ceiling) and stalagmites (develop on the floor of a cavern and reach upward
toward the ceiling). They are formed where water seeps through cracks above and
when water reaches air in the cave, some of the dissolved carbon dioxide escapes
from the drop, and calcite begins to precipitate.
 Sinkholes- are formed when the land surface above collapses or sinks into
cavities or when surface material is carried downward through the voids. Drought,
along with high water withdrawals, can make conditions favourable for sinkholes
to form.
Figure 12.16 Caverns and Sinkholes

Name: ___________________________CYS:_____________Date:______ Score:__
EXERCISE 12.1
Identify what is being described.
______________1. A conduit that guides the flow of water.
______________2. Are formed by the dissolution of limestone.
______________3. The speed at which a particle falls through a still fluid.
______________4. The percentage of the total volume of rock or sediment that
consists of pore spaces
______________5. Intermittent fountains in which columns of hot water and steam
are ejected with great force, often rising 30 to 60 meters (100 to
200 feet) into the air.
______________6. The lowest elevation to which a stream can erode its channel.
______________7. It results whenever the water table intersects the ground
surface, a natural flow of groundwater.
______________8. Are networks of streams that together form distinctive patterns.
______________9. The maximum load of solid particles a stream can transport per
unit of time.
______________10. It forms where a sediment-charged stream enters the relatively
still waters of a lake, an inland sea, or the ocean.
______________11. A rectangular drainage pattern in which tributary streams are
nearly parallel to one another.
______________12. Are coarser particles that move along the bottom of the stream.
______________13. It describes the ability of a material to transmit a fluid.
______________14. Slow-moving streams and water moves in roughly straight-line
paths that parallel the stream channel.
______________15. A form of storage that sustains streams during periods when rain
does not fall.
______________16. The land area that contributes water to a river system.
______________17. It occurs when the flow of a stream becomes so great that it
exceeds the capacity of its channel and overflows its banks.
______________18. Is brought to a stream by groundwater and is dispersed
throughout the flow.
______________19. The volume of water flowing past a certain point in a given unit
of time.
______________20. The upper limit of zone of saturation.

EXERCISE 12.2
TRUE OR FALSE
___1. When the surface material is highly impermeable, or when it becomes saturated,
runoff is the dominant process.
___2. As the velocity of a stream decreases, the flow becomes more turbulent.
___3. The ability of a stream to erode and transport material is directly related to its
flow velocity.
___4. If two streams were identical in every respect except gradient, the stream with
the lower gradient would have the greater velocity.
___5. Smaller channels have more efficient flow because a greater proportion of water
is in contact with the channel.
___6. Streamflow will tend to be lowest during the wet season or during spring
snowmelt, and it will be highest during the dry season or during periods when
high temperatures increase water losses through evaporation.
___7. Although the gradient decreases toward the mouth, increases in discharge and
channel size and decreases in roughness more than offset the decrease in
slope. Consequently, flow velocity usually increases toward the mouth.
___8. A stream’s ability to erode bedrock is greatly enhanced by the particles it carries.
___9. The increase in discharge results in greater competence, and the increased
velocity produces greater capacity.
___10. Lake is considered the ultimate base level.
___11. Any change in base level will cause a corresponding readjustment of stream
activities.
___12. Continuous side-to-side erosion by shifting meanders gradually produces a
broad, flat valley floor.
___13. Sinkholes form when bedrock dissolves and caverns collapse.
___14. As the stream extends its channel, the gradient is reduced. During flood stage
some of the flow is diverted to a shorter, higher-gradient route forming a new
distributary.
____15. Flash floods are local floods of great volume and short duration.

EXERCISE 12.3
1. List and explain the processes involved in moving water through the hydrologic
water from
a. hydrosphere to the atmosphere
b. atmosphere to the lithosphere
c. hydrosphere (land) and hydrosphere (ocean)
d. biosphere to the atmosphere
2. The Middle Fork of the Salmon River flows for about 175 kilometers through a
rugged wilderness area in central Idaho.
a. Is the river flowing in an alluvial channel or a bedrock channel? Explain.
b. What process is dominant here: valley deepening or valley widening?
3. The cemetery in this photo is located in New Orleans, Louisiana. As in other

cemeteries in the area, all of the burial plots are above ground. Based on what
you have learned in this chapter, suggest a reason for this rather unusual
practice.


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UNIT 12

Prepared by: Mary Sheenalyn P. Rodil, Ph.D. 9/7/2020

Figure 12.1 Distribution of Earth’s Water

Figure 12.2 The Hydrologic Cycle

Prepared by: Mary Sheenalyn P. Rodil, Ph.D. 9/7/2020

12.3 RUNNING WATER

12.3.1 STREAM FLOW

Prepared by: Mary Sheenalyn P. Rodil, Ph.D. 9/7/2020

Prepared by: Mary Sheenalyn P. Rodil, Ph.D. 9/7/2020

Meaning, although the gradient decreases toward the mouth, increases in

12.4 THE WORK OF RUNNING WATER

Prepared by: Mary Sheenalyn P. Rodil, Ph.D. 9/7/2020

Splash Erosion Sheet and Rill Erosion Gully Erosion

A stream’s ability to erode bedrock is greatly enhanced by the particles it

2. Transportation - Streams transport their load of sediment in three ways: (1) in

Prepared by: Mary Sheenalyn P. Rodil, Ph.D. 9/7/2020

12. 5 STREAM CHANNELS

Figure 12.6 Meander and Braided Channel

12. 6 SHAPING STREAM VALLEY

Prepared by: Mary Sheenalyn P. Rodil, Ph.D. 9/7/2020

Figure 12.7 Building a Dam

12.7 DEEP (NARROW V) AND WIDE VALLEY

Prepared by: Mary Sheenalyn P. Rodil, Ph.D. 9/7/2020

12.8 DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS

Figure 12. 9 Development of a Delta

Prepared by: Mary Sheenalyn P. Rodil, Ph.D. 9/7/2020

Figure 12.10 Formation of a Natural Levees

12.9 DRAINAGE BASIN, SYSTEMS AND

Prepared by: Mary Sheenalyn P. Rodil, Ph.D. 9/7/2020

RESEARCH WORK 12.1

1. Contrast regional floods and flash floods. Which type of flood is

12.10 GROUNDWATER: WATER BENEATH THE SURFACE

Figure 12.3 Water Beneath the Surface

Factors Influencing the Storage and Movement of Groundwater

12.11 SPRINGS, GEYSERS, AND WELLS

Figure 12.14 Formation of Geysers

Figure 12. 15 Cone of Depression

RESEARCH WORK 12.2

12.12 THE GEOLOGIC WORK OF GROUNDWATER

Prepared by: Mary Sheenalyn P. Rodil, Ph.D. 9/7/2020

Figure 12.16 Caverns and Sinkholes

Prepared by: Mary Sheenalyn P. Rodil, Ph.D. 9/7/2020

Prepared by: Mary Sheenalyn P. Rodil, Ph.D. 9/7/2020

Prepared by: Mary Sheenalyn P. Rodil, Ph.D. 9/7/2020

3. The cemetery in this photo is located in New Orleans, Louisiana. As in other

Prepared by: Mary Sheenalyn P. Rodil, Ph.D. 9/7/2020

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