REVIEWER FOR MIDTERMS EXAMINATION
suppositions regarding how people
PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT
“Knowing Oneself – Strengths and
Limitations”
• Self-Development
o is a process of discovering
oneself by realizing one’s
potentials and capabilities
that are shaped over time
either by studying in a
formal school or through
environmental factors.
• Knowing oneself is the beginning
of all wisdom according to
Aristotle.
• Know Thyself
o “an unexamined life is not
worth living”- Ancient
Greek, Socrates
o is an old maxim or
aphorism which in time has
been used in varied
literature and
consequently gained
different meaning.
o One of its meanings in the
Greek encyclopedia of
knowledge is called “The
Suda”.
o Self-concern- this suggests
that the philosophy is the
acquiring the skills of way
of questioning or
challenging the person to
gain careful
understanding of oneself.
• Self – Concept
o is ones abstract and
general idea about
him/herself particularly
towards his/her unique
personality and his/her
own perception about
his/her set of values, point
of views and behavior.
Rene Descartes-The Father of Modern
Philosophy, proposed his theory that a
person’s existence depends on his/her
perception. Descartes stated that mind
is the seat of consciousness.
Self -concept theory has a lot of
learn to judge themselves. Among these
Sincero named three aspects such as
• Self – Concept is learned.
o No individual is born with
self-concept
• Self – Concept is organized.
o One’s perception towards
himself/herself is firm.
• Self – Concept is dynamic.
o When an individual
continues to encounter
problems, it may reveal
his/her self-concept in that
particular time or situation.
Sigmund Freud- a well-known
psychologist, neurologist and the
creator of Psychoanalysis Theory and
the father of psychoanalysis, proposed
that there are three components of
personality within us:
• Id- man’s personality is driven by
pleasure principle. This means
that the nature od Id is to satisfy
man’s desire without thinking
much of the situation.
• Ego- it is the job of ego to provide
a man some guidelines on how
to behave accordingly while he
fulfilled his pleasure.
• Superego- holds our moral
judgements or concept of right
and wrong that are believed to
be acquired from the family and
the environment.
Thomas Hobes- used the phrase “read
thyself” to stress out that an individual
can learn more by studying others and
that he/she can do this by engaging
himself/herself to reading book.
“Knowing Oneself – Characteristics,
Habits, and Experiences”
Adolescence is the period when a
young individual develops from a child
into an adult.
 • Self-Esteem- is your evaluation of
your own growth.
o Positive Esteem- is the
valuation that is pleasing
and acceptable
according to your
standard and that of
others.
o Negative Esteem- is the
opposite which is feeling
distraught or down and
unaccepted by others.
According to Tafarodi & Swann (1995),
there are many factors to identify the
level of self-esteem of an individual and
some of the major factors are:
• Own appearance
• How satisfies you are in a
relationship; and
• How you view your performance
• Self-Efficacy- is no considered as
a trait. It is your will to produce an
effect on a specific thing.
Maddux and Kleiman (2000) define and
explain the five (5) different ways that
influenced self-efficacy beliefs from the
ideas of Albert Badura, a professor and
a psychologist.
o Performance Experience
o Vicarious Performance
o Verbal Persuasion
o Imaginal Performances
o The Affective States &
Physical Sensations
• Self and Identity
According to William James, a
psychologist, “the self is what happens
when I reflect upon me”.
There are three (3) categories on how
we reflect to improve ourselves, these
are:
• Self as Social Actor
• Self as Conscience Agent
• Self as Autobiographical Author
In self, an individual, is expected to act
and decide on his/her own.
Most people tend to decide based on
intuitions and available information that
could hindrance in making wise
decision.
“Developing The Whole Person –
Evaluate One’s Personality”
Our personality is a product of
genetic response that we inherit from
our parents and from the influence of
our environment.
According to Erik Erikson, adolescence
stage of Psychosocial development,
also known as “identity vs. role
confusion” is the stage wherein teens
need to develop the sense of self and
personal identity.
Teenagers also experience
adolescence cognitive empathy,
known as “theory of mind”, which is
described as having high regards
toward the perspective of others and
feeling concern for others.
Based on research, teenagers are
commonly high risk-takers and impulsive
due to incomplete development of
frontal lobe during adolescence.
The frontal lobe is responsible for
judgement, impulsive control, and
planning.
You cannot escape life challenges so
you should know how to handle your
thoughts, feelings, and actions in
managing personal agency.
• Thoughts are impression
activated by a stimulus in your
mind that is evident from the
environment that you are in
• This conscious thought occupies
emotions that give life to
thoughts and it expressed
through feelings.
• Behaviors are bodily reaction
made based on our feelings that
result to actions.
Feelings result to actions.
Emotions can direct and control
thoughts that sometimes affect your
consciousness = loss of focus.
“Developmental Tasks and Challenges
of Adolescence”
Here is the list of the most common
challenges that adolescents
experience:
• Biological Challenges
o begins with the first well-
defined maturation event
called puberty.
o are the changes that
occur due to release of
the sexual hormones that
affect emotions.
• Cognitive Challenges
o Piaget, in his Theory of
Social Development,
believed that
adolescence is the time
when young people
develop cognitively from
“concrete operations” to
“formal operations”, so
they are able to deal with
ideas, concepts, and
abstract theories.
Learning through success and failure is
part of the learning process for the
adolescent.
• Psychological Challenges
o The notable psychological
challenge that the
adolescent must cope
with is moving from
childhood to adulthood.
o This can be both stressful
and anxiety-provoking.
Health Issues of Adolescence:
• Eating Disorders
o an eating disorder
describe illness that are
characterized by irregular
eating habits and severe
distress or concern about
body weight or shape.
Types of Eating Disorders
• Anorexia Nervosa
o may take extreme
measures to avoid eating
and to control quantity
and quality of foods they
eat.
• Bulimia Nervosa
o Typically “binge and
purge” by engaging in
uncontrollable episodes of
overeating (bingeing)
usually followed by
compensatory behavior.
Mental Health Disorder
• Anxiety Disorders
o are group of mental
disorders characterized by
significant feelings of
anxiety and fear. Anxiety is
a worry about future
events, and fear is a
reaction to current events.
• Mood Disorders
o the development of
emotional or behavioral
symptoms in response to
identifiable stressors that
occur within 3 months of
the onset of the stressors.
• Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)
o A period of at least 2
weeks during which there
is either depressed mood
or the loss of interest or
pleasure in nearly all
activities.
• Bipolar Disorder
o A period of abnormally
and persistently elevated,
expansive, or irritable
mood and abnormally
and persistently increased
activity or energy, lasting
at least 4 consecutive
days and present most of
the day, nearly every day,
or that requires
hospitalization.
 • Attention Deficit Hyperactivity have grown up with the
Disorder (ADHD) chatter.
o Severe problems with
concentration or attention
and/or hyperactivity are Developmental Tasks
estimated to affect
adolescents. In the eight stages of
• School Phobia Psychosocial Developmental theory of
o also called school refusal, Erik Erikson, Identity vs. Role Confusion
is defined as a persistent explains that adolescents would try to
and irrational fear of going explore and figure out their own identity
to school. and try to fit in with social interactions at
• Learning Disabilities the same time.
o Encompasses disorders
that affect the way
individuals with normal or
above normal intelligence
“Development Through the Help of
receive, store, organize,
Significant People”
retrieve, and use
information. Influential People in My Life

Social Issues • Parents

o first people who introduce
• Sexual Abuse
you to life.
o is a sexual behavior, or a
o provide shelter, protection,
sexual act forced upon a
and sense of security
woman, ma, or child
o play the largest role in a
without their consent.
person’s mental health,
• Substance Abuse
emotional, physical, and
o Some children start
social development.
smoking or chewing
o teach you the first
tobacco at an early age,
valuable lessons in life that
aided by easy access to
became an integral part
tobacco products.
of your personality as you
• Influence of Mass Media
continue to discover the
o Mass media activate and
world.
reinforce attitude and
o far more important than
contribute significantly in
any other people’s
the formation of new
advices in terms of making
attitudes and will continue
sound decisions in life.
to affect children’s
• Siblings
cognitive and social
o friends within a family
development.
o extend valuable help
• Impact of Social Media
whenever you are in need
o Social media is a constant
of assistance
part of our lives: we are
o teach you the concept of
bombarded by alerts from
socialization, mutual
Facebook, Twitter,
understanding, and
Snapchat, and Instagram
respect.
from time we wake up to
• Friends
the time we go to sleep.
o Extended siblings who
This constant noise is
came from different
associated with negative
families.
mental health outcomes in
younger generations who
 o give us a sense of
belongingness for an
individual would always
want to be part of
something
o teach us the value of love,
respect, understanding,
and acceptance.
o Helps us to improve our
social connection,
emotional stability, and
inspires our intellectual
capacity
o True friends support only
what is good and reject
what is not. They refuse to
tolerate your
unacceptable behavior
and seek to correct your
shortcomings.
o Brings out the best in a
person and they share
mutual interest, hobbies,
and aspirations.
• Teachers
o the second parents in
school
o help you improve your
intellectual and emotional
capacity to handle
difficult situations in life.
o Guide you to understand
the valuable lessons about
life that would last for a
lifetime.
o Provide exceptional
impact towards self-
realization and self-
discovery.
o Walk along the progress of
the learners; that it makes
more memorable and
enduring for life.
o Good teachers inspire
learners to do better in
making decisions.
o Role model in class
• Community Leaders
o Provide network
connections and linkages
among other parts of the
community
o Inspire adolescents to get
involved with community
services through outreach
programs, social activities,
and volunteer works.
o Model innovation to help
improve the community
whom they serve.
o Effective leaders set
inspiration to others by
setting a good example
by following the policies
that they try to implement.
o They tend to persuade
others to follow them; thus,
they can generate many
programs to address the
needs of the people.
“Development – identify ways that help
one become capable and responsible
adolescent prepared for adult life”
• Responsibility is any moral, legal
or mental obligation or duty that
is directly or indirectly entrusted
to you by people around from
which you are held accountable
for whatever consequences or
circumstance that may arrive in
the future.
Why Be Capable and Responsible
Adolescent?
Being capable and responsible
adolescent means having a harmonious
way of living. A person who can do
his/her own tasks and obligations will
definitely gain the appreciation of
people around him/her. This positive
aura will lead him/her become a
responsible person.
Common responsibilities of adolescents
1. Show respect to elders
2. Take care of the younger ones
3. Study well
4. Avoid engaging to bad vices
5. Establish a good identify
 6. Earn the trust of the people
around
7. Distinguish good company from
bad influence
8. Know yourself better
How to become capable and
responsible person in preparation for
adult life
1. Know your priority
2. Have focus
3. Be decisive
4. Work diligently
5. Don’t count at all
6. Stay humble
7. Love your duty
8. Dedicate time
“Stress and Mental Health”
• Stress- a condition characterized
by symptoms of physical or
emotional tension.
• Stressors- demanding or
threatening events.
Stress as Stimulus, Response, Relational
• Stress as Stimulus- researchers
have conceptualized stress as a
demanding or threatening event
situation.
• Stress as Response- other
researchers have conceptualized
stress in ways that emphasize the
physiological responses that
occur when faced with
demanding or threatening
situations.
• Stress as Relational- when a
person is experiencing stress takes
step back to look at the situation
that is causing the stress and
reflect on it.
• Mental Health- is a condition of
being sound mentally and
emotionally that is characterized
by absence of mental illness and
by adequate adjustment
especially as reflected in feeling
comfortable about oneself.
• Wellbeing- is the holistic view of
our self and our health.
Having a good mental health means
that you are stable enough to face
challenges brought by different daily
circumstances.
Mental Health Indicators
• Emotional well-being: life
satisfaction, happiness,
cheerfulness, peacefulness
• Psychological well-being: self-
acceptance, personal growth
including openness to new
experiences, optimism,
hopefulness, purpose in life,
control of one’s environment,
spiritually, self-direction, and
positive relationships
• Social well-being: social
acceptance, belief on the
potential of people and society,
personal self-worth and usefulness
to society and a sense of
community
“Identify Causes and Effects of Stress in
One’s Life”
The Good & Bad Stress
• Eustress- term for positive stress
• Dystress- refers to negative stress
Causes of Good Stress
• You feel when you are excited.
Your hormones surges high and
your pulse quickens.
Cause of Bad Stress
• When you feel stressors that
burden you and put you in a
seemingly hopeless situation
which hinders your problem-
solving capability.
Chronic Stress is the response to
emotions that bring pressure to an
individual wherein they think that
they have little or no control on the
situations
 • Environmental factors of stress
o occur when an event or
stimulus requires us to
change in some way that
makes a change in living
environment a stressful
experience.
• Academic factors of stress
o Are the responsibilities
related to work in school
• Physical factors of stress
o Deal with the health issues
which are the concern of
everyone because bad
health causes a lot of
damage to the life of a
person.
• Emotional factors of stress
o Involves emotional
problems (depression,
anxiety, anger, grief, guilt,
low-esteem) taking care of
an elderly or sick family
member.
“Coping with Stress in Middle and Late
Adolescence”
Coping refers to mental and behavioral
efforts that we use to deal with
problems relating to stress, including its
presumed cause and the unpleasant
feelings and emotions it produces.
Approaches in Coping with Stress
• Avoidance Approach
o People tend to run away
from the stress by denying
the presence of stress and
by distancing from the
cause of stress or stressor.
• Acceptance-Action Approach
o you acknowledge and
accept the fact that stress
is real, and that stress has
good and bad effects to a
person.
“Brain: Parts, Processes, and Functions”
• Skull- protects the brain
• Brain- one of the most complex
organs in human body.
Has three main regions:
Forebrain is located in the uppermost
region of the brain.
o Includes the cerebrum,
thalamus, hypothalamus,
and the limbic system.
• Cerebrum
o regulates the largest part
of the brain covered by
the cerebral cortex.
o Regulates senses, memory,
emotions, intellectual
activities, and body
movement.
• Cerebral Cortex
o Responsible for processing
information that is divided
into two hemispheres: the
right cerebral hemisphere
controls the left side of the
body while the left
cerebral hemisphere
controls the right side of
the body.
• Frontal Lobe
o is situated at the front part
of the brain which controls
memory, emotion, stress
response, speech, decision
making, and planning.
• Parietal Lobe
o is situated near the back
of the frontal lobe which
regulates sensory
perception.
• Temporal Lobe
o is located at the side of
the head which regulates
 memory, hearing, and brainstem has something to do with your
comprehension. behaving safely to survive.
• Occipital Lobe
o is situated at the back of
the head which regulates
sight.
• Thalamus
o is connected to the
cerebral cortex that sends,
receives, and organize,
information.
• Hypothalamus
o is located below the
thalamus and above the
brainstem which links to
the nervous system with
the endocrine system that
regulates digestive process
and is also responsible for “Ways to Improve Brain Functions”
growth and development. 1. Exercise
• Limbic System 2. Meditate
o composes parts of 3. Sleep
cerebral cortex and 4. Food Intake
hypothalamus which 5. Sunlight
regulates various types of 6. Good Relationship
emotions that affect blood 7. Do not smoke
temperature and blood 8. Be creative
pressure facilitated by 9. Classical music
hypothalamus. 10. Drink coffee
Midbrain is located between the How to improve your mental focus?
forebrain and hindbrain. It is responsible
for motor movements particularly the 1. Assessment
visual and auditory processing. 2. Eliminate distractions
3. Limit focus
Hindbrain is situated at the back of the 4. Live in the moment
head which includes Cerebellum that 5. Practice mindfulness
receives information from the sensory 6. Take a short break
system and spinal cord to regulate 7. Build your mental focus
balance, postures, and coordinate 8. Brainstorm
movement.

Brainstem is located at the lower part of

the brain which leads to spinal cord.

• Its functions are for safety and “Develop a Personal Plan to Enhance
survival as it regulates breathing, Brain Functions”
consciousness, heart rate, body
Mind Mapping is an effective way of
temperature, blood pressure,
getting information when
digestion, and wake and sleep
developing plans to enhance your
cycles.
brain functions.
Overall, Cerebrum and Cerebellum
have something to do with your ability to
think. The Limbic System has something
to do with your feelings, while the
ORAL COMMUNICATION Functions of Communication

Communication serves many purposes.

“The Nature and Process of Inform Misinform Counsel Sell

Communication” Clarify Question Express Promote
Buy Confuse Confirm Advise
Communication is a two-way process of Teach Learn Persuade Reveal
connecting to both living and non-living Accept Affirm Clarify Motivate
things. Connects people and the world Criticize Deny Conceal And
they live in. It is through communication many
that people are able to express their others
thoughts and ideas or convey
information and messages through word
of mouth, gestures and signals, signs,
and others “Communication Models”
• Communication is a message Models of Communication Process
understood.
• Communication id social • Linear Communication is one-
interaction through messages. way, focusing on the transmission
of a message to a receiver who
never responds or has no way of
The Communication Process responding to the information
conveyed.
o Shannon-Weaver Model it
has one way process
starting from a source;
passing through a channel
which may at times be
interrupted by noise to a
receiver. the process stops
after the message has
arrived at its destination.

• Interactive is a two-way
communication process where a
Communication beings when the response is given after a message
speaker or source of communication is sent. The recipient of the action
responds to a stimulus and decides to intentionally or unintentionally
encode or transmit in the form of a gives a feedback associated with
message through a particular channel. the information received.
The receiver decodes or interprets the o Schramm Model visualized
message sent and responds accordingly the process of
based on his interpretation of the communication as an
message. This response comes in the exchange of thoughts and
form of a feedback sent to the original ideas.
source of communication (sender). o The process goes on
starting from the sender
Barriers to communication sometimes who encodes the
block the transmission of the message message transmitted to
thereby creating misunderstanding. the receiver which he
interprets; decodes a
 message to be sent back
to the source who in turn,
decodes and interprets
the information sent.
o Encoding is when an idea
or information is translated
into words and expressed
to others.
o Decoding is when this idea
or information is
understood and
interpreted by the
receiver.
• Transaction Model
o The communicator
(source) encodes the
message and transmits it
through a channel. The
message transmitted may
be affected by the noise.
The receiver decodes,
processes, and filters the
message for
understanding and is now
ready to give his own
feedback to the sender.
Verderver (1991) gives similar idea of
barrier when he classifies noise into
three: External, Internal, and Sematic
Noise.
“Strategies to Avoid Communication
Breakdown”
Barriers to Communication
• Physical Barriers are the natural
or environmental condition that
act as a barrier in
communication in sending the
message from sender to receiver.
(e.g. people talking too loud,
noise from a construction site,
loud sound of a karaoke, blaring
of jeepney horns)
• Psychological Barriers are called
as mental barriers. These refer to
social and personal issues of a
speaker towards communication
with others. (e.g. trauma, shyness,
lack of confidence, depression,
fear, stage fright)
• Cultural Barriers pertain to
communication problems
encountered by people
regarding their intrinsic values,
beliefs, and traditions in conflict
with others. People’s culture
affect the way they
communicate and relate to
others. (e.g. different beliefs,
traditions, and customs, manners
of dressing, speaking)
• Linguistic Barriers pertain conflicts
with regard to language and
word meanings. Because words
carry denotative and
connotative meanings, they can
sometimes cause confusion and
misunderstanding. Meaning of
words and symbols also vary
depending on culture. (e.g.
difference in language, accent
and dialect, use of jargon and
slang, speech defects or
language impairments)
• External Noises are the “sight,
sound and other stimuli that draw
people’s attention away from
intended meaning.” (e.g. noise
from vehicles, singing at the
neighborhood, visual aids in front
of the classroom)
• Internal Noises are the “thoughts
and feelings that interfere with
meaning.” (e.g. confrontation
with a friend, fear of speaking in
front of the class, racial
prejudice)
• Sematic Noises are the “alternate
meanings aroused by a speaker’s
symbols.” This idea means that a
word may have another
meaning in the minds of the
students. This is affected by the
language in which they grew
and the culture in which they are
 exposed. (e.g. incorrect
grammar, using excessive
technical jargon, using idiomatic)
“Various Strategies to Avoid
Communication Breakdown”
5 Ways to Avoid Communication
Breakdown (by Ronnie Peterson)
1. Have Clarity of thought before
speaking
2. Learn to listen
3. Take Care of your Body
Language and Tone
4. Build up your confidence by
asking for feedback and
observing others
5. Communicate Face to Face on
the important issues
Strategies to avoid communication
breakdown
1. Keep Focused
2. Speak Intelligibly
3. Listen with your Ears and Eyes
4. Minimize Distractions
5. Be Specific
6. Do not Jump to Conclusions
Tips on How to Avoid Communication
Breakdown
7Cs of Effective Communication (Broom,
Cutlip, and Center (2012))
• Completeness
o It is important to whole
communication process.
S/he should be able to
convey all pertinent details
so listener or audience will
be able to grasp the
intended message.
• Conciseness
o The message should be
direct or straight to the
point and should be
expressed in the least
possible number of words.
Irrelevant information
should not be included.
• Consideration
o In order to be effective,
the speaker should give
high regard and courtesy
to audience’s background
information such as his/her
culture, education,
religion, status, mood,
feelings, and needs. This
will result in building
rapport or connection with
the audience.
• Concreteness
o Effective communication is
backed up by facts,
figures, and real-life
examples or situations. This
will make the receiver to
understand the message
better.
• Courtesy
o This implies good choice of
words and language and
a consideration of the
audience’s perspectives
and feelings on the part of
the sender. This implies
good choice of words and
language on the part of
the sender and
consideration of
audience’s perspectives.
• Clearness
o It implies the use of simple
and specific words to
express ideas. When the
speaker focuses on
specific ideas, it will not
confuse the audience.
• Correctness
o Avoiding mistakes in
grammar helps to boost
the credibility and
effectiveness of the
message, and at the same
time it eliminates negative
impact on the audience.
“Functions of Communication”
• Control and Regulation
o Communication functions
to regulate and control
the behavior of a person
or group of people.
• Social Interaction
o Communication functions
as a means to casually
interact with other people.
• Motivation
o Communication functions
to inspire or motivate a
person or people to be or
do better.
• Information Dissemination
o Communication functions
as a way to share
information or data in
order to educate.
• Emotional Expression
o Communications functions
as a way to connect to a
person or people for the
purpose of affecting them
emotionally.
“Verbal and Nonverbal
Communication”
• Verbal Communication refers to
the use of words to convey a
message
Type of Communication
1. Appropriateness pertains to use
the suitable language form
applicable to nature of the event
or context of situation (i.e.
whether formal or informal).
a. Formal Communication is
the type of
communication used in
formal, ceremonial or
dignifies gatherings. The
exchange of information is
controlled, well-though
put, and prepared.
b. Informal Communication is
characterized by free,
casual and spontaneous
exchange between two or
more persons. The
exchange is a kind of
interaction that is
unrestrained by rules and
conventions.
2. Brevity use simple and precise
words in delivering their message.
3. Clarity refers to using simple yet
exact words that directly express
your thoughts and emotion.
4. Ethics pertains to moral standards
that need to be considered
when delivering a message.
5. Vividness refers to words that
make the conversation or
exchange of information lively
and vibrant. The purpose of this
aspect of communication is to
simplify thoughts for the audience
to easily grasp the message
through the use of distinctive
language.
• Nonverbal Communication refers
to a collaboration of movements
that does not require any spoken
words in order to convey a
message.
Types of Speech Context
1. Intrapersonal- This refers to a type
of communication that is focused
on one person, where the
speaker acts both as the sender
and as the receiver of the
message. The message is made
up of thoughts and feelings while
the medium is the brain that
processes what you think and
feel.
2. Interpersonal- This refers to the
type of communication that
takes place between and
among people and creates a
 personal relationship between
and among them.
Types of Interpersonal Communication
• Dyad Communication-
communication that happens
two people
• Small group- this applies to
interactions involving at least
three but no more than twelve
people engaged in face-to-face
interactions to achieve the
desired goal.
• Public- refers to a communication
that enables you to send or
deliver a message before a
crowd. The message can be
transmitted for informative or
persuasive purposes.
• Mass Communication- refers to
communication through
television, radio, newspapers,
magazines, books, billboards, the
internet, and other types of
media.
Verbal and Non-verbal Behavior in a
Speech Context
• When talking to yourself
o Use self-talk to your
advantage
o Don’t overdo it
• When talking to one person or
small group of people
o Listen carefully
o Check your tone and
body language
o When talking to the public
Types of Speeches and Speech Style
Speech is human nature to express
thoughts and emotions.
1. Types of Speech According to
Purpose
a. Informative or Expository
Speech is mainly
performed for the purpose
of educating the
audience on new or
relevant piece of
information on a particular
topic. (e.g. lecture of a
teacher)
b. Persuasive Speech is given
solely for the purpose of
convincing the audience
to agree with the
speaker’s opinion on a
particular topic. (e.g.
speech of a lawyer)
c. Entertainment Speech aims
to share laughter and
enjoyment to the
audience through witty
and humorous lines. (e.g.
speech of a comedian)
2. Types of Speech According to
Deliver
a. Manuscript Speech is the
word-for-word iteration of
a written message using
visual aids. (e.g. news
anchor with a
teleprompter)
b. Memorized Speech is the
rote recitation of a written
message that the speaker
has committed to
memory. (e.g. actor’s
dialogue)
c. Extemporaneous Speech is
the presentation f a
carefully planned and
rehearse speech, spoken
in a conversational
manner using brief notes.
(e.g. a campaign speech
before a voting public)
d. Impromptu Speech is the
presentation of a short
message without advance
preparation and is for
people knowledgeable
about the subject. (e.g. a
 doctor’s response to the
question of a patient)

Type of Speech Style

1. Intimate is used for very closed

relationships (e.g. couple)
Note: language used in this style
may not be shared in public.

2. Casual is an informal
communication between groups
and peers who have something
to share and have shared
background information but do
not have close relations. (e.g.
classmates)
Note: Jargon, slang, vernacular
language are used

3. Consultative is used in semi-

formal and standard
communication. (e.g. teacher
and student)
Note: professional or mutually
acceptable language is a must in
this style.

4. Formal is a one-way
straightforward speech. (e.g.
State of the Nation Address)
Note: What the speaker says is
something that has been
prepared beforehand.

5. Frozen is the most formal

communicative style that is
usually used during solemn
ceremonies and events. (e.g.
Pledges)
Note: It does not require any
feedback from the audience.
EARTH SCIENCE
“Characteristics of the Earth Necessary
to Support Life”
1. Temperature- It influences how
quickly atoms, molecules or
organisms move.
2. Water- one of the important
ingredients on different biological
processes.
3. Atmosphere- provides significant
insulation or shielding from the
sun and impact of small to
medium size meteorites.
4. Energy- earth has available
energy- right sunlight to support
life. Living organisms like plants
and photosynthesis bacteria use
light as the source of their energy.
• Geosphere- pertains to the solid
5. Nutrients- it is an essential factor
used to build and maintain
organism’s body structure.
“Earth Subsystems and the Flow of
Matter and Energy”
• Earth is a complex system of
interrelating physical, chemical
and biological processes.
• Earth is comprised of four major
smaller systems known as
• Hydrosphere- composed of
subsystems. These are also
called as spheres of Earth. These
are the atmosphere, geosphere,
hydrosphere, and biosphere.
• Atmosphere- serves as the
earth’s blanket. It is composed of
gases in varying amount and its
relative abundance is also
crucial in different parts of the
earth.
o Atmos- gas
o Sphaira- Globe/ball
o Air is composed of 78%
Nitrogen, 21% oxygen,
0.9% argon and the
remaining 0.10% is made
up of different trace gases
and vapour.
o It serves as the Earth’s
protection from UV rays
and keeps the planet
warm through
greenhouse gases.
o Atmosphere is affected by
the Earth’s gravity so this is
the reason why as the
altitude increases, the
amount of gases in the
atmosphere decreases.
o Composed of
troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere,
thermosphere, and
exosphere.
part of the earth.
o Geos- ground
o Divided into three layers
such as the crust, mantle,
and core.
o Composed of naturally
occurring solid aggregate
of minerals, organic
material or natural glass
called rocks.
o Loose particles of rocks
that enveloped the
surface of Earth called
regolith.
water on Earth in any form.
o Hydro- water
o Can be form of water
vapor and liquid water
o Cryosphere- permanently
frozen parts
o Water is constant and
consistently moving
because of temperature
and salinity.
o Plays important role in
absorption and
 redistribution of solar 1. Crystal Habit- overall shape or
radiation. growth pattern of the mineral
a) Equant- three
• Biosphere- composed of all living dimensions of the
things and the areas where they mineral have
are found. about same
o Bios- life length, like that of
o Zone that interaction a cube or sphere
between the different (e.g. garnet)
subsystems is most
dynamic.
o Each organisms plays an
important role in the food
b) Elongate- forms
web. If one is lost the
others will be affected. prismatic or prism-
like crystals that
are thicker than
• Matter and Energy flows and
cycle between the four the needle as in a
subsystems to sustain and make pencil. (e.g.
Indicolite)
life on Earth possible.

• Sphere Interactions- the

processes that move matter and
energy from one sphere to
another.
c) Platy- looks like
flattened crystals
• Four subsystems are closely linked
(like plate). (e.g.
through the biochemical cycles
Wulfenite)
which involves biological,
geochemical, and chemical
factors.

• Through biotic which is biosphere

and abiotic, it allows the
circulation of important nutrients
that form and support life like C,
O, N, P, Ca and H2O.
o It maintains the balance of Luster- describes the appearance of a
substances in the different mineral when light is reflected from its
subsystem of the Earth. surface. It can be described as
opaque, transparent, dull, or shiny.

d) Metallic luster- is
opaque and very

“Earth Materials and Resources: Physical

and Chemical Properties of Minerals”

Physical and Chemical Properties of

Minerals

A. Physical Properties- include habit,

luster, cleavage, and fracture,
hardness, color, and streak.
 reflective like gold
and silver

e) Nonmetallic luster-
is dull, silky, greasy
and pearly like
silicates.

Color- one of the most obvious

Cleavage and Fracture- refers to the properties of a mineral but not reliable
tendency of minerals to break along alone.
very smooth, flat and shiny surfaces. A
mineral fracture, if it breaks along • Quartz varies widely
random, irregular surfaces. in color, due to
minor (parts per
billion) impurities
and even defects in
its crystalline
structure.

Streak- refers to the color of the mineral

in its powdered form, which may or may
not be the same color as the mineral.

• Streak Plate- obtained

by scratching the
mineral on an
(e.g. Cleavage- Flourite) unpolished piece of
(e.g. Fracture- Obsidian) white porcelain
• Streak is more reliable
Hardness- measure of mineral’s property than color as
resistance to scratching. streak shows true color
of minerals. It doesn’t
• Friedrich Mohs in 1812 ranked vary even if the color
minerals according to hardness. does.

Additional Properties

Magnetism- some minerals are

attracted to a hand magnet.

• Magnetite- is the only

common mineral that is
always
strong
magnetic.
(e.g.
Magnetite)
 • The Dana system
divides minerals into
Reaction with Acid- Some minerals,
eight basic classes.
especially carbonate materials, react
These are native
visibly with acid. (Usually, a dilute
elements, silicates,
hydrochloric acid [HCI] is used). When a
oxides, sulfides, sulfates,
drop of dilute hydrochloric acid is
halides, carbonates,
placed on calcite, it readily bubbles or
phosphates, and
effervesces, releasing carbon dioxide.
mineraloids.
Striations- presence of very thin, parallel
grooves.

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS

1. Igneous Rocks- magmatic rocks

are formed through the cooling
and solidification of magma or
lava.
Specific Gravity- the weight of that
a. Intrusive igneous rocks- is
mineral divided by the weight of an
formed from solidification
equal volume of water. (e.g. Barite and
of magma below the
Galena)
surface. (e.g. Granite,
Taste, Odor, Feel- Some minerals have Diorite, Gabbro,
distinctive taste. (e.g. Halite is salt) Pegmatite, and Periodite)
b. Extrusive igneous rocks- is
formed through faster rate
B. Chemical Properties- show the of solidification of lava on
presence and arrangement of atoms the surface of the Earth.
in minerals. (e.g. Andesite, Basalt,
Dacite, Obsidian, Pumice,
Rhyolite and Tuff)
• They can become
glassy in appearance
due to less
crystallization or
vesicular like Scoria,
due to the air that was
trapped inside when
they solidified.

2. Sedimentary Rock- is formed by

the deposition and cementation
of mineral or organic particles on
the floor of the oceans and other
bodies of water at Earth surface.
a. Clastic sedimentary rock-
formed from mechanical
weathering debris of rocks.
(e.g. conglomerate,
sandstone, siltstone, and
shale)
b. Chemical sedimentary
rock- formed when
dissolved materials
 precipitate from solution.
(e.g. rock salt, iron ore,
chert, flint, some
dolomites)
c. Organic sedimentary rock-
formed from the build-up
of plant or animal debris.
(e.g. coal)
3. Metamorphic Rock- forms from
existing rock types called “parent
rock” in the process called
metamorphism, which means
change in form.
- Subjected to heat and
pressure.
a. Foliated metamorphic
rocks- formed through
pressure due to
compression of rocks that
creates bands called
foliation. (e.g. Gneiss,
Phyllite, Schist, and Slate)
b. Nonfoliated metamorphic
rocks- has no foliation or
bands. (e.g. hornfels,
marble, quartzite, and
novaculite)
IMPORTANT MINERALS TO SOCIETY
ORE MINERALS: HOW THEY ARE FOUND,
MINED, AND PROCESSED FOR HUMAN
USE
• Mining is the process of mineral
extraction from a rock seam or
ore—a natural rock or sediment
containing one or more
valuable mineral. The minerals
can range from precious metals
and iron to gemstone to quartz
• Modern mining technology uses
geophysical techniques that
involve measuring the
magnetic, gravity, and sonic
responses above and around a
prospective mineral ore body.
Two methods of mining
1. Surface Mining- used to
extract ore minerals near
the surface of the earth.
• Through blasting.
Blasting is a controlled
use of explosives and
gas exposure to break
rocks.
a. Open-pit mining- This is
the most common type
of surface mining. The
pit in mine is created by
blasting with explosives
and drilling. It is used to
mine gravel and sand
and even rock.
b. Strip mining- involves
the removal of a thin
strip of overburden
(earth or soil) above a
 desired deposit, - More expensive and
dumpling the removed dangerous because
overburden behind the miners need to use
deposit, extracting the explosive devices to
desired deposit, remove the minerals
creating a second, from the rocks that cover
parallel strip in the them.
same manner, and
depositing the waste
materials from the
second (new) strip onto
the first strip. This mining
method is used for
coal, phosphates,
clays, and tar mining.
Primary steps involved in processing
minerals include:

1. Sampling- the removal

portion which represents a
whole needed for the
analysis of this material.
2. Analysis- is important to
evaluate the valuable
c. Dredging- process of
component in an ore. This
mining materials from
includes chemical,
the bottom of body of
mineral, particle size
water, including rivers,
analysis.
lakes and oceans.
3. Comminution- is the
process where the
valuable components of
the ore are separated
through crushing and
grinding.
4. Concentration- involves
the separation of valuable
minerals from the raw
2. Underground Mining- used materials.
to extract the rocks, 5. Dewatering- uses the
minerals, and other concentration to convert it
precious stories that can to usable minerals. This
be found beneath the involve filtration and
earth’s surface sedimentation of the
- They need to create a suspension and drying of
tunnel so they can reach the solid materials
the ore minerals harvested from this
suspension.
“FORMATION OF FOSSIL FUELS”
Fossil fuels are basically remains
of plants and plants and animals that
died millions of years ago.
• They are the world’s
primary energy source
that provide most of
the energy support in
transportation,
electricity, and
industries.
• They are natural and
finite resources
• Considered as non-
renewable energy
source
Three types of fossil fuels
1. Coal- It is an important and
primary fossil fuel present on
Earth.
Found predominantly where forest trees,
plants, and marshes existed before
being buried and compressed millions
years ago.
Philippines uses 50% coal resource to
produce energy and electricity.
Four Major Ranks of Coal
• Anthracite- highest rank of coal. It
is hard, brittle, and black lustrous
coal, often referred to as hard
coal, containing high
percentage of fixed carbon and
a low percentage of volatile
matter.
• Bituminous coal- has high heating
value and is the most common
type of coal used in electricity
generation.
• Subbituminous coal- black in
color and dull, has higher heating
value than lignite
• Lignite- also known as brown
coal, lowest grade coal with the
least concentration of carbon.
2. Oil- is an organic material, mostly
algae which was buried in mud
at the bottom of the sea and
lakes.
Mainly used for production of
transportation fuels and petroleum-
based products.
Philippines imports crude oil and
petroleum from Saudi Arabia and
Russia. (Majority Market: Petron
Corporation, Pilipinas Shell, and Chevron
Philippines)
3. Natural gas- It is a naturally
occurring hydrocarbon gas with
the mixture of methane.
• Earth’s cleanest fossil fuel and is
odourless and colorless in its
natural state.
• Produced from sedimentary rock
formation by forcing chemicals,
water, and sand down a well
under high pressure
• Philippines’ main domestic source
of energy is the Malampaya
natural gas field which is located
at Palawan Island.
How fuels are formed?
• Millions of years ago the remains
of prehistoric plants and animals
are buried beneath Earth’s
surface.
• The mud sediment was buried by
more sediments and it started to
change into rock as the
temperature and pressure
increase.
• In that case fossil fuels are formed
in a low oxygen environment.
• The chemically by this process,
and slowly changed into crude
oil and natural gas.
• Through the spaces of
permeable rock, the oils move
upwards and will be trapped if it
reached impermeable rock.
• Oil companies can drill down
through the use, such as petrol
and diesel.
• On the other hand, coal can be
extracted from the Earth through
underground mining. Once it has
been extracted, it can be used
to fuel power plants for
electricity.

“Energy Resources”
Hot – It is one of the types of energy that
is dynamic, transferable and can
converted into useful forms. It is the
product of random motion of particles
that are continuously colliding and
vibrating.
As you go down, tremendous heat will
be experienced. This is a result of
radioactivity at its interior.
Coming from decaying radioactive
substances.
Geothermal Energy- heat generated
beneath the ground, that when
harnessed can generate electrical
energy for community use.
This is possible when a geothermal
power plant is established equipped
with technology that runs the process of
energy conversion.
Heat→ Kinetic Energy→ Mechanical
Energy → Electrical Energy → Electricity
The power plant that uses hydrothermal
resources (having both water and heat)
can attain the required temperature
that is about 300 degrees Fahrenheit to
700 degrees Fahrenheit.
Geothermal energy is not only used by
a power plant for electricity generation.
Another way of using the energy is
through heat pumps that can be
installed at home.
Heat pumps works depending on the
season using water or refrigerant and
obtaining the Earth’s constant
temperature (50-60 degrees Fahrenheit)
below the ground
Energy in Current
- One requirement for energy
resource is the presence of
current.
- Since water is flowing down the
sea level, it possesses certain
amount of potential energy
which is directly proportional to
the density and height where the
source is located.
- To convert this energy into usable
form (electrical energy), a
hydroelectric power plant must
be established.
Hydroelectricity- the process of
converting mechanical energy (flowing
water) from running water to electrical
energy.
Potential Energy→ Kinetic Energy→
Mechanical Energy→ Electrical
Energy→ Electricity
Geothermal
- Power plants that use heat from
deep inside the Earth to generate
steam to make electricity
- Renewable energy source
because heat is continuously
produced inside the earth.
Heat Pump- tap into close the Earth’s
surface to heat water or provide heat
for buildings.
Geothermal Reservoirs- naturally
occurring areas of hydrothermal
resources.
Volcanoes/Fumaroles- hole in the earth
where volcanic gases are released.
Tectonic Plates- along these boundaries
are found the most active geothermal
resources.
Impoundment Facilities- the most
common technology which uses dam to
create a large reservoir of the water.
Solar- energy that heats water on the
surface rivers, lakes, and oceans, which
causes the waters to evaporate.
IMPORTANT POINTS
• Country’s potentiality to harness
non-renewable energy resources →
geologic processes and features
• Presence of geologic features such
as volcanoes, fumaroles, hot springs,
geysers → available passages for
geothermal energy
• Hydropower → the process of
hydrologic cycle → replenishment
• UTILIZING RESOURCES
of water in rivers and dams
o People drill wells into the
• Density & Gravity → affects the
earth and then piping
efficiency of the power plant to
heat or hot water to the
generate electricity
surface.
• Core → the hottest layer of the
o The hot water or steam
earth
powers a turbine that
• Magma comes out → heat up the
generates electricity.
ground water suspended in the
porous rock
• Some geothermal well are as much
• Hydrothermal → produces steam →
as two miles deep depending on
builds pressure needed to be
the availability of sufficient
emitted
geothermal source. → Three basic
• Philippines → one of the countries
types of geothermal power plants
within the Ring of Fire → reach in
o Dry Steam Plants → It sips
renewable geothermal energy →
directly hot steam
has high potential to harness into
beneath the ground
electricity.
through pipes to mobilize
• Capability & potentiality of area →
generator turbines.
geologist apply several methods →
o Flash Steam Plants → It
drilling a well and measuring the
pipes high pressure hot
temperature (300 – 700 degrees
water from geothermal
Fahrenheit) is the most reliable
reservoir and convert it
method before putting up a power
into steam that turn
plant.
generator turbines to
• 50 – 60 degrees Fahrenheit →
produce electricity.
heating up household/ building
o Binary Cycle Plants → It
• Applications of geothermal energy
has a system that transfers
can be attained → through either
heat from hot water
getting the surface heat for heating
sipped miles deep to other
purposes or drilling miles beneath
liquid. Exceedingly high
the ground for electricity
other liquid from
generation.
geothermal water
• Beliefs: hot, mineral-rich waters have
changes the other liquid
health benefits.
into steam to drive the
• Geothermal energy used directly
generator turbines.
heat individual buildings and to
• Geothermal heat pumps → apply
heat multiple buildings with district
constant temperatures → to
heat
increase and decrease the
• District heating system → provides
temperature of the buildings or
heat for most of the buildings in
houses
Reykjavik, Iceland.
• Geothermal heat pumps transfer
• Geothermal energy industrial
heat from the ground (or water)
applications → food dehydration
into buildings during the winter
(drying), gold mining, and milk
and reverse the process in the
pasteurizing.
summer with the use of
• Geothermal power plants →
refrigerant.
constructed where geothermal
• Geothermal power plants do not
reservoirs are located.
burn fuel to generate electricity,
→ apply hydrothermal
so levels of air-pollutants they
resources that both water and
exhaust are low.
heat (hydrothermal)
• Geothermal power plants emit
97% less acid rain-causing sulfur
compounds and about 99% less
carbon dioxide than fossil fuel
power plants of similar size.
HYDROPOWER/ HYDROELECTRICITY
• Using this renewable (can be
replaced within human life span)
energy resource, water
(hydrologic) cycle that requires
solar energy dictates
precipitation that can be
collected by streams and rivers
when falls in the form of rain or
snow.
• The amount of water in the area
→ determines the efficiency in
generating electricity energy.
• Irregularities in seasons and
climate change → droughts
directly affects the hydropower
production.
• Volume of water and the height
→ determines the rate of power
generation.
• Three main types of hydro plants:
o Impoundment facilities
→ most common
technology which uses
dam to create large
reservoir of water.
o Pumped storage
facilities → are similar
but have a second
reservoir below the
“Various Water Resources on Earth”
dam.
▪ Water can be
pumped from
the lower
reservoir to the
upper reservoir,
storing energy
for use later.
o Run-on-river facilities →
rely more on natural
water flow rates,
diverting just a portion
of river water through
turbines, sometimes
without the use of a
dam or reservoirs.
▪ Since run-of-river
hydro is subject
to natural water
variability, it is
more
intermittent than
dammed hydro.
• Damming river has a
significant impact on the
regional ecosystem, by
flooding upstream
landscapes, disrupting
habitats for wildlife, blocking
fish passages, and often
displacing local communities.
In addition, dam failures can
be catastrophic, further
disrupting landscapes and
claiming the lives of those
living downstream.
• Hydro plants are not
completely free of
greenhouses gas emissions. As
with most forms of energy,
carbon dioxide emissions
occur during construction,
particularly because of the
large quantities of cement
used, and loss of vegetation in
flooded areas creates
methane, another
greenhouse gas, as its matter
decays underwater.
• Nearly three-fourths of the earth’s
surface is covered with water.
• Ground Water – great amount of
the freshwater is found below the
earth’s surface.
• Water resources → natural
resources of water that are
potentially useful.
• Uses of water include
agricultural, households,
recreational, and environment
activities.
 • 70% of human body is water and
bodies of all plants and animals
also contain water.
Sources of Water
• Rainwater, oceans, rivers, lakes,
streams, ponds, springs are
natural sources of water. Dams,
wells, tube wells, hand-pumps,
canals, etc. are man-made
sources of water.
• Rain Water – is collected on Earth
in the form of surface water and
underground water.
• Surface Water – water present on
the surface of the earth in the
form of oceans, rivers, lake,
reservoirs, ponds, and streams.
• Underground Water – Some of the
rainwater seeps through soil on to
the non-porous rocks below.
o Sometimes due to high
pressure, sinking tube wells,
etc.
o Aquifers- rocks that store
and transmit ground
water.
Water Distribution on Earth
All water on Earth consists of Saline and
Freshwater
• Saline has 97%
• Freshwater has 3%
o A relatively small portion is
available to sustain
human, plant, and animal
life.
o Is the water needed for life
to survive
Breaking down the freshwater
• Icecaps and Glaciers has 68%
• Groundwater has 30.1%
• Surface water has 0.3%
• Other water has 0.9%
Breakdown of Surface Water
• Lake has 87%
• Rivers has 2%
• Swamps has 11%
• Most of this water is found in
lakes. Rivers make up 2% of
surface freshwater and 11%
swamps.
• Although rivers account for only a
small amount of freshwater, this is
where humans get a large
portion of their water.
Sources of Drinking Water
• WHO and UNICEF Joint
Monitoring Report (2017) define
improved drinking water
resources as those that have
potential to deliver safe water by
nature of their design and
construction. These include piped
water tube wells or boreholes;
protected dug wells, protected
springs; rainwater.
• Families that use bottled water for
refilling stations for drinking are
classified as using an improved
source only if they use for
cooking and hand washing
comes from an improved source.
• According to the results of the
2017 APIS, 94 percent of the 24
million Filipino families have
improved source of drinking
water.
“Activities that Affect the Quality and
Availability of Water for Human Use”
Water Quality describes the condition of
the water, including chemical, physical
and biological characteristics, usually
with respect to its suitability for a
particular purpose such as drinking or
swimming.
Physical Attributes: Temperature, color,
taste, odor, and turbidity.
• The tempt of water affects some
of the important physical
properties and characteristics of
water: thermal capacity, density,
specific weight, viscosity, surface
tension, specific conductivity,
salinity, and solubility of dissolved
gases.
 • Colored water gives the
appearance of being unfit to
drink, even though the water
may be perfectly safe for public
use.
• Taste and Odor are human
perceptions of water quality.
• Turbidity measure of the light-
transmitting properties of water
and is comprised of suspended
and colloidal material.
Chemical Attributes: reflection of the
soil, and rocks with which the water has
been in contact.
Water Availability is defined as the
quantity of water that can be used for
human purposes without significant
harm to ecosystems or other users
Water Scarcity occurs when the amount
of water withdrawn from lakes, rivers, or
groundwater is so great that water
supplies are no longer adequate to
satisfy all human or ecosystem
requirements, resulting in increased
competition between water users and
other demands.
- Can be caused primarily by
human activities which promote
sedimentation, pollution, climate
change, deforestation,
landscape changes, and urban
growth.
“HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT AFFECT THE
QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF SOIL”
Human activities: Construction and
Development, Farming, Mining, and
Waste Disposal
SOIL
- Can be defined as the organic and
inorganic materials on the surface
of the earth that provide the
medium for plant growth
- Develops slowly over time and a is
composed of many different
materials through the process of
weathering.
- A necessary resource because it
helps sustain life on Earth including
humans, animals and plants.
- Helps purify or clean water as it
drains through the ground and into
rivers, lakes, and oceans.
- Decomposers in soil also help
recycle nutrients by breaking down
the remains of plants and animals,
releasing nutrients that living plants
use to grow.
- Provides a home for a variety of
living things, from tiny one-celled
organisms to small mammals.
A review of soil degradation in the
Philippines by Asio, V. 2009 revealed
that soil degradation, the physical and
chemical and biological decline in soil
quantity is a major agricultural and
environmental problem in the
Philippines due to erosion.
Other soil degradation process
cause by erosion:
✓ Loss of nutrients and Organic
nutrients
✓ salinization
✓ acidification
✓ pollution
✓ compaction and
subsidence
HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT CONTRIBUTE TO
THE LOSS OF GOOD QUALITY SOIL
FARMING
One of the traditional sources of
income in our country done by planting
crops or raising livestock.
➢ Positive Effect of Farming
- Application of herbicide, a
pesticide used to kill unwanted
plants used in farming has a positive
benefit on soil health
- Lime and mineral fertilizers added
to soil provide stable optimum
growing conditions for plants
- Organic manures and other
organic fertilizers provide a source
of food/energy for many soil
organisms thus making the soil
healthy and good for planting.
- Growing plants help in stabilizing
the soil structure.
- Another important effect of farming
on soil health is the provision of
 water through irrigation and
drainage.
- Irrigation/drainage water stabilizes
the soil moisture thus making it
healthier and suitable for planting.
➢ Negative Effect of Faming
- Tillage in farming is the preparation
of soil for planting and the
cultivation of soil after planting. It
can cause direct damage to soil
microorganisms and potentially
expose those to new predators.
- Though pesticides are found
beneficial to soil, it was found to
have long term harmful effects on
the overall activity or population of
soil organisms
- Some applied veterinary medicines
are found to affect the normal
degradation rate of some insects
and animals, thus altering the soil’s
health.
CONSTRUCTION OF STRUCTURE
Construction activities, such as
grading and filing, reduce soil quality on
construction sites. Land use conversion
usually done to support urbanization
activities can cause rapid soil degradation
and sedimentation. Soil nutrients are
washed away making it unsuitable for
farming.
WASTE DISPOSALS
Soil quality is adversely affected by
improper waste disposal. Soil pollution
happens when hazardous chemicals from
human and industrial sewage are
carelessly disposed of, altering soil’s natural
health and quality.
WAYS TO PROTECT AND CONSERVE THE
SOIL
FOREST PROTECTION
Trees as well as other plants and
vegetation in the forest are important in
the creation of new soil as leaves and other
vegetation rot and decompose. Hence,
soil qualities are ensured when forest are
protected and conserved.
BUFFER STRIPS
Buffers are strips or corridors of
permanent vegetation used to reduce
water and wind erosion. They provide
protection where stream banks exist. They
can be created with grass, trees and
shrubs.
NO-TILL FARMING
No-till farming is an approach that
allows crops to remain in place for a
season. This keeps the soil from being left
bare and unprotected.
FEWER CONCRETE SURFACES
Soil requires an adequate amount
of water in order to function properly. Lots
of concrete surfaces, especially in
residential areas make it difficult for water
to get to the soil. Using paving stones for
patios and gardens work to protect the soil.
They are also a tool to prevent soil erosions
in specific areas.
PLANT WINDBREAK AREAS
Windbreaks are composed of
shrubs, plants, and trees. They work in
combination and serve a conservation
purpose. These will work together to slow
the force of the wind over ground areas.
This is a method that can also work to
prevent erosion of the soil.
TERRACE PLANTING
This type of planting is done by
maximizing the topography of the land. It
benefits from the way the rainwater flows
naturally. This is a way to protect the soil
from erosion. It is also proven method to
encourage growth from moist soil areas.
PLANT TREES
Simply planting the trees is a good
conservation method. As the tree grows, its
roots become even more secure in the soil.
This soil is protected in numerous ways
because of the tree’s existence. Erosion is
prevented from this planting process.
CROP ROTATION
Crop Rotation soil is a process that
works to conserve soil. It is accomplished
by planting and growing a serious of
different crops in the same soil. This process
prevents overgrowth of pathogens and
lack of fertility in the soil, overall.
WATER THE SOIL
This is a simple process that provides
a lot of benefits to the soil. Watering your
soil along with plants and vegetables is
important. This helps to not only nourish the
soil but to protect it. Moist soil is not in
danger of erosion due to wind activity.
MAINTAIN PH
Soil pH or soil reaction is an
indication of the acidity or alkalinity of the
soil and is measured in pH units. A pH range
of approximately 6 to 7 promotes the most
ready availability of plant nutrients. The pH
levels in the soil can be affected by a
number pollutants and acids.
INDIGENOUS CROPS
Indigenous crops are native crop
options that enhance the soil. Planting
these is a way to ensure conservation are
being planted, as well.
AFFORESTATION
Planting trees is a method of
conserving the soil. Afforestation is another
of tree planting method wherein the areas
under trees are protected. This is usually
don by planting foliage in forest
undergrowth areas. It encourages healthy
soil and water absorption.
MONITOR GRAZING
Animal grazing plays a critical role
in conserving soil. Monitoring the areas
where cows and other animals graze is
important. This helps to prevent depletion
of the soil. It also addresses the issue of hoof
damage, which can occur to the soil.
DAMS
Dams are important resources
when it comes to soil conservation. These
structures work to prevent soil erosion. This
is especially important in areas where rivers
exist. Flooding of rivers has been the cause
for many instances of soil erosion. Dams
offer additional protection.
FERTILIZERS
Not all fertilizer products are
effective for conservation efforts. The
composition of these fertilizers can be the
problem. The use of organic fertilizer
improves the quality of soil because it is
composed of readily biodegradable
materials make better nutrient sources.
NO SOIL COMPACTING
A simple conservation method that
some gardeners and farmers apply is not to
compact the soil. This is a protection
method that is helpful. You can do this by
creating dedicated paths in your garden.
This helps you to not walk on wet soil
causing it to be compacted.
CONTROL STORM WATER
Instead of allowing water to puddle
in yards or gardens, it is important to control
it. Storm water can easily cause flooding or
problems in these areas. Setting up large
container to hold excess water in problem
locations is helpful. This water can be re-
used for watering gardens and yards.
MONITOR GROWTH
When crops or plants grow
normally, they have a healthy
appearance. If there is a problem with the
growth, often the soil is the issue. Checking
the salient composition and fertility is
important. This is done through regular
monitoring of the soil and overall plant
growth.
“Soil Conservation”
• Tree Planting
o Roots of trees firmly hold on
the soil making it stagnant
and prevent soil erosion.
• Terraces Building
o A terrace is a leveled
section of a hilly cultivated
area. Having its unique
topography, it prevents
rapid surface runoff of
water.
o Dry Stonewalling is a
method used to create
 terraces in which stone
structures are made without
using mortar for binding.
• No-Till Farming
o Is a way of growing crops
without disturbing it through
tillage is highly
recommended.
• Contour Plowing
o This practice of farming on
slopes considers the slope
gradient and the elevation
of soil along the slope.
• Crop Rotation
o It is a method of growing a
series of dissimilar crops in
an area. Helps in the
improvement of the soil.
• Maintaining Soil pH
o The contamination of soil by
addition of acidic or basic
pollutants and due to acid
rains has an adverse effect
on the soil pH.
• Water the Soil
o Watering the soil is a good
measure of soil
conservation. Watering the
soil along with plants
growing in it is a way to
prevent soil erosion caused
by wind.
• Salinity Management
o The salinity of soil increases
due to excessive
accumulation of salts in the
soil. Salinity management is
an indirect way of
conserving soil
• Promote Helpful Soil Organisms
o Organisms like earthworms
help decompose organic
material in the soil. They aid
soil aeration and help it
maintain porosity.
• Grow Indigenous Crops
o If non-native plants are
grown, fields should be
bordered by indigenous
crops to prevent soil erosion,
thus achieving soil
conservation.
Different Types of Waste
Waste is unwanted or unusable materials
which are disposed of or are intended to
be disposed of or are required to be
disposed of by the provisions of the
national law (United Nations Environment).
Kinds of Waste
A. Solid Waste
a. Type of wastes is in solid
form like domestic,
commercial and industrial
wastes. (e.g. plastics,
styrofoam, paper, scrap iron
and sludge from a
wastewater treatment plant
or air control facility.
B. Liquid Waste
a. Types of waste is in liquid
form such as chemicals, oils,
and waste water from
ponds and manufacturing
industries. (e.g. sewage,
wastewater from industrial
processes, and agricultural
processing)
C. Gaseous Waste
a. Type of waste is in gaseous
form which usually
originates from chopping
and dissolution operations.
(e.g. volatile, radionuclides
are discharged to the stack
after scrubbing with sodium
hydroxide and filtration
through charcoal filter)
Classification of Waste
A. Biodegradable
a. These wastes can be
degraded (e.g. paper,
woods, fruits)
B. Non-biodegradable
a. These wastes cannot be
degraded (e.g. bottles,
plastics, machines, cans)
C. Hazardous
 a. Substances unsafe to use
commercially, industrially,
agriculturally or
economically and have the
following properties:
ignitability, corrosivity,
reactivity, and toxicity.
D. Non-hazardous
a. Substances safe to use
commercially, industrially,
agriculturally and
economically.
b. Substances usually create
disposal problems.
The main objective of waste management
is to reduce the quantity and type of
hazardous substances used to avoid
adverse impact on human health and
environment.
Waste According to Generation (Origin)
• Municipal Solid Wastes
o Solid wastes that include
household garbage,
rubbish, construction, ad
demolition debris, sanitation
residues, packaging
materials, trade refuges and
others managed by the any
municipality.
• Industrial Wastes
o Liquid and solid wastes that
are generated nu
manufacturing and
processing units of various
industries like chemical,
petroleum, coal, metal, gas,
sanitary, and papers.
• Agricultural Wastes
o Wastes generated from
farming activities. These
substances are mostly
biodegradable.
• Fishery Wastes
o Waste generated due to
fishery activities like fish
viscera, fish bones and
scales. These are extensively
found in coastal and
estuarine areas.
• Radioactive Wastes
o Wastes containing
radioactive materials. These
are commonly by-products
of nuclear processes.
Sometimes industries that
are not directly involved in
nuclear activities may also
produce some radioactive
waste such as radio-
isotopes and chemical
sludge.
• E-Wastes
o Electronic wastes
generated from any
modern
• Biomedical Wastes
o Solid or liquid wastes
including containers,
intermediate or end
products generated during
diagnosis, treatment and
research activities of
medical sciences.
Isolation- several waste disposal practices
in the country includes concentrate and
contain
Landfills- a place to dispose waste
material by burying or covering cover with
soil and become an extending usable
land after few years.
Dump- an excavated piece of land for
waste storage and regulated by the
government.
Other useful options are composting,
resource recovery and energy recovery.
“Earth Material and Processes”
Solid Waste- any garbage, refuse, sludge
from waste treatment plant, water supply
treatment plant, or air pollution control
facility and other materials, including solid,
liquid, semisolid, contained gaseous
resulting from industrials, commercials,
mining and agricultural operations from
community activities.
Types of Waste
• Biodegradable waste (moist waste)
o These are waste that com
from our kitchen and it
includes food remains,
garden waste, etc.
 • Non-biodegradable waste (dry
waste)
o These are wastes which
include old newspapers,
broken glass pieces,
plastics, etc.
o Major pollutants
Classification of waste that are commonly
found around the house
1. Liquid Waste- commonly found
both in the households as well as in
industries (e.g. dirty water, organic
liquids, wash water, waste
detergents, and rainwater)
2. Solid Rubbish- variety of items
found in your household along with
commercial and industrial
locations
o Plastic Wastes- consists of
bags, containers, jars,
bottles and many other
products.
o Paper/Card Waste- includes
packaging materials,
newspapers, cardboards
and other products.
o Tins and metals- found in
various forms throughout
your home. Most metals
can be recycled.
o Ceramics and glass- items
can easily be recycled.
3. Organic Waste- all food waste,
garden waste, manure and rotten
meat.
4. Recyclable Rubbish- all waste
items that can be converted into
products that can be used again.
5. Hazardous Waste- all types of
rubbish that are flammable, toxic,
corrosive and reactive.
Characteristics of wastes
• Corrosive
o Include acids or bases that
are capable of corroding
metal containers. (e.g. acid
or alkaline solution, rust
remover, battery acid, and
caustic hot tank waste)
• Ignitability
o can create fires under
certain condition (e.g.
waste oils and solvents)
• Reactive
o Unstable in nature, they
cause explosions, toxic
fumes when heated. (e.g.
lithium-sulfur batteries and
explosives)
• Toxicity
o Harmful or fatal when
indigested or absorbed.
(e.g. household products
that are improperly
disposed of; old batteries,
pesticides, paint, and car
oil)
• Non-Hazardous waste
o Cannot be added to
dumpster or sewage line.
(e.g. refuse, garbage,
sludge, municipal trash)
• Hazardous waste
o Found within the home
include paints, batteries,
solvents, cleaning agents,
and pesticide, heavy
metals, and chemical
sludges.
• Radioactive
o High-level radioactive
waste
▪ are highly
radioactive materials
produced as a
byproduct of the
reactions that occur
inside nuclear
reactors.
o Low-level radioactive waste
▪ Fuel that has been
withdrawn from a
nuclear reactor after
use.
• Mixed waste
o is waste which falls into two
or more different categories
of hazardous materials. (e.g.
radioactive contaminated,
phenol/chloroform, or
blood labeled with
radionuclide.
“Sources of Waste and Treatment” transportation costs
and decreases
Casual of Increase in Solid Waste
harmful greenhouse
1. Population Growth gas emissions.
2. Increase in industrials o Gasification and Pyrolysis
manufacturing ▪ Both of which
3. Urbanization decompose organic
4. Modernization, technological waste materials by
advancement and increase in exposing to low
global population created rising in amounts of oxygen
demand for food and other and very high
essentials. temperature.
▪ Pyrolysis- no oxygen
▪ Gasification- allows
Sources of Waste burning process to
• Industrial Waste recover energy
o Wastes created in factories without causing air
and industries. (e.g. plastic, pollution.
glass, etc.) o Open Burning
• Commercial Waste ▪ Legacy of thermal
o Wastes produced in waste treatment that
schools, colleges, shops, is environmentally
and offices. (e.g. plastic, harmful.
paper, etc.) ▪ Release greenhouse
• Domestic Waste gases.
o Household wastes which • Dumps and Landfills
are collected during o Sanitary landfills
household activities like ▪ Desired to eliminate
cooking, cleaning, etc. (e.g. or reduced the risk of
leaves, vegetable peels, environmental or
excreta, etc.) public health
• Agriculture Waste hazards due to
o Wastes produced in waste disposal.
agricultural field. (e.g. cattle o Controlled dumps
waste, weed, husk, etc.) ▪ More or less the
same as sanitary
landfills.
▪ Well-planned
Waste Treatments and Disposal Methods
capacity but no cell-
• Thermal Treatment refers to the planning.
processes that use heat to treat o Bioreactor landfills
waste materials. ▪ Result of recent
o Incineration technological
▪ One of the most research.
common waste ▪ Use superior
treatments. microbiological
▪ Involves combustion processes to speed
of waste materials in up waste
the presence of decomposition.
oxygen. • Biological Waste Treatment
▪ Used as means of o Composting
recovering energy ▪ The controlled
for electricity or anaerobic
heating. decomposition of
▪ Quickly to reduced organic waste
waste volume, materials by the
lessens action of small
 invertebrates and Black- e-wastes
microorganisms.
Blue- plastic and metal waste
o Anaerobic Digestion
(recyclable waste).
▪ Also uses biological
processes to
decompose organic
materials.
▪ Uses an oxygen and
“The Effect of Different Kind of Waste to
bacteria-free
People’s and Environment”
environment to
decompose waste Negative Effects of Improper removal and
materials where disposal of waste
composting must
have air to enable • Soil Contamination
the growth of • Air Contamination
microbes. • Water Contamination
• Bad impact on human health
• Impact on animals and marine life
• Disease-carrying pests
Waste Disposal Methods
• Adversely affect the local
• Incineration economy
o The burning of waste • Missed recycling opportunities
materials at high • Causes extreme climate changes
temperatures to transform
them into gases or residue.
• Recycling
o The conversion of waste
material into new products.
o Aims to reduce strain on the
environment by minimizing
the waste that is added to
the water, air and land.
• Open Dumping
o A simple and inexpensive
method which involves the
deliberate disposal of
garbage in an open space.
• Ocean Dumping
o occurs when sewage,
garbage, construction
debris, hazardous chemicals
etc. are intentionally
discarded at sea by ships,
aircrafts, and other man-
made machines.

Proper waste disposal can be done by

applying 3Rs & landfills

Color coding basically exists to allow you

to easily distinguish the different types of
biomedical waste by sorting them into
different categories, each pertaining to a
single color.

Green- biodegradable waste

Practical Research 1
“Intro to Research”
Research is defined as the scientific
investigation of phenomena which
includes collection, presentation, analysis
and interpretation of facts that lines an
individual speculation with reality.
• Solutions to problems must be
based on knowledge not on mere
Research ethics are guidelines for the
beliefs, guesses or theories.
responsible conduct of research which
• In research a systematic and well-
educates and monitors researchers to
planned procedure is required to
ensure high standard.
meet the need in order that
information is acquired and
evaluate its accuracy and
effectiveness.
Characteristics of Research
1. Empirical
a. based on observation and
experimentation on
theories.
2. Systematic
a. follows orderly and in
sequential order
3. Controlled
a. all variables except those
that are tested/
experimented upon are
kept constant.
4.
5. Analytical and Critical
a. all data is used so that there
is no error in the
interpretation.
b. Follows careful and precise
judgement
6. Objective
7. Logical
a. based on valid procedures
and principles
8. Cyclical
a. starts with a problem and
ends with a problem
9. Methodical
a. conducted in methodical
manner without bias using
systematic method and
procedure
10. Replicability
a. research design and
procedures are repeated to
enable the researcher to
arrive at valid and
conclusive results
Process of Research
1. Research Problem
2. Review of Related Literature
3. Methodology
4. Data Gathering
5. Analyzation of data using Thematic
Analysis
6. Conclusions and Recommendations
7. Define a new problem
• Objectivity. Avoid bias in
experimental design, data analysis,
data interpretation, peer review,
personnel decisions, grant writing,
expert testimony, and other
aspects of research.
• Integrity. Keep your promises and
agreements; act with sincerity;
strive for consistency of thought
and action.
• Carefulness. Avoid careless errors
and negligence; carefully and
critically examine your work and
the work of peers. Keep good
records of research activities.
• Informed Consent. This is required
to secure in order protect the rights
of the participants in your study.
• Honesty. It reports data, results,
methods and procedures, and
publication status. Do not
fabricate, falsify and misrepresent
the data.
• Openness. Share data, results,
ideas, tools and resources. Be open
to criticism and new ideas.
• Respect for Intellectual Property.
Honor patents, copyrights,
trademarks, trade secrets and
other forms of intellectual property.
Do not use published or
unpublished data, methods, or
results without permission. Give
credit where credit is due. Never
plagiarize, fabricate and falsify.
• Legality. Know and obey relevant
laws and institutional and
government policies.
• Confidentiality. Protect confidential
communications, such as papers or
grants submitted for publication,
 personnel records, trade or military “Qualitative Research and Its Importance
secrets, and patient records. in Daily Lives”
• Responsible Mentoring. Help to
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH
educate, mentor, and advise
others. Promote their welfare and 1. Instrumental use
allow them to make their own 2. Conceptual Use
decisions. 3. Mobilization of Support
• Responsible Publication. Publish in 4. Wider influence
order to advance research and
scholarship, not to advance your
own career. Avoid wasteful and Types of Research
duplicative publication.
• Respect for Colleagues. Respect • Qualitative Research
your colleagues’ opinion, treat
• Quantitative Research
them fairly and do not outsmart
others. • Mixed Method
• Social responsibility. Strive to
promote social acceptance and
prevent or mitigate social harms Qualitative Research
through research, public
education, and advocacy. ❑ Objective
• Non-discrimination. Avoid ➢ In-depth understanding of
discrimination against colleagues
underlying reasons,
or students on the basis of sex,
principles or motivations
race, ethnicity, or other factors that
are not related to their scientific ❑ Data Analysis
competence and integrity.
• Competence. Maintain and ➢ Non-statistical
improve your own professional ➢ Contextual
competence and expertise
through lifelong education and ➢ Thematic
learning; take steps to promote
❑ Outcomes
competence in science as a
whole. ➢ Non-conclusive nor
• Animal Care. Show proper respect generalizable
and care for animals when using
them in research. Do not conduct ❑ Methodologies
unnecessary or poorly designed
➢ Hypotheses emerge as the
animal experiments.
study develops
• Human Subjects protection. When
conducting a research on human ➢ Definition is based on
subjects, minimize harms and risks context
and maximize benefits; respect
human dignity, privacy, and ➢ In narrative description
anonymity.
➢ Assessment of validity
Plagiarism refers to the act of using through cross-checking
another person’s ideas, works, processes,
and results without giving due credit.
Types of Qualitative Research

• Phenomenology
o focuses on subjective lived
experiences of the
participants in order to
understand phenomenon
 o concerned with the
feelings of the participants
regarding a particular
event or activity
• Ethnography
o concentrates on the study
of a group of people in a
particular environment.
o to characterize behaviors,
cultures, challenges, and
possible occurring themes,
the researcher is required
to engage himself/herself
with the participants
through immersion in an
extended period of time.
• Grounded Theory
o research intends to explain
a phenomenon through
developing a theory.
o In comparison with
phenomenological study
that primarily describes
lived experiences,
grounded theory aims to
provide explanation and
theory behind those lived
experiences.
• Case Study
o an intensive analysis of the
phenomenon.
o aim of this study is to
accurately describe the
case through an in-depth
examination of a single
person or single institution.
• Historical
o concerned with the
identification, evaluation,
and synthesis of past event
data.
o aims to understand
present patterns and to
anticipate future choices
through clearly relating the
past event data which are
obtained from sources
such as documents, relics
and artifacts, and oral
reports.
• Narrative
o Life accounts of individuals
based on their personal
experiences are typically
obtained and analyzed in
the conduct of this kind of
qualitative research.
o is to extract meaningful
context based on the
documented experiences.
Research Title
Research Problem refers to a statement
that promptly suggests for conducting
an investigation.
Sources of Problem
• Theory
o Existing social philosophies
and generalizations which
the researcher is familiar
with may be of a great
help to design a research
problem.
• Practitioners
o Consultation with the
people who have direct
experiences in a field of
interest may provide the
researcher an idea of
what relevant problem
he/she may investigate.
• Personal Experience
o Daily experiences can
provide the researcher an
idea of what problem that
needs a solution.
• Relevant Literature
o An extensive and thorough
review of literature and
studies relevant to the
problem interest of the
researcher may enable
him/her to come up with a
potential study.
Considerations in Formulating the
Research Problem
EXTERNAL CRITERIA
• Novelty. The research problem
must carry “newness.”
• Availability of subjects. A
research problem, when is
subjected to a further
investigation, requires data from
the target subjects.
 • Support of the academic
community. The academic
community, which consists of
administrators, teachers, staff,
students, and parents, should be
considered by the researcher in
what particular problem will be
investigated.
• Availability and adequacy of
facilities and equipment.
Necessary common devices such
as computers and telephones
which will be used in undertaking
a study should be considered.
• Ethical considerations. A research
problem, when is subjected to a
study, must not pose any
unethical demands most
especially on the part of the
research participants.
INTERNAL CRITERIA
• Qualifications of the researcher.
These pertain to the expertise of
the researcher to the problem.
• Motivation and interest of the
researcher. The research problem
which is in the interest of the
researcher may give him/her
satisfaction and enjoyment.
• Time factor. A research problem,
when is subjected to a study,
should suggest to be time-
efficient.
• Costs and returns. It is also
important that the researcher
should consider a research
problem which suggests to be
cost-efficient.
• Hazards and handicaps. This
means that a research problem
should not put the researcher in
danger.
Characteristics of a Research Title
• limited only to substantive
words
• create a positive impression
• form of a phrase with correct
use of capitalization
• be concise by adequately
implying the participants and
the coverage of the study
• a researcher may also put a
subtitle which is commonly
employed in social science
research papers. This subtitle
may be done: (1) to state the
scope, context, and theory
under investigation; and (2) to
provide a substantive and
appealing literary title.
“CHAPTER 1: The Problem and Its
Background”
Consists of:
• Background of the Study:
topic/problem area, historical
basis, addressing similar
challenges, failed to be realized
hence the need for your study
• Presentation of the
problem.
• Historical background of
the problem
• Geographical conditions
of the study locale
• Rationale of the study
• Statement of the Problem states
clearly the purposes or interest of
the study, poses specific
questions about research
problem.
• Composed of:
• general statement
• specific sub-
problems or sub-
questions
• Scope is the coverage of the
research to be explored. Sets the
boundaries and parameters of
the study
• Delimitation limits the scope and
outlines the boundaries of the
study.
• Significance of the Study discuss
the purpose that the research.
 • Describes the contribution
of the study to the existing
body of knowledge.
Introduction states briefly the
background of the study and identifies
the rationale of the research problem.
“CHAPTER 2: Review of Related
Literature”
RRL is one of the main components of a
research study, specifically in the
second chapter.
Two Major Parts of RRL
• Research Literature
o literature coming from
books, journals and other
forms of material relevant
to the study but are non-
empirical materials both
from foreign and local
sources
• Conceptual Literature
o Empirically-based, like
scientific paper, theses
and dissertations, both
published and
unpublished from foreign
and local sources
Goals:
• To demonstrate familiarity with a
body of knowledge and establish
credibility
• To show the path of prior
research and how a current
project is linked to it.
• To integrate and summarize what
is known in an area. A good
review points out areas where
prior studies agree or disagree.
• To learn from others and stimulate
new ideas
Sources refers to print, electronic or
visual materials necessary for your
research.
• Primary
o original sources of
information that have not
yet been filtered through
analysis, examination or
interpretation.
• Secondary
o Not original source. No
direct physical connection
to the person or event
being studied.
• Tertiary
o Sources that abstract,
organize, compile or
digest other sources
Synthesize
• Synthesizing helps your reader
understand more clearly the
literature review.
• you bring together ideas
(related) from different sources
and create a structured review of
relevant works and coherent
argument for the current study
Types of Synthesis
• Explanatory. Its primary aim is to
present facts in reasonably
objective manner.
• Argument. Its purpose to present
own point of view with the
support of relevant facts
presented in logical manner
In-text Citations
When you reference another
source use an in-text citation in the
body of your paper.
Reference
Organized by the author's last
name in alphabetical order.
“CHAPTER 3: Methodology”
Sampling a process used in statistical
analysis in which a predetermined
number of observations are taken from
a larger population.
Population - the complete group of
people, animals or objects that have
the same characteristics that the
research needs
Sample - a group of individuals that
represent the population.
Probability- subjects of the population
get an equal opportunity to be selected
as a representative sample.
Non-Probability- not known which
individual from the population will be
chosen as a sample.
• Convenience Sampling
o based on their availability
or convenient accessibility.
• Purposive Sampling
o based on the researcher’s
judgement and
knowledge about the
population.
• Snowball Sampling
o This is done by asking
relevant people if they
know someone who will be
willing to participate in
your research.
• Quota Sampling
o based on the identification
of specific characteristics
to increase the sample’s
representativeness.
• Opportunistic Sampling
o takes respondents that are
readily available.
Data Gathering procedures
Primary Data refers to first-hand
information based on actual
experiences or observations.
Secondary Data are data that are
gathered from secondary sources, it
comes from previous research, audio
recordings or books.
Data Collection is the process of
gathering and measuring information on
targeted variables in an established
system, which then enables one to
answer relevant questions and evaluate
outcomes.
Instrument of the Study
• Interviews are done by having a
set of questions to your
respondents and letting them
answer as truthfully as possible.
o Structured
o Unstructured
o Semi-structured
• Observations is a method of
collecting evaluative information
in which the evaluator watches
the subject in his or her usual
environment without altering that
environment.
o Naturalistic
o Participative
o Non-naturalistic
• Questionnaires a collection of
written or printed questions with
an answer choice made to
conduct a survey.
o Close-ended
o Open-ended
o Combination
• Focus Group Discussion focuses
on groups of people being
interviewed at the same time. This
relies on the respondents to give
a discussion amongst themselves
on the questions that you, the
researcher, give.
Data Analysis process used by the
researchers by reducing data to a story
and interpreting it to derive insights.
Qualitative data analysis is often
summarized through three basic
principles: notice things, collect things,
think about things.

• Content Analysis can be used to

analyze the documented
information from text, images,
and sometimes from the physical
items also.
• Discourse Analysis used to
analyze the interactions with
people.
• Narrative Analysis used to
analyze content gathered from
various sources.
• Grounded Theory want to explain
why a certain phenomenon
happened, then using grounded
theory for analyzing quality data
is the best resort.
• Thematic Analysis enables
researchers to generate new
insights and concepts derived
from data.
Health Optimizing Physical Education
“The Healthiest and Fittest ME”
Physical fitness is a combination of
health fitness and body fitness.
• Health Fitness refers to your
body’s ability to fight off diseases.
• Body Fitness refers to the ability to
do strenuous physical or sports
activities without getting tired
easily.
Health-Related Fitness is primarily
associated with disease prevention and
functional health. Participating in
regular health-related fitness helps you
control your weight, prevents diseases
and illness, improves mood, boosts
energy, and promotes better sleep.
• Body Composition – The
combination of all the tissues that
make up the body such as
bones, muscles, organs and body
fat.
• Cardiovascular Endurance – The
ability of the heart, lungs, blood
vessels, and blood to work
efficiently and to supply the body
with oxygen.
• Flexibility – The ability to use joints
fully through a wide range of
motion.
• Muscular Endurance – The ability
to use muscles for a long period
of time without tiring.
• Muscular Strength – The ability of
the muscles to lift a heavy weight
or exert a lot of force one time.
Skills Related Fitness Components
• Agility – The ability to change
body positions quickly and keep
the body under control when
moving.
• Balance – The ability to keep the
body in a steady position while
standing and moving.
• Coordination – The ability of the
body parts to work together
when performing an activity.
• Power – The ability to combine
strength with speed while
moving.
• Reaction Time – The ability to
move quickly once a signal to
start moving is received.
• Speed – The ability to move all or
a part of the body quickly.
Specific Components of Physical Fitness
• Agility
• Balance
• Coordination
• Endurance
• Flexibility
• Organic Vigor – It refers to the
soundness of the heart and lungs
which contributes to the ability to
resist disease.
• Power
• Speed
• Strength
Body Mass Index (BMI)
Formula for Computing Body Mass Index
Weight (in kilogram) ÷ Height (in
meters)2
Principles of Physical Activity
• Overload Principle. This principle
pertains to doing “more than
normal” for improvement to
happen.
o Frequency: Increasing the
number of times you train
per week
o Intensity: Increasing the
problem of the exercise.
o Time: Increasing the length
of your training time for
every session.
o Type: Increase the intensity
of the training.
• Principle of Progression. A
gradual and systematic increase
within the workload over a period
of time will lead to improvement
in fitness without risk of injury.
• Principle of Specificity. This
principle simply states that
exercising a specific piece or
 component of the body primarily
develops that part.
• Principle of Reversibility. This
shows that benefits and changes
achieved from overload will last
as long as training is continuous.
On the flip side, this also implies
that the detraining effect will be
reversed once training is
resumed.