?

Academy of Management Review

2006, Vol. 31. No. 1. 72-92.

WHEN WORK AND FAMILY ARE ALLIES: A

THEORY OF WORK-FAMILY ENRICHMENT
JEFFREY H. GREENHAUS
Drexel University

GARY N. POWELL
University of Connecticut

We define work-family enrichment as the extent to which experiences in one role

improve the quality of life in the other role. In this article we propose a theoretical
model of work-family enrichment and offer a series of research propositions that
reflect two paths to enrichment: an instrumental path and an affective path. We then
examine the implications of the model for future research on the work-family enrich
ment process.

In the past twenty-five years, scholars have and stress that detract from their quality of life.
produced a substantial body of literature on the Marks (1977) and Sieber (1974) were skeptical of
intersection of work and family lives (Barling & the conflict perspective and suggested that the
Sorensen, 1997; Greenhaus & Parasuraman, advantages of pursuing multiple roles are likely
1999). Faced with an increasing representation to outweigh the disadvantages?an expansion
of dual-earner partners and single parents in ist hypothesis (Barnett & Baruch, 1985). However,
the workforce, a blurring of gender roles, and a much of the research on the work-family inter
shift in employee values (Greenhaus & Singh, face continues to emphasize conflict, stress, and
2004), researchers have sought to explain the impaired well-being.
numerous ways in which work and family roles Recognizing the preoccupation with conflict
are interdependent (Barnett, 1998, 1999; Edwards and stress, in several recent reviews, research
& Rothbard, 2000; Lambert, 1990; Repetti, 1987). ers have called for a more balanced approach
Our purpose in this article is to present a theory that recognizes the positive effects of combining
of work-family enrichment that specifies the work and family roles (Barnett, 1998; Frone, 2003;
conditions under which work and family roles Greenhaus & Parasuraman, 1999), and Grzywacz
are "allies" rather than "enemies" (Friedman & (2002) has recently proposed one theory of
Greenhaus, 2000). the positive interdependencies between work
As many scholars have observed, the work and family roles. Indeed, researchers have
family literature has been dominated by a con increasingly examined positive relationships
flict perspective (Barnett, 1998; Greenhaus & between work and family lives, employing such
Parasuraman, 1999; Haas, 1999). Derived from a concepts as enrichment (Kirchmeyer, 1992a;
scarcity hypothesis that assumes a fixed Rothbard, 2001), positive spillover (Crouter,
amount of time and human energy, proponents 1984b; Grzywacz, 2000; Grzywacz, Almeida, &
of the conflict perspective assume that individ McDonald, 2002; Grzywacz & Marks, 2000a,b;
uals who participate in multiple roles (such as Hammer et al., 2002; Hanson, Colton, & Hammer,
work and family) inevitably experience conflict 2003; Kirchmeyer, 1992b, 1993, 1995; Stephens,
Franks, & Atienza, 1997; Sumer & Knight, 2001;
We appreciate the many helpful suggestions by former Voydanoff, 2001), enhancement (Ruderman,
associate editor Elizabeth A. Mannix and three anonymous Ohlott, Panzer, & King, 2002; Tiedje et al., 1990),
reviewers. We are also grateful for the valuable comments and facilitation (Frone, 2003; Tompson & Werner,
made by Dona DeCarolis and John Schaubroeck of Drexel 1997; Wayne, Musisca, & Fleeson, 2004). The in
University and scholars at The Pennsylvania State Univer
creased emphasis on positive interdependen
sity (Jeannette Cleveland, Nan Crouter, Bob Drago, and John
O'Neill) and Cornell University (Phyllis Moen, Pamela Tal cies between work life and family life is consis
bot, and Monique Valcour), where the first author discussed tent with emerging trends in psychology
an early version of the work-family enrichment model. (Seligman, 2002), organizational behavior
72
 2006 Greenhaus and Powell 73

(Luthans, 2002), and family studies (Patterson, omy (Sieber, 1974). Individuals who accumulate
2002) that focus on strengths rather than weak roles may compensate for failure in one role by
nesses?on health rather than illness?in un falling back on gratification in another role
derstanding the potential of individuals and so (Sieber, 1974).
cial systems. However, the absence of a Third, experiences in one role can produce
comprehensive theoretical framework in which positive experiences and outcomes in the other
to examine the positive effects of combining role. This mechanism differs from the two previ
work and family roles (Frone, 2003) has hindered ous mechanisms because it represents a trans
research in this area. fer of positive experiences from one role to the
other role. Marks (1977) has argued that partici
ROLE ACCUMULATION AND WORK-FAMILY pation in some roles creates energy that can be
ENRICHMENT used to enhance experiences in other roles.
Sieber (1974) has proposed that resources ac
There are three ways in which participation in quired in one role as a by-product of social re
multiple roles?often referred to as role accu lationships (e.g., recommendations to third par
mulation?can produce positive outcomes for ties, connections, inside tips) may be reinvested
individuals (Voydanoff, 2001). First, work experi in other roles. Also, as individuals accumulate a
ences and family experiences can have additive variety of roles, their personalities may be en
effects on well-being. Research has consistently hanced as they learn to be tolerant of discrepant
demonstrated that role accumulation can have views and flexible in adjusting to the demands
beneficial effects on physical and psychological of diverse role senders; they may then benefit
well-being (Barnett & Hyde, 2001), especially from their expanded personalities in all roles
when the roles are of high quality (Perry (Sieber, 1974).
Jenkins, Repetti, & Crouter, 2000). In addition, For example, a manager reported how her per
satisfaction with work and satisfaction with sonal life enhanced her professional life: "I
family have been found to have additive effects think being a mother and having patience and
on an individual's happiness, life satisfaction, watching someone else grow has made me a
and perceived quality of life (Rice, Frone, & Mc better manager. I am better able to be patient
Farlin, 1992; Rice, McFarlin, Hunt, & Near, 1985). with other people and let them grow and de
Such research suggests that individuals who velop in a way that is good for them" (Ruderman
participate in?and are satisfied with?work et al., 2002: 373). A factory worker in a participa
and family roles experience greater well-being tive work system explained how work experi
than those who participate in only one of the ences benefited his family life: "I have a 16-year
roles or who are dissatisfied with one or more of old son and I use some of the things we do at
their roles. work with him instead of yelling. We listen bet
Second, participation in both work and family ter here, we let people tell their side" (Crouter,
roles can buffer individuals from distress in one 1984a: 81).
of the roles. For example, research has shown We believe that this third mechanism best
that the relationship between family Stressors captures the concept of work-family enrichment,
and impaired well-being is weaker for individ which we define as the extent to which experi
uals who have more satisfying, high-quality ences in one role improve the quality of life in
work experiences (Barnett, Marshall, & Sayer, the other role. We consider work-family enrich
1992; Voydanoff & Donnelly, 1999). In a similar ment, like work-family conflict, to be bidirec
vein, the relationship between work stress and tional. Work-to-family enrichment occurs when
impaired well-being is attenuated for individu work experiences improve the quality of family
als who have a more satisfying, high-quality life, and family-to-work enrichment occurs when
family life (Barnett, Marshall, & Pleck, 1992). family experiences improve the quality of work
These moderator effects suggest that a diverse life.
portfolio of social roles buffers an individual Although our focus is on work-family enrich
from distress stemming from one particular role, ment, we do not mean to suggest that the addi
much like a diverse financial portfolio protects tive and buffering effects of role participation
an individual's financial well-being from de are unimportant. These effects pertain to how
clining performance in one segment of the econ work and family experiences enhance overall
 74 Academy of Management Review January

well-being or reduce deteriorations in overall roles (parenting, community, recreational ac

well-being, rather than how they enrich each ities) on their work or on their overall lives.
other. In this article we first review prior cause some of Sieber's rewards reflect addi
research on work-family enrichment. We then (role privileges) and buffering (overall status
propose a theoretical model of work-family curity) effects, not all of Kirchmeyer's item
enrichment and present a series of research sessed what we would consider work-family
propositions based on the model. Our model richment. Grzywacz and his colleagu
goes beyond descriptions of the enrichment pro assessed enrichment with six items, three
cess by Sieber (1974) and Marks (1977) by incor sessing work-to-family enrichment and three
porating a wider range of resources generated sessing family-to-work enrichment, wher
in one role that may be applied to another roleWayne et al.'s (2004) scale included eight ite
and proposing two different paths by which re evenly split between the two directions of
sources from one role may be applied to another.richment. All of these items, as well as H
Finally, we discuss the implications of the (2005) items, are consistent with our view
model for future research on the enrichment pro work-family enrichment because they ass
cess. the positive effect of experiences in one role
experiences or outcomes in the other role. Ha
PRIOR RESEARCH ON WORK-FAMILY and colleagues (Hammer et al., 2002; H
mer
son et al., 2003) also measured both directions
ENRICHMENT
enrichment. In one study, Hanson et al. (20
Here we review two streams of research in the results of a factor analysis th
reported
which scholars have examined the positive in
distinguished two types of enrichment: (1)
terdependences between work andstrumental,
family in which skills, abilities, and val
roles. In one stream, researchers have assessed
are applied effectively in another role, and
work-family enrichment with self-report affective,
scales, in which affect or emotion is carr
over from one role to another. We return to
often examining the antecedents of enrichment.
In the second, researchers have observed posi distinction when we discuss our p
important
tive relationships between work-related posedandmodel of work-family enrichment.
Stephens
family-related variables that are consistent with et al. (1997) focused on one aspect
the occurrence of work-family enrichment.family life?caregiver responsibility for an ill
We have identified nineteen studiesdisabled
measurparent. Consistent with their definit
of enrichment, Stephens et al.'s (1997) ite
ing work-family enrichment with self-report
scales. As Table 1 shows, most researchers
measuredusedthe transfer of self-confidence or p
terms other than enrichment (e.g., positive spill
itive mood from one role to the other. Tiedje et
over) to denote the concept. All but one study
(1990) developed a nine-item work-to-family
richment scale to examine how women's r
(Ruderman et al., 2002) used fixed-response
items. Eleven studies measured both directions
tionship with their children was affected
of enrichment (work-to-family and family-to
their career or work responsibilities. Ruderm
et al. (2002;
work), seven measured only one direction, and Study 1) coded female manage
one study did not classify the direction responses
of enrich to an open-ended question ("Are th
ment. Also, fifteen of the nineteen studies as
any dimensions or aspects of your personal li
sessed work-family conflict, as well that
as work
enhance your professional life?") into
family enrichment. themes: interpersonal skills, psychological
efits, emotional support and advice, handl
Examination of the nature of the self-report
multiple tasks, personal interests and ba
items sheds light on the concept of enrichment.
Table 2 contains sample items. Kirchmeyer
ground,deand leadership. Unique among the stu
veloped fifteen items, each of whichies reviewed, Tompson and Werner's (1997)
assessed
sessed
one of Sieber's (1974) four types of rewards ofconflict and enrichment (which th
termed
role accumulation (role privileges, overall statusfacilitation) as opposite ends of the s
continuum.
security, status enhancement, personality en
hancement). In most of her studies, Kirchmeyer
The studies identified in Table 1 provide some
insight into work-family enrichment. In almost
(1992a,b, 1993, 1995) had respondents separately
assess the impact of three different every case in which a study assessed enrich
nonwork
 2006 Greenhaus and Powell 75

TABLE 1
Studies Measuring Work-Family Enrichment with Self-Report Scales

Enrichment Conflict Correlation

- Between
Enrichment
Study Name of Concept Direction Mean Direction Mean and Conf

Resource enrichment
Cohen & Kirchmeyer Nonwork to work 2.99
(1995) Nonwork to work 1.32 .06
Positive spillover
Grzywacz (2000) Work to family 2.64 Work to family 2.63 Not reported
Family to work 3.41 Family to work 2.08
Positive
Grzywacz et al. spillover
(2002) Work to family 2.62 Work to family 2.62 Not reported
Family to work 3.42 Family to work 2.10
Facilitation
Grzywacz & Bass (2003) Work to family 2.61 Work to family 2.65 Not reported
Family to work 3.42 Family to work 2.12
Positive spillover
Grzywacz & Marks (2000a)Work to family 2.64 Work to family 2.63 Not reported
Family to work 3.42 Family to work 2.08
(2000b)Work to family 2.61
Positive spillover
Grzywacz & Marks Work to family 2.65 -.02
Family to work 3.42 Family to work 2.12 -.04
Hammer et al. Positive
(2002) spillover
Wives Work to family 3.72 Work to family 2.85 -.16*
Family to work 3.94 Family to work 2.20 -.16*
Husbands Work to family 3.61 Work to family 3.03 -.02
Family to work 3.76 Family to work 2.12 -.07
Hanson et al. (2003)
Positive spillover Work to family 3.20
Family to work 3.67
Hill (2005) Facilitation Work to family 2.56 Work to family 2.98 Not reported
Family to work 2.80 Family to work 2.01
Kirchmeyer (1992a) Resource enrichmentParenting to work 3.24
Community to 3.09
work
Recreation to 3.10
work
Kirchmeyer (1992b) Positive spillover Parenting to work 3.16 Parenting to 1.78 .15
work
Community to 3.09 Community to 1.61 .19
work work
Recreation to 3.10 Recreation to 1.48 .13
work work
Kirchmeyer (1993) Positive spillover Parenting to work 3.19 Parenting to 1.98 .20*
work
Community to 3.34 Community to 1.58 .18*
work work
Recreation to 3.05 Recreation to 1.41 .35**
work work
Kirchmeyer (1995) Positive spillover Nonwork to work 3.21 Nonwork to work 1.61 .15*
Ruderman et al. (2002) Enhancement Personal to NA
professional
Stephens et al. (1997) Positive spillover Work to caregiver 3.59 Work to 2.90 .10
caregiver
Caregiver to 3.46 Caregiver to 2.46 .18
work work
Sumer & Knight (2001) Positive spillover Work to home 3.34 Work to home 2.79 .00
Home to work 3.47 Home to work 1.85 .10**
Tiedje et al. (1990) Role enhancement Work to family 3.71 Work to family 2.95 .16*
Tompson & Werner (1997) Conflict/facilitation Not differentiated .03
Wayne et al. (2004) Facilitation Work to family 2.88 Work to family 2.62 .00
Family to work 3.34 Family to work 2.08 .02

Note: To make comparisons across studies, the means on enrichment and conflict from Cohen and Kirchmeyer (1995),
Kirchmeyer (1992a,b, 1993, 1995), Stephens et al. (1997), and Sumer and Knight (2001) were converted to a 5-point scale; the
means from Hill (2005) were combined across men and women; the means from Hanson et al. (2003: Table 1) were aggregated
across instrumental and affective items; and the means and correlations from Hammer et al. (2002; Tables 1 and 2) were
averaged across Waves 1 and 2.
76
Sample Work-Family Enrichment Items
Study
Grzywacz & Marks (2000a), Wayne et al. (2004)
Hammer et al. (2002)
Hanson et al. (2003)
Hill (2005)
Kirchmeyer (1992b), Sumer & Knight (2001)
Stephens et al. (1997)
Tiedje et al. (1990)
ment and conflict, the average enrichment score
was at least as high as the average conflict
score, and generally was substantially higher.
At a minimum, this finding suggests that em
ployees perceive that their work and family
roles do enrich one another. Also, correlations
between work-family enrichment and work
family conflict generally were small. Only eight
of the twenty-one correlations reported were sta
tistically significant (three positive and five
Academy of Management Review January
TABLE 2
Work-Family Enrichment Items
Positive spillover from work to family
The things you do at work help you deal with personal and
practical issues at home.
Positive spillover from family to work
The love and respect you get at home make you feel confident
about yourself at work.
Positive spillover from work to family
Having a successful day at work puts me in a good mood to
handle my family responsibilities.
Positive spillover from family to work
No sample item given
Positive spillover from work to family
Abilities developed at work help me in my family life.
Positive spillover from family to work
Behaviors required in my family life lead to behaviors that
assist me at work.
Work-to-family facilitation
In the past three months, how often have you had more
energy to do things with your family or other important
people in your life because of your job?
Family-to-work facilitation
In the past three months, how often have you had more
energy to do your job because of your family or personal life?
Being a parent (being involved in the community, being
involved in recreation/hobby groups):
results in rewards that would be difficult to achieve
elsewhere (role privileges);
makes disappointments on the job seem easier to take
(overall status security);
gives me access to certain facts and information that can be
used at work (status enhancement); and
helps me understand the people at work better (personality
enhancement).
Positive spillover from employment role to caregiver role
Having a successful day at work puts you in a good mood to
assist your parent.
Positive spillover from caregiver roles to employment role
You have had greater confidence in yourself at work because
you have been able to handle caregiving responsibilities
well.
Role enhancement from work to family
Having a career helps me to better appreciate the time I
spend with my children.
negative), and the mean value of these twenty
one correlations was ?.02. Overall, these corre
lations suggest that work-family enrichment
and work-family conflict are unrelated and in
dependent constructs (Frone, 2003).
Regarding the directionality of enrichment,
nine of the eleven studies that assessed both
directions of enrichment found that family-to
work enrichment was substantially stronger
than work-to-family enrichment. Self-report
 2006 Greenhaus and Powell 77

studies suggest that many individuals experi much theoretical insight into the process by
ence work-family enrichment, but they do not which a full range of variables can produce
necessarily indicate the types of role experi work-family enrichment.
ences that produce positive experiences and Therefore, we turn to a second stream of re
outcomes in the other role. Although several of search in which scholars have examined relation
the studies explored antecedents of work-family ships between work-related variables and family
enrichment, such as organization support, psy related variables. Although not all of the studies
chological involvement in work, and personality were designed to examine work-family enrich
or interpersonal style (Cohen & Kirchmeyer, ment, they often have shown positive relation
1995; Grzywacz et al., 2002; Grzywacz & Marks, ships between experiences or outcomes in one
2000b; Kirchmeyer, 1992b, 1993, 1995; Stephens et role and experiences or outcomes in the other role.
al., 1997; Sumer & Knight, 2001; Tiedje et al, 1990; Tables 3 and 4 provide a representative sampling
Wayne et al., 2004), the findings do not provide of these findings. In Table 3 work-related factors

TABLE 3
Studies Examining Relationships Between Work-Related Independent Variables and Family
Related Dependent Variables
Work-Related Independent Family-Related Dependent
Variable Variable Support for Relationships

Income Marital quality and stability, Barnett & Hyde (2001), Friedman & Greenhaus (2000),
parental time with Haas (1999), Voydanoff (2001)
children, children's health,
satisfaction with child

Job scope/discretion/complexity Marital quality, stimulating Friedman & Greenhaus (2000), Haas (1999), Perry
and warm parenting Jenkins et al. (2000), Voydanoff (2001)
(women), valuing self
direction in children,
positive parenting and
home environment, quality
of parent-child interaction,
physically and
emotionally healthy
children, satisfaction with
child care (women),
children's reading skills
(women)
Supportive and flexible work Time spent on home and Friedman & Greenhaus (2000), Frone et al. (1997);
environment children, quality of Haas (1999), Parasuraman et al. (1996), Voydanoff
interaction with infants (2001)
(men), performance,
satisfaction, and well
being in family domain
Networking in the organization and Children's physical health Friedman & Greenhaus (2000)
acceptance by peers and school performance
(women), satisfaction with
child care (women), family
satisfaction
Job performance Performance as parent Friedman & Greenhaus (2000)
Work engagement Family engagement (men) Rothbard (2001)
Work satisfaction Family satisfaction, positive Barling (1986), Friedman & Greenhaus (2000),
parenting, good Greenhaus & Parasuraman (1999), Stewart &
relationship with children Barling (1996)
(women), children's
emotional health,
children's school
performance (women)
78 Academy of Management Review January

TABLE 4
Studies Examining Relationships Between Family-Related Independent Variables and
Work-Related Dependent Variables
Family-Related Independent Variable Work-Related Dependent Variable Support for Relationships

Marriage Income, organizational level, advancement,
work satisfaction (all primarily men)
Presence of children Income and work satisfaction (men)
Support from family Income, positive work attitudes and
satisfaction, job scope, career
development activities, acceptance at
work
Family engagement Work engagement (women)
Bretz & Judge (1994), Friedman &
Greenhaus (2000), Jacobs
(1992), Judge & Bretz (1994),
Landau & Arthur (1992),
Melamed (1996), Pfeffer & Ross
(1982), Schneer & Reitman
(1993)
Friedman & Greenhaus (2000),
Landau & Arthur (1992)
Adams et al. (1996), Friedman &
Greenhaus (2000), Frone et al.
(1997), Voydanoff (2001)
Rothbard (2001)

are presented as independent variables and fam
ily factors as dependent variables. In Table 4 fam
ily factors are presented as independent variables
and work factors as dependent variables. Given
the cross-sectional nature of much of this re
search, the specification of a variable as indepen
dent or dependent is somewhat speculative. Nev
ertheless, we organize the findings in this manner
to illustrate the potential for experiences in one
role to have a positive effect on experiences or
outcomes in the other role.
As seen in Table 3, income derived from work
has been found to be positively related to several
indicators of marital quality and well-being (Bar
nett & Hyde, 2001; Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000;
Haas, 1999; Voydanoff, 2001). Moreover, a support
ive and flexible work environment has been asso
ciated with positive behaviors and outcomes in
the family domain (Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000;
Frone, Yardley, & Markel, 1997; Haas, 1999; Para
suraman, Purohit, Godshalk, & Beutell, 1996; Voy
danoff, 2001). Substantial evidence links job con
tent (job scope, discretion, or complexity) with a
positive home environment, marriage, child
rearing practices, and child outcomes (Friedman
& Greenhaus, 2000; Grimm-Thomas & Perry
Jenkins, 1994; Haas, 1999; Perry-Jenkins et al., 2000;
Voydanoff, 2001). Networking activities and accep
tance by peers have been related positively to
child-related outcomes, especially for women
(Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000). In one of the few
studies designed explicitly to test an enrichment
perspective, Rothbard (2001) found that psycholog
ical engagement (attention and absorption) in
work was positively related to positive affect at
work, which, in turn, was related to men's psycho
logical engagement in family life. The positive
impact of work-related affect on family life also
has been suggested by studies that have observed
relationships of work satisfaction with family sat
isfaction, positive parenting, or positive child out
comes (Barling, 1986; Friedman & Greenhaus,
2000; Greenhaus & Parasuraman, 1999; Stewart &
Barling, 1996).
As seen in Table 4, positive relationships have
been observed between social support received
from a family member and career success, career
development, or satisfaction at work (Adams,
King, & King, 1996; Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000;
Frone et al., 1997; Voydanoff, 2001). Also, marriage
and the presence of children have been found to
be positively related to three widely used indica
tors of career success?income, advancement, and
satisfaction?but primarily for men (Bretz & Judge,
1994; Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000; Jacobs, 1992;
Judge & Bretz, 1994; Landau & Arthur, 1992; Mel
amed, 1996; Pfeffer & Ross, 1982; Schneer & Reit
man, 1993). In light of these findings, it is notewor
thy that psychological engagement in family life
has been associated with work engagement only
for women (Rothbard, 2001).
Taken together, the studies assessing work
family enrichment with self-report scales and
the studies observing positive relationships be
tween work and family variables lend support to
the notion that work experiences can enrich
 2006 Greenhaus and Powell 79

family life and that family experiences can en
rich work life. However suggestive these find
ings are, we still do not understand the process
by which certain role experiences enhance ex
periences and outcomes in the other domain. For
example, why is a complex, challenging job as
sociated with positive parenting and marital
quality? How does a supportive work or family
environment enhance the quality of life in the
other role? With few exceptions (e.g., Grimm
Thomas & Perry-Jenkins, 1994; Rothbard, 2001),
researchers have not systematically examined
the factors that might mediate or moderate pos
itive cross-role relationships.
Accordingly, we have developed a theoretical
model of the work-family enrichment process to
offer a more complete understanding of positive
work-family linkages, to place prior research in
a larger context, and to guide future research in
the area. This model builds on early writings on
the subject (Marks, 1977; Sieber, 1974) and on the
two streams of empirical research reviewed. The
model goes beyond the prior literature by (1)
identifying five types of work and family re
sources that have the capacity to promote work
family enrichment, (2) specifying two mecha
nisms or paths by which these resources can
promote work-family enrichment, and (3) propos
ing several moderator variables that determine
the conditions under which resources in one role
are most likely to enrich the quality of life in the
other role.
THEORETICAL MODEL OF WORK-FAMILY
ENRICHMENT
Figure 1 illustrates how experiences in Role A
(work or family) can improve the quality of life in

FIGURE 1
Model of Work-Family Enrichment

Moderators of the instrumental path:

Salience of Role B
Perceived relevance of resource to Role B
Consistency of resource with requirements and norms of Role B

Resources generated in Role A: High performance High performance

in Role A in Role B

Skills and perspectives

Psychological and physical

resources

Social-capital resources

Flexibility
Positive affect Positive affect
Material resources in Role A in Role B

Moderator of the affective path: salience of Role B

 80 Academy of Management Review January

Role B (family or work). We consider quality of Role experiences also provide resources
life as having two components: high perfor through the acquisition of social capital: "the
mance and positive affect. We propose that the goodwill that is engendered by the fabric of
resources generated in Role A can promote high social relations and that can be mobilized to
performance and positive affect in Role B and facilitate action" (Adler & Kwon, 2002: 17). The
that the extent to which a resource heightens two social-capital resources included in our
performance and positive affect is moderated by model?influence and information?are derived
the salience of Role B, the perceived relevance from interpersonal relationships in work and
of the resource to Role B, and the consistency of family roles that may assist individuals in
the resource with the requirements and norms of achieving their goals.
Role B.
Flexibility in our model refers to discretion
A resource is an asset that may be drawn on
to determine the timing, pace, and location at
when needed to solve a problem or cope with a
which role requirements are met. This has
challenging situation. The generation of re
sources is a crucial driver of the enrichment been recognized frequently in the work-family
process (Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000; Green literature as a potent resource (Friedman &
Greenhaus, 2000; Miller, 1997; Thomas & Gan
haus & Parasuraman, 1999; Grzywacz, 2002), and
it is likely that role characteristics and personal ster, 1995; Thompson, Beauvais, & Lyness,
characteristics determine the extent to which 1999).
role participation produces resources. However, Finally, material resources include money and
because our focus is on cross-role relationships, gifts obtained from work and family roles.
a discussion of the factors that generate re It should be noted that many of the resources
sources is beyond the scope of the present arti generated by role experiences are interdepen
cle. dent. For example, the availability of personal
Figure 1 identifies five types of resources that resources, such as skills and information, can
can be generated in a role: skills and perspec enhance self-efficacy (Gist & Mitchell, 1992) and
tives, psychological and physical resources, can facilitate the acquisition of social capital
social-capital resources, flexibility, and mate (Friedman & Krackhardt, 1997). Moreover, hardi
rial resources. As the name implies, skills and ness, a psychological resource, can promote ef
perspectives has two components. Skills refer to fective coping skills (Kobasa, 1982) and physical
a broad set of task-related cognitive and inter health (Wiebe & McCallum, 1986). As a result of
personal skills, coping skills, multitasking these interdependencies, the acquisition of one
skills, and knowledge and wisdom derived from resource can trigger the acquisition of other re
role experiences (Bauer, Morrison, & Callister, sources.
1998; Holman & Wall, 2002; McCauley, Ruder The model specifies two mechanisms or pat
man, Ohlott, & Morrow, 1994; Ruderman et al.,
by which a resource generated in Role A
2002). Perspectives involve ways of perceiving or
promote high performance and positive affec
handling situations, such as respecting individ Role B. First, a resource can be transferre
ual differences (Ruderman et al., 2002), valuing
rectly from Role A to Role B, thereby enhan
differences in cultural background (Cox, 1993),
performance in Role B. Consistent with Hans
being understanding of other people's problems
et al. (2003), we refer to this mechanism as t
(Crouter, 1984b), and learning the value of trust
(Crouter, 1984a); in short, work and family expe
instrumental path, because the application
resource has a direct instrumental effect on
riences can expand one's "world view" (Kanter,
1977). formance in another role. Second, a resou
Psychological and physical resources include generated in Role A can promote positive aff
positive self-evaluations, such as self-efficacy within Role A, which, in turn, produces
(Bandura, 1997; Gist & Mitchell, 1992) and self performance and positive affect in Role B
esteem (Brockner, 1988). These resources also cause this process operates through positiv
include personal hardiness (Blaney & Ganellen, fect, we refer to this mechanism as the affec
1990; Kobasa, 1979), positive emotions about the path (Hanson et al., 2003). In the following
future, such as optimism and hope (Seligman, tions we discuss the instrumental path and t
1991, 2002), and physical health. affective path, respectively.
 2006 Greenhaus and Powell 81
The Instrumental Path to Work-Family
Enrichment
In this path, different types of resources are
directly transferred from Role A to Role B, im
proving performance in the latter role (arrow 1 in
Figure 1). The literature suggests that skills and
perspectives are transferred from one role to
another (Crouter, 1984b; Kanter, 1977; Pi
otrkowski, Rapoport, & Rapoport, 1987; Repetti,
1987), either directly or mediated by general
knowledge structures (Edwards & Rothbard,
2000). Supporting empirical evidence comes
from two sources: self-reports and cross-role re
lationships. Ruderman et al.'s (2002) female
managers reported how a variety of qualities
derived from their personal life (e.g., interper
sonal skills, ability to multitask, respect for in
dividual differences) enhanced their manage
rial effectiveness, a finding that is consistent
with reports from McCall, Lombardo, and Morri
son's (1988) male executives. The use of active
listening by one of Crouter's (1984a) respondents
cited earlier suggests that perspectives and
skills nurtured at work can improve one's par
enting behavior.
Correlational findings, although potentially
vulnerable to the threat of confounding vari
ables, are also consistent with the transfer of
skills and perspectives. For example, the posi
tive relationship between job complexity and
positive parenting (Haas, 1999; Perry-Jenkins et
al., 2000) may reflect the impact of complex jobs
on the development of leadership skills (McCau
ley et al., 1994) that are applied, in turn, to par
ent-child interactions. Moreover, parents who
hold jobs with opportunities for self-direction
tend to value self-direction in their children
(Haas, 1999), suggesting that a perspective (the
importance of self-direction for personal devel
opment) can be transferred from the work do
main to the family domain.
Psychological and physical resources devel
oped or nurtured in one role can increase per
formance in another role, as suggested by a
blend of self-report and correlational findings. It
is likely that self-esteem, self-efficacy, and self
confidence enhance performance in another role
because they stimulate motivation, effort, per
sistence, and goal setting (DiPaula & Campbell,
2002; Erez & Judge, 2001; Judge & Bono, 2001;
Murray, Holmes, & Griffin, 2000; Murray, Holmes,
MacDonald, & Ellsworth, 1998; Wood & Bandura,
1989). For example, 23 percent of Ruderman et
al.'s (2002) female managers reported that psy
chological benefits of their personal lives, such
as self-esteem and confidence, enhanced their
managerial effectiveness. Grimm-Thomas and
Perry-Jenkins (1994) found that the effect of job
complexity on positive parenting behavior was
mediated by self-esteem, suggesting that self
esteem derived from experiences in one role can
increase performance in another role. Because
high performance enhances self-efficacy (Ban
dura, 1997), the positive relationship observed
between job performance and parental perfor
mance (Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000) may re
flect causal linkages among job performance,
self-efficacy, and performance as a parent. Sim
ilarly, the positive relationship between spousal
support and career success (Friedman & Green
haus, 2000) may be due to the self-esteem de
rived from emotional support (House, 1981).
The positive emotions of optimism and hope
nurtured in Role A can promote effective perfor
mance in Role B by increasing persistence and
resilience in the face of failure and challenge
(Seligman, 1991, 2002). Hardiness has been asso
ciated with effective coping, which can promote
positive outcomes (Blaney & Ganellen, 1990).
Physical health is likely to provide energy, men
tal sharpness, and stamina, promoting high role
performance, whereas the costs of poor health
are seen in lost time (e.g., work absenteeism)
and diminished role performance (Cartwright &
Cooper, 1997).
Individuals may apply information acquired
as a result of social capital in one role to solve
problems in another role. For example, informa
tion provided by a corporate-sponsored elder
care resource service can help an employee
solve problems related to the care of an elderly
or ill relative. In a similar manner, information
provided by an employee's spouse may be use
fully applied by the employee to his or her ca
reer (Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000). Work con
tacts can exert influence to enhance one's
family life, such as when a powerful colleague
uses his or her clout to help one's child gain
admission to a highly selective college. Con
versely, family contacts can use their influence
to help an individual compete successfully for a
promotion, get a bank loan to open up a new
business, or gain admission to a social club that
provides exposure to potential sponsors of one's
career. The relationships of networking and ac
 82 Academy of Management Review January
ceptance at work with positive family outcomes
(Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000) and the relation
ship of family support with positive career out
comes (Adams et al., 1996; Friedman & Green
haus, 2000; Frone et al., 1997; Voydanoff, 2001)
are also consistent with the notion that informa
tion and/or influence derived from social capital
in one role can enhance performance in another
role.
Flexibility within the work role enables an
individual to devote more time to family respon
sibilities (Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000), thereby
enhancing the individual's performance in the
family role. The negative relationships of flexi
ble work arrangements, family-supportive orga
nizational cultures, and supportive supervision
with work-family conflict (Allen, 2001; Thomas &
Ganster, 1995; Thompson et al., 1999) also sug
gest that workplace flexibility permits an indi
vidual to participate more fully in family life.
Moreover, individuals who experience flexibil
ity in their family responsibility because their
spouses spend extended time on child care ac
tivities make fewer adjustments to their work
schedule for family reasons and perform more
effectively on the job (Friedman & Greenhaus,
2000).
Material resources gathered in one role, work
or family, can also promote performance in the
other role. Money derived from employment can
be used to enhance the quality of family life
through the purchase of goods and services that
make family life easier or more enjoyable
(Miller, 1997). Income's positive relationship
with marital stability and quality (Barnett &
Hyde, 2001; Haas, 1999; Voydanoff, 2001), along
with children's health and the adequacy of their
child care (Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000), re
flects the utilization of money to better one's
family life. Similarly, financial resources ac
quired within the family role (e.g., gifts, no
interest loans, inheritance) can be used to start,
promote, or upgrade a business venture; partic
ipate in activities that provide business con
tacts; or invest in career-enhancing education.
The findings cited in this section are consis
tent with an instrumental path toward work
family enrichment. Therefore, we offer the fol
lowing proposition:
Proposition 1: Skills and perspectives,
psychological and physical resources,
social-capital resources, flexibility.
and material resources generated in
Role A directly promote high perfor
mance in Role B.
The Affective Path to Work-Family Enrichment
MacDermid, Seery, and Weiss (2002) have ob
served that most theoretical perspectives under
play the importance of emotion at the work
family interface. Their conclusion seems
especially relevant to the positive interdepen
dencies between work and family roles; an af
fective path as well as an instrumental path
may promote work-family enrichment. Affect
consists of moods?generalized affective states
not associated with a specific stimulus?and
emotions?more intense discrete states, such as
anger or elation, that are linked to specific
events (Brief & Weiss, 2002; Weiss & Cropan
zano, 1996). In our model of work-family enrich
ment, we do not distinguish between these two
components of affect. Instead, we view positive
affect as including positive moods and positive
emotions derived from role experiences.
We suggest that when individuals receive ex
tensive resources from a role, their positive af
fect in that role is increased, which, in turn,
facilitates their functioning in the other role.
Therefore, there are two components of the af
fective path to enrichment: (1) the effect of re
sources on positive affect in a role and (2) the
effect of positive affect in a role on functioning
in the other role. We discuss these two compo
nents in turn.
There are two ways in which resources gen
erated in Role A can produce positive affect in
Role A. First, some of the resources in the model
can have direct effects on positive affect in Role
A (arrow 2). For example, psychological re
sources such as self-esteem, optimism, hope,
and hardiness derived from a role can trigger a
positive mood, positive emotions, or satisfaction
with that role (Isen & Baron, 1991). Additionally,
the accumulation of social resources at work is
associated with positive feelings about one's
career (Seibert, Kraimer, & Liden, 2001), as is the
degree of flexibility and support in the work
place (Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000). Financial
rewards from work are related to positive feel
ings about one's career (Judge, Cable, Boudreau,
& Bretz, 1995), and total family income promotes
marital stability (Haas, 1999).
 2006 Greenhaus and Powell 83

Second, resources generated in Role A can which is more likely to stimulate positive inter
promote high performance in Role A (arrow 3), actions than a more self-focused orientation, of
which, in turn, enhances positive affect in that ten associated with negative affect. Third, con
role (arrow 4). In our discussion of the instrumen sistent with Marks (1977), positive affect can
tal path, we focused on how performance in one expand one's level of energy, thereby increasing
role can be enhanced through the transfer of the likelihood of being highly engaged in an
resources generated in another role. These very other role. Rothbard (2001) provides partial sup
same resources can also promote within-role port for her predictions, finding that positive
performance. For example, work-derived self affect at work triggers high attention in the fam
esteem (Korman, 1976), skill development (Mc ily role (for men) and that positive affect within
Call et al., 1988), and social resources (Seibert et the family stimulates absorption with work (for
al., 2001) can promote job performance or suc women).
cess; information acquired from a mentor can be
Proposition 3: Positive affect in Role A
used to make a significant contribution on a
promotes high performance in Role B.
visible work assignment; and material re
sources obtained from an inheritance can be Propositions 2 and 3 collectively capture the
used to support family travel. In turn, since most affective path to work-family enrichment. An im
individuals like to do something well rather portant distinction between the instrumental
than poorly, the consequences of performing path and the affective path is the mechanism by
well in a role are likely to be reflected in in which resources derived from one role enhance
creased positive affect (Judge, Thoreson, Bono, & functioning in the other role. In the instrumental
Patton, 2001). path, resources in Role A have direct effects on
In sum, resources derived from Role A can performance in Role B, whereas in the affective
either have a direct effect on positive affect in path, resources in Role A have indirect effects on
that role or can have an indirect effect through performance in Role B through positive affect in
high performance. Role A. It should be noted that both paths can
ultimately promote positive affect in Role B be
Proposition 2: Skills and perspectives,
cause of the effect of performance in Role B on
psychological and physical resources,
positive affect in that role (arrow 6).
social-capital resources, flexibility,
and material resources generated in
Role A produce positive affect in Role Moderators of the Instrumental Path
A.
The instrumental path requires that a re
The second component of the affective path source generated in Role A be applied to Role B
represents the facilitating effect of positive af and that the application of the resource lead to
fect in Role A on performance in Role B (arrow 5). high performance in Role B. With the exception
In their discussion of mood spillover, Edwards of psychological and physical resources, we as
and Rothbard (2000) propose that a positive sume that the decision to apply a resource from
mood in one role can enhance cognitive func one role to another is intentional (Edwards &
tioning, task and interpersonal activity, and per Rothbard, 2000). For example, the use of informa
sistence in another role, thereby increasing per tion from a coworker to solve a family problem,
formance and rewards and promoting a positive the use of an influential relative to gain advan
mood in the second role. tage in a job search, the use of a bonus as a
Rothbard (2001) offers three explanations for down payment on a summer home, the use of
the effect of positive affect in one role on en flexibility in the work schedule to spend more
gagement (attention and absorption) in another time with a spouse or children, and the use of a
role, which can ultimately produce high perfor job-related skill to interact more effectively with
mance in the latter role (Kahn, 1992). First, be family members are intentional decisions to in
cause positive affect is related to benevolence vest resources acquired in one role in another
and helping behavior (Isen & Baron, 1991), it can role. The application of psychological and phys
increase one's psychological availability to en ical resources does not appear to be intentional,
gage in another role. Second, positive affect is because individuals do not necessarily make a
associated with an outward focus of attention, conscious decision to apply high self-esteem,
 84 Academy of Management Review January

hardiness, optimism, or physical health to situ
ational demands.
Expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964) can help ex
plain the likelihood that an individual will
transfer skills and perspectives, social-capital
resources, flexibility, and material resources
across roles. According to expectancy theory, an
individual is most likely to engage in a behavior
when the potential outcome of the behavior is
highly valued and when engaging in the behav
ior is thought to lead to the attainment of the
outcome. In the instrumental path, the behavior The perceived relevance of a particular skill or
in question is the application of a resource to perspective is likely to be stronger when there is
Role B, and the outcome is high performance in
Role B.
We suggest that high performance in Role B is
most valued when the role is highly salient to
the individual. According to social identity the
ory, social roles form the basis of a person's
sense of self or identity (Burke, 1991; Frone, Rus one role and the requirements of the other role.
sell, & Cooper, 1995; Tajfel & Turner, 1986). Indi For example, a parent who sees her work and
viduals who participate in different social roles
have a variety of social identities that provide
meaning and purpose in life. However, social
identities are often organized in a hierarchy of
salience or subjective importance such that
some roles are more central than others in one's
self-concept (Thoits, 1991). Achieving high per
formance in a highly salient role is more likely
to enhance well-being than achieving high per
formance in a less salient role, because salient
role identities provide greater meaning and pur
pose (Thoits, 1991). The more salient a role is to
an individual, the more time and emotion the
individual invests in the role (Burke & Reitzes,
1991; Lobel, 1991; Lobel & St. Clair, 1992; Stryker
& Serpe, 1994). Therefore, individuals intention
ally apply resources to a salient role because
they place a high value on performing well in a
role that is central to their self-concept. Con
versely, individuals make less deliberate effort
to apply resources to a role that is not a signif
icant source of self-identity.
Proposition 4: Skills and perspectives,
social-capital resources, flexibility,
and material resources generated in
Role A are more likely to directly pro
mote high performance in Role B
when Role B is highly salient than
when it is not highly salient.
Consistent with expectancy theory (Vroom,
1964), we also expect that an individual is most
likely to apply a resource generated in Role A to
Role B when he or she believes that application
of the resource will have positive consequences.
Just as individuals expend effort on a job when
they believe that effort will result in high per
formance (Porter & Lawler, 1968), individuals
also transfer a resource from one role to another
when they believe that the resource can help
them achieve high performance.
The factors that affect the perceived relevance
of a resource are likely to vary across resources.
a small contrast between work and family role
identities (Ashforth, Kreiner, & F?gate, 2000).
When work and family role identities are simi
lar, individuals can express themselves in sim
ilar ways across roles and can see the connec
tion between the skill or perspective acquired in
family roles as settings in which to express nur
turance (small role identity contrast) may be
more likely to view a particular communication
style learned at work as relevant to the family
domain than a parent who sees herself as a
nurturing manager and an authoritarian parent.
The perceived relevance of information ac
quired in Role A to a situation in Role B is likely
to be influenced by the credibility of the source.
For example, a coworker's information about
available elder care options may be pursued
more vigorously if that coworker has a track
record of being knowledgeable and trustworthy.
Similarly, a family member's advice about a
work project is more likely to be sought and
applied to the project when he or she is per
ceived as more familiar with the nature of the
particular work situation.
In the case of influence and money, perceived
relevance is heightened when opportunities
arise that require the investment of social con
tacts or money and when the influence or money
is expected to enhance performance in the role.
In contrast, when Role B does not provide poten
tial opportunities (e.g., to expand a business or
to enroll a child in a high-priced day care facil
ity), or when a resource is seen as insufficient or
inappropriate, an individual is unlikely to trans
fer money or influence from one role to another.
Similarly, flexibility derived from Role A is most
likely to be seen as relevant to Role B when
there are strong expectations to participate in
 2006 Greenhaus and Powell 85
Role B from other role members or from oneself
(Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, & Rosenthal, 1964)
and when the individual perceives that the ad
ditional role participation will enable him or her
to meet role expectations. In other words, flexi
bility is most likely to be applied to another role
when time commitment to the other role is ex
pected and when it is believed that the time
commitment will promote high performance.
Proposition 5: Skills and perspectives,
social-capital resources, flexibility,
and material resources generated in
Role A are more likely to directly pro
mote high performance in Role B
when the resources are perceived to
be relevant to Role B than when they
are not perceived to be relevant to
Role B.
Propositions 4 and 5 suggest that an individ
ual is most likely to transfer a resource from
Role A to Role B when Role B is highly salient
and when the individual thinks the resource is
relevant to Role B. However, the application of
a resource does not guarantee it will promote
high performance in another role. Attainment
of high performance depends on whether the
resource is compatible with the actual de
mands of Role B.
For example, a collaborative problem-solving
skill or a team perspective fostered in the family
domain could impede rather than improve job
performance if an individual applies it to a work
environment with an aggressive-defensive cul
ture (Cooke & Szumal, 2000). Similarly, a direc
tive decision-making style developed in an au
tocratic work environment could dampen
performance in a family that values nurturance
and self-direction. Yet collaborative or directive
skills can enhance performance in a role in
which task requirements and norms are compat
ible with these approaches.
Similarly, information applied to a role may
either promote or dampen performance in the
role, depending on its compatibility with the
requirements of the role. A key determinant of
the compatibility of information is its accuracy.
Although some information that is applied to a
role may be objective (e.g., tuition charged by a
day care center), much of it is subjective (e.g.,
assessment of the quality of care the center pro
vides), taking the form of advice (e.g., "This day
care center would be an excellent choice for
your children"). Therefore, a coworker's sugges
tion to use a particular day care center may be
unhelpful if the coworker underestimates tuition
or if his or her high regard for the quality of the
facility is unjustified. In either case, the infor
mation is inconsistent with the family's require
ment for high-quality and reasonably priced
day care. As another example, a family mem
ber's advice to seek a promotion through indi
vidual accomplishments and assertive self
nomination (Gould & Penley, 1984) may backfire
in a company with a culture that encourages
team performance and discourages self-aggran
dizement.
The use of social influence to advance work or
family outcomes may also be helpful or harmful
to performance in Role B depending on the cir
cumstances. For example, although a cowork
er's attempt to influence the acceptance of one's
child into a prestigious private school could
yield a positive outcome, it could fail should the
school view the intervention as meddlesome.
Similarly, a relative's attempt to secure a job
interview for an individual could help the indi
vidual but could also backfire should the hiring
official resent the intrusion.
Even flexibility, with all of its advantages
(Friedman & Greenhaus, 2000), can have either a
negative impact or no impact on performance in
Role B if the additional time devoted to Role B is
resisted by others within the role set or is not
necessary to fulfill the requirements of the role.
For example, flexibility at work that allows an
employee to spend after-school time with a teen
age child may not enhance the employee's per
formance as a parent if the child would rather
be spending the same time in other ways.
The use of money to purchase goods or ser
vices can enhance or detract from performance
in Role B, depending on whether the goods or
services meet the requirements of the situation
and are consistent with its norms. For example,
the hiring of live-in assistance for children may
detract from family life if it produces less fre
quent or less intimate interactions between par
ents and children. In addition, the investment of
money derived from family sources to pursue an
additional degree may not improve performance
in a job with low-skill requirements or in an
organization that does not value higher educa
tion.
 86 Academy of Management Review January
Proposition 6: Skills and perspectives,
social-capital resources, flexibility,
and material resources generated in
Role A are more likely to directly pro
mote high performance in Role B
when the resources are consistent
with the requirements and norms of
Role B than when they are inconsis
tent with the requirements and norms
of Role B.
Moderator of the Affective Path
As noted earlier, the affective path has two
components: (1) resources generated in Role A
promote positive affect in Role A, and (2) positive
affect in Role A increases performance in Role B.
We believe that the second component of the
affective path is moderated by the salience of
Role B.
Recall Rothbard's (2001) three explanations for
why positive affect may influence engagement,
and ultimately performance, in another role: be
nevolence and helping behavior, an outward fo
cus, and an expansion of energy. We suggest
that the tendencies to be benevolent and to hold
an outward focus derived from Role A are more
likely to lead to positive interactions and psy
chological availability in Role B when the latter
role is highly salient to the individual, because
success and well-being are particularly mean
ingful in highly salient roles (Thoits, 1991). In
other words, general tendencies to be available,
engaged, and energetic in a role translate into
attention and absorption in another role only
when they provide a significant source of self
identity. Therefore, although positive affect de
rived from one's family (work) role may expand
the tendencies to be helpful, available, and en
ergized, these tendencies may not be applied to
a work (family) domain that is peripheral rather
than central to one's self-concept.
Proposition 7: Positive affect in Role A
is more likely to promote high perfor
mance in Role B when Role B is highly
salient than when it is not highly sa
lient.
IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH
We recommend that a comprehensive re
search program be conducted to test the validity
of the model proposed in this article. This en
tails the development and validation of new
measures and the use of a variety of methodol
ogies. We believe that there is value in continu
ing to assess work-family enrichment through
self-reports; just as we have learned a great
deal about negative relationships between work
and family from self-reports of work-family con
flict, self-reports of enrichment should provide
insights into positive relationships between
work and family. However, consistent with our
definition of enrichment, new measures are
needed to assess the extent to which each re
source included in our model (the instrumental
path) and positive affect (the affective path)
have beneficial effects on performance in the
other role. Both directions of enrichment (work to
family and family to work) should be assessed,
and perceptions of enrichment should be gath
ered from the focal person and others in the
individual's work and family environments. In
addition, a measure of global work-family en
richment should be developed to determine
which factors contribute most prominently to
overall enrichment. Furthermore, measures of
the proposed moderators (salience of each role,
perceived relevance of a resource, consistency
of each resource with the requirements and
norms of each role) should be developed or mod
ified from the existing literature.
After the necessary measures are developed
and validated, empirical testing of the model in
Figure 1 can proceed in two stages. First, the
impact of resources on performance and posi
tive affect in Role A should be determined. Sec
ond, relationships between resources and posi
tive affect in Role A and performance in Role B,
including moderating influences, should be in
vestigated. Because the testing of each stage
will require a longitudinal design, an examina
tion of the entire model in the same study will
call for data to be collected at several points in
time.
An alternative approach to testing the model
or portions of it would be to use a critical inci
dent approach (Flanagan, 1954) to examine self
reported episodes of work-family enrichment.
Individuals could be asked to think of a specific
time in their lives when their experiences in
either a work or family role enhanced their per
formance in the other role. They could then be
asked questions about the factors they perceive
as having contributed to the enrichment, includ
 2006 Greenhaus and Powell 87

ing the generation of resources and positive af Parasuraman, 1994), could serve a buffering role
fect in Role A, the positive outcomes in Role B, that protects an individual from the negative
and the proposed moderator variables. This ap consequences of a Stressor (work-family con
proach could yield insights into the enrichment flict). Further, accumulating roles (employee,
process by focusing on a specific enrichment spouse, parent, community volunteer) may have
episode as the unit of analysis. both advantages and disadvantages for individ
However, the limitations of such an approach uals (Sieber, 1974). That is, role accumulation
should not be underestimated. It would have the can provide more extensive resources to be ap
disadvantages common to all research methods plied to other roles that promote enrichment, as
that rely on retrospective accounts, particularly well as time constraints and Stressors that pro
faulty memories (Golden, 1992; Schwenk, 1985). duce conflict. Therefore, in future research
In addition, self-reports at best capture individ scholars should examine the conditions under
uals' perceptions of enrichment rather than en which role accumulation promotes enrichment
richment per se. Because self-reports of enrich to a greater versus lesser extent than it pro
ment may be biased and inaccurate, a parallel motes conflict.
line of research examining relationships of ex We also recommend further investigation of
periences and outcomes in one role with expe the role of gender in the work-family enrichment
riences and outcomes in another role should be process. Because men and women historically
vigorously pursued. Although many scholars have experienced quite different connections
have followed this strategy (see Tables 3 and 4), between work and family lives (Greenhaus &
most of their studies were not designed to test a Parasuraman, 1999), they may experience the
model of work-family enrichment and most did enrichment process differently. The limited re
not include mediating variables. The two most search on gender differences in work-to-family
notable exceptions provide insight into the role enrichment (Grzywacz & Marks, 2000b; Rothbard,
of self-esteem (Grimm-Thomas & Perry-Jenkins, 2001) and family-to-work enrichment (Kirch
1994) and positive affect (Rothbard, 2001) in meyer, 1993; Rothbard, 2001) has produced incon
work-family enrichment. Ideally, this line of re sistent results. Although these inconsistencies
search should include resources, performance, may be due to differences in conceptualizations
and positive affect in work and family roles, as of enrichment and research methodologies, they
well as moderator variables, to trace the causal highlight the need to understand whether (and,
linkages proposed in Figure 1. if so, why) men and women experience different
Researchers should continue to examine the levels of enrichment.
relationship between work-family enrichment In future research scholars should also exam
and work-family conflict. Although, as noted ine the impact of role characteristics and per
earlier, in prior research scholars have observed sonal characteristics on resource generation.
weak and inconsistent relationships between For example, the structure of a role and the
enrichment and conflict, it is possible that en presence of supportive interpersonal relation
richment derived from some of the resources in ships in a role are likely to influence the gener
our model has a different relationship with con ation of resources within the role (McCauley et
flict than enrichment derived from other re al., 1994; Morrison, 1992; Ragins & Cotton, 1999).
sources. It is also possible that instrumental en Similarly, personal characteristics, such as de
richment and affective enrichment have mographic background (Ibarra, 1993), may deter
differential relationships with conflict. More mine the extent to which the individual has ac
over, although enrichment and conflict have cess to certain resources.
been found to have different correlates (Grzy Indeed, it would be fruitful to examine the
wacz & Marks, 2000b; Stephens et al., 1997), ad impact of an individual's dispositional charac
ditional research is necessary to develop and teristics on several linkages in the work-family
test theory-driven predictions regarding these enrichment model. For example, a proactive per
differences. sonality (Seibert, Gant, & Kraimer, 1999) may be
Also, beyond simply having main effects on an important prerequisite for work-family en
role-related and global outcomes, enrichment richment, because individuals who are proac
and conflict may interact to predict outcomes. tive in their relationships may be particularly
Enrichment, like social support (Greenhaus & likely to develop skills, receive information and
 88 Academy of Management Review January

social support, seek flexibility in the time they effect of such interventions on individuals' ap
are expected to commit to role activities, and proaches to the enrichment process, as well as
apply resources generated in one role to an their success at it.
other. In addition, trait affectivity may play a The work-family interface is influenced by the
prominent role in work-family enrichment, not larger social, economic, and political context
only because it determines one's satisfaction or (Greenhaus & Parasuraman, 1999). Because
mood (Schaubroeck, Ganster, & Kemmerer, 1996; countries can vary significantly in cultural
Shaw, Duffy, Jenkins, & Gupta, 1999) but also norms and values, gender-role ideology, and
because it determines how constructively one public policy regarding work-family issues
reacts to stressful challenges in the environ (Lewis, 1997), comparative studies would be
ment (Stoeva, Chiu, & Greenhaus, 2002). In a helpful in assessing the effect of culture on en
similar vein, an individual's relationship attach richment. For example, Ashforth et al. (2000) pro
ment style (Sumer & Knight, 2001) warrants re pose that collectivism feminine, low uncertainty
search attention because the acquisition and avoidant, and/or low power distance cultures
application of resources often involve effective promote more role integration than individual
relationships with other people. istic, masculine, high uncertainty avoidant,
A boundary-crossing perspective may be fruit and/or high power distance cultures; research
fully applied to the study of work-family enrich ers should examine whether individuals in the
ment. Nippert-Eng (1995) identifies two forms of former cultures experience more work-family
"boundary work": (1) boundary placement, by enrichment than individuals in the latter cul
which one erects and maintains boundaries be tures.
tween home and work, and (2) boundary tran Finally, the concept of work-family enrich
scendence, by which one moves back and forth ment may be extended to include "work-life"
between the two roles. Ashforth et al. (2000) and enrichment, just as work-family issues more
Nippert-Eng (1995) propose a continuum of role broadly may be viewed as a subset of work-life
relationships, ranging from integration to seg issues (Lewis & Dyer, 2002). We recommend re
mentation. Two roles are integrated when the search on the ways in which experiences in
role boundaries are flexible and permeable and roles outside work and family (e.g., community
when an individual's role identities are similar volunteer) enrich or are enriched by experiences
for the two roles, whereas two roles are seg in work and family roles.
mented when the role boundaries are inflexible In conclusion, prior thought and research on
and impermeable and when there is a high con the interface between work and family suggest
trast between role identities for the two roles that participation in one role may enrich the
(Ashforth et al., 2000). In future research scholars quality of life in the other role. However, an
should examine whether individuals take less overriding theoretical model of the process by
of themselves in specific resources and positive which enrichment takes place has been lacking.
affect across rigid boundaries associated with This article proposes such a model, which may
highly segmented roles than across flexible be used as a guide for future research incorpo
boundaries associated with highly integrated rating different types of methodologies. Such re
roles. search is recommended to increase our under
The impact of organizational, family, and standing of the conditions under which work
community interventions on work-family enrich and family are allies rather than enemies.
ment also deserves research attention. Because
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Jeffrey H. Greenhaus is professor and William A. Mackie Chair in the Department of

Management at Drexel University's LeBow College of Business. He received his Ph.D.
in industrial organizational psychology from New York University. His research fo
cuses on work-family relationships and career dynamics.

Gary N. Powell is professor of management and Ackerman Scholar in the School of

Business at the University of Connecticut. He received his Ph.D. in organizational
behavior from the University of Massachusetts. His research interests include the
work-family interface and issues regarding diversity in the workplace, especially
gender-related issues.