1

Indian Society
Micro Syllabus:

Society (G.S. Paper 1):

1. Salient features of Indian Society
2. Diversity of India.
3. Role of women and women's organizations.
4. population and associated issues.
5. poverty
6. developmental issues.
7. Urbanization, their problems, and their remedies.
8. Effects of globalization on Indian society
9. Social empowerment,
10. communalism,
11. regionalism
12. secularism.

Social Justice (G.S. Paper 2):

1. Vulnerable Sections (protection and betterment):
● Welfare schemes and their performance
● Mechanisms
● Laws
● Institutions
● Bodies constituted

2. Issues on development and management of Social Sector/Services:

● Health
● Education
● Human Resources.

3. Issues:
● Poverty
● Hunger.
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PYQs:
2013
1. Discussion of the various social problems which originated out of the speedy process of
urbanization in India.
2. Critically examine the effects of globalization on the aged population in India.
3. Male membership needs to be encouraged in order to make women‟s organizations free
from gender bias. Comment.
4. The growing feeling of regionalism is an important factor in the generation of demand for a
separate state. Discuss.

2014
1. How do the Indian debates on secularism differ from the debates in the West?
2. How does patriarchy impact the position of a middle-class working woman in India?
3. The life cycle of a joint family depends on economic factors rather than social values.
Discuss.
4. Why do some of the most prosperous regions of India have an adverse sex ratio for
women? Give your arguments.

2015
1. Critically examine whether a growing population is the cause of poverty OR poverty is the
main cause of population increase in India.
2. Describe any four cultural elements of diversity in India and rate their relative significance
in building a national identity.
3. Discuss the changes in labor migration trends within and outside India in the last four
decades.
4. How do you explain the statistics that show that the sex ratio in Tribes in India is more
favorable to women than the sex ratio among Scheduled Castes?
5. Debate the issue of whether and how contemporary movements for the assertion of Dalit
identity work towards the annihilation of caste.
6. Discuss the positive and negative effects of globalization on women in India. (repeated
from 2013)

2016
1. With a brief background of the quality of urban life in India, introduce the objectives and
strategy of the “Smart City Programme.‟
2. To what extent has globalization influenced the core of cultural diversity in India? Explain.
3. Has the formation of linguistic states strengthened the cause of Indian unity?
4. Why are the tribals in India referred to as „the Scheduled Tribes‟? Indicate the major
provisions enshrined in the Constitution of India for their upliftment.
5. “An essential condition to eradicate poverty is to liberate the poor from the process of
deprivation.” Substantiate this statement with suitable examples.
6. What is the basis of regionalism? Is it that the unequal distribution of benefits of
development on a regional basis eventually promotes regionalism? Substantiate your
answer.
2017
1. What are the two major legal initiatives by the State since Independence addressing
discrimination against Scheduled Tribes (STs)?
2. In the context of the diversity of India, can it be said that the regions form cultural units
rather than States? Give reasons with examples for your viewpoint.
3. The women‟s questions arose in modern India as a part of the 19th-century social reform
movement. What are the major issues and debates concerning women in that period?
4. Distinguish between religiousness/religiosity and communalism giving one example of
how the former has transformed into the latter in independent India.
5. The spirit of tolerance and love is not only an interesting feature of Indian society from
very early times, but it is also playing an essential part in the present. Elaborate.
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2018
1. “Globalization is generally said to promote cultural homogenization but due to this cultural
specificities appear to be strengthened in Indian society.‟ Elucidate.
2. “Caste system is assuming new identities and associational forms. Hence, the caste
system cannot be eradicated in India.” Comment.
3. How is the Indian concept of secularism different from the western model of secularism?
Discuss. (repeated from 2014)
4. „Women‟s movement in India has not addressed the issues of women of lower social
strata.‟ Substantiate your view. (sort of 2017 repeated)
5. „Communalism arises either due to power struggle or relative deprivation.‟ Argue by
giving suitable illustrations.
6. „Despite the implementation of various programs for eradication of poverty by the
government in India, poverty is still existing‟. Explain by giving reasons.

2019
1. Empowering women is the key to controlling population growth”. Discuss.
2. What are the challenges to our cultural practices in the name of secularism?
3. Do we have cultural pockets of small India all over the nation? Elaborate with examples.
4. What are the continued challenges for women in India against time and space?
5. Are we losing our local identity for the global identity? Discuss. (matter of globalization)
2020
1. Has caste lost its relevance in understanding the multicultural Indian Society? Elaborate
your answer with illustrations.
2. COVID-19 pandemic accelerated class inequalities and poverty in India. Comment.
3. Do you agree that regionalism in India appears to be a consequence of rising cultural
assertiveness? Argue.
4. Are diversity and pluralism in India under threat due to globalization? Justify your answer.
5. Customs and traditions suppress reason leading to obscurantism. Do you agree?
6. How have digital initiatives in India contributed to the functioning of the education system
in the country? Elaborate on your answer.

2021
1.Examine the uniqueness of the tribal knowledge system when compared to mainstream
knowledge and cultural systems.
2. Examine the role of the “Gig Economy‟ in the process of empowerment of women in India.
3. What are the main socio-economic implications arising out of the development of IT
industries in major cities of India?
4. Discuss the main objectives of Population Education and point out the measures to
achieve them in India in detail.
5. What is Cryptocurrency? How does it affect global society? Has it been affecting Indian
society also?
6. How does Indian society maintain continuity in traditional social values? Enumerate the
changes taking place in it.

2022
1. Explore and evaluate the impact of “Work From Home‟ on family relationships.
2. How is the growth of Tier 2 cities related to the rise of a new middle class with an
emphasis on the culture of consumption?
3. Given the diversities among the tribal communities in India, in which specific contexts
should they be considered as a single category?
4. Salience of “sect” in Indian society vis-a-vis caste, region, and religion.
5. Role of Tolerance, assimilation, and Pluralism in Indian secularism.
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Salient Features of Indian Society:

❖ Caste System (Varna and Jati System):
The caste system in India is a deeply ingrained social hierarchy that classifies individuals
into groups based on their birth.
● The Varna system, consisting of Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors),
Vaishyas (merchants), and Shudras (laborers), forms the foundation.
● The Jati system further divides these groups into thousands of sub-castes, creating
a complex web of social stratification.
● This hereditary system dictates one's occupation, social status, and even marriage
partners, perpetuating inequality and discrimination.

❖ Religious Diversity: India is a tapestry of religions and faiths. Hindus form the majority,
followed by Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, and others.
● This diversity has enriched the country's cultural fabric, fostering tolerance and
coexistence among different religious communities.
● The 2011 Census data highlights the following religious demographics:
✓ Hindus: 79.8%
✓ Muslims: 14.2%
✓ Christians: 2.3%
✓ Sikhs: 1.7%
✓ Buddhists: 0.7%
✓ Jains: 0.4%

❖ Multi-Racial Society: India's vast geographical expanse has led to the coexistence of
diverse racial groups. These include the Dravidian, Indo-Aryan, Mongoloid, and Negroid
racial types, each with unique physical features.
● India's racial diversity reflects its historical interactions with neighboring regions and
the assimilation of various ethnicities over millennia.

❖ Multiple Languages: India boasts unparalleled linguistic diversity, with over 1,600
languages spoken across the country. The Indian Constitution recognizes 22 official
languages, each representing a linguistic state.
● This linguistic richness underlines India's cultural complexity and the importance of
language as a marker of regional identity.

❖ Patriarchy: Patriarchy remains a prominent feature in many parts of Indian society,

where men traditionally hold positions of power and decision-making.
Geographical Division of Patriarchal and Matriarchal Systems in India:
● Patriarchal System: Most northern states, like Haryana and Punjab, exhibit patriarchal
social structures where men typically hold dominant roles in decision-making. ✓ For
example, In Haryana, male heirs inherit ancestral property, reinforcing patriarchy.
● Matriarchal System: Kerala (Southern State): In some communities, like the Nair and
Ezhava, Kerala showcases matriarchal elements, with women having significant roles in
family matters. ✓ Here, property is often passed down through the maternal line, giving
women a central role in inheritance. ✓ The Matriarchal System can also be seen in some
North Eastern States of India, for example, Garo, Khasi and Jayatiya region of Meghalaya.

❖ Tribes, and Their Culture: India is also home to numerous indigenous tribal communities
with distinct cultures, languages, and traditions.
● These tribes have preserved their customs and social structures, showcasing the
country's cultural diversity.

❖ Family, Marriage, and Kinship:

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Family is the cornerstone of Indian society, with strong bonds among extended family
members. Marriages continue to be common, where families play a pivotal role in selecting
life partners. Kinship ties are paramount, and maintaining familial honor is of utmost
importance.

❖ Tolerance: India's history is marked by a spirit of religious and cultural tolerance.

● Different faiths and belief systems coexist peacefully, and the nation's secular ethos
is enshrined in its constitution.

❖ Rural-Urban Divide: India's demographic landscape has transformed over the years, with
a gradual shift from a predominantly rural population to an increasing urban one.
● This divide presents unique challenges and opportunities, influencing lifestyle,
employment patterns, and access to resources.

❖ Class-Based Differences: Socio-economic disparities are a glaring reality in India.

● A complex interplay of factors, including caste, education, and economic policies,
has led to significant class-based differences.

❖ Secularism: India's commitment to secularism is enshrined in its constitution, ensuring

the separation of religion from the state.
● This principle guarantees the freedom to practice and profess any religion,
promoting religious harmony and a pluralistic society.

❖ Amalgamation of Traditional Dimensions and Modernity: India's unique identity lies in

its ability to blend centuries-old traditions with modernity seamlessly.
● This amalgamation is evident in various aspects of life, from architecture and art to
cuisine and fashion, showcasing the nation's adaptability and resilience.

Marriage:
Two primary categories encompass these diverse marital arrangements ie; monogamy and
polygamy.
1. Monogamy: It represents a union where an individual has only one spouse at a given
time. Within monogamy, there are two subtypes:
a. Serial Monogamy: This permits remarriage but allows only one spouse at a time.
An example is the Khasi community, where individuals may marry multiple times
during their lifetime, but only to one spouse at a time.

b. Non-Serial Monogamy: In this form, if one spouse passes away, the surviving
spouse does not remarry. For instance, the Birhor tribal community in Chhattisgarh
adhere to this practice, reflecting their unique cultural norms.

2. Polygamy: It is the second major category, where one person may have multiple spouses
simultaneously. It includes three subtypes:
a. Polygyny: It occurs when a man marries multiple women concurrently. The Gond
community is an example of a culture that practices polygyny.

b. Polyandry: In this arrangement, one woman has multiple husbands

simultaneously. This is observed in certain societies, such as the Jaunsar tribe in
Uttarakhand, where brothers often marry the same woman.

c. Group Marriage: This form extends the concept of multiple spouses to a collective
level. For instance, the Todas of Nilgiri Hills in India engage in group marriages,
where several men and women marry within a communal framework.
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Functions of Marriage:
● Procreation / Reproductive Function: One of the primary functions of marriage is to
provide a socially recognized and stable environment for the procreation and
upbringing of children. It ensures the continuity of a society through the birth and
socialization of new generations.
● Companionship: Marriage often provides emotional and social companionship,
offering individuals a partner with whom they can share their lives, experiences, and
emotional support.
● Formation of Family: Marriage is a fundamental institution for the formation of
families. It establishes the legal and social framework within which a family unit is
created and maintained.
● Sexual Gratification: Marriage typically offers a socially accepted context for sexual
relations between partners, fulfilling physical and emotional needs.

● Cultural Function: Marriage plays a crucial role in preserving cultural traditions and
customs. Different societies have unique marriage rituals and ceremonies that reflect
their cultural values and heritage.
● Heirs or Waris (Inheritance): In many societies, marriage is a means of determining
inheritance and property rights. It ensures the orderly transfer of assets from one
generation to the next.
● Alliance or Cooperation: Marriage can serve as a means of forming alliances or
building social networks. In some cultures, marriages are arranged to strengthen
political, social, or economic ties between families or communities

Challenges of Marriage:
● Divorce: In India, the divorce rate historically remained low, at less than 1%.
However, there has been a noticeable increase in divorce rates, rising to 1.1% in
2018-19. In comparison, the United States reports a divorce rate of 46%, and
Spain's rate is even higher at 65%.
● Dowry-Related Issues: According to NCRB data, a concerning trend is the
prevalence of dowry-related issues in India. Tragically, between 2017 and 2021,
35,493 women lost their lives due to these issues, highlighting the urgent need to
address this harmful practice.
● Child Marriage: Child marriage remains a significant challenge. In 2019, data
indicated that approximately 1.5 million children are married off each year. This
practice raises serious concerns about child rights, well-being, and development.
● Domestic Violence: Domestic violence is a pressing issue affecting many
households. In 2021, 23,700 cases were registered, reflecting the extent of this
problem. Worryingly, the situation escalated in 2022, with 30,800 cases of domestic
violence reported, underscoring the urgent need for interventions and support
systems.
● Cheating in Marriage: Infidelity and open marriages are concerns within the
institution of marriage. These issues can lead to emotional distress, relationship
breakdowns, and complicated legal and emotional consequences for all parties
involved.
● Increasing Age of Marriage: An emerging concern is the increasing age of marriage,
particularly among women. Studies, such as those from Harvard University and the
University of Maryland, suggest potential health and genetic implications for children
born to older mothers, warranting further research and awareness.
● Stress: The COVID-19 pandemic placed unprecedented stress on marriages and
relationships. Lockdowns, financial strain, health concerns, and increased time spent
together challenged couples in various ways.

Family:
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Functions of a family:

Types of families:
On the basis of Marriage:
1. Monogamous 2.Polygamous : a. Polygynous b. Polyandrous
On the Basis of Authority:
● Patriarchal Family:
example: Traditional Indian families often followed a patriarchal structure, where the
father or the eldest male member was considered the head of the household and had
the final say in family matters.
● Matriarchal Family: example: Some communities in the northeastern state of
Meghalaya, like the Khasi and Garo tribes, have traditionally practiced matriarchy,
where property and lineage are passed down through the maternal line, and women
play a central role in family affairs.
On the Basis of Residence:
● Patrilocal Family: example: Many Indian families, especially in rural areas,
follow a
patrilocal residence pattern, where the newly married couple moves in with the
husband's parents.
● Matrilocal Family: example: The matrilocal residence pattern is not very
common
in traditional Indian society, but it can be found in some communities, particularly
in the northeastern states of India, where matrilineal systems are prevalent.
● Neolocal Family: Neo (New) + Local ( locality / residence ). example: With
changing social norms and urbanization, many young couples in India today choose
a neolocal residence pattern, where they live independently in their own homes.
On the Basis of Structure:
● Nuclear Family: example: In urban areas and increasingly in rural areas,
nuclear families are becoming more common due to factors like employment
opportunities, education, and the desire for greater privacy and
independence.
● Joint Family: example: Joint families have been a prominent feature of Indian
society for centuries. Many traditional Indian families still practice joint living
arrangements, where grandparents, parents, and children all reside together
and share responsibilities
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Kinship:
Features of Kinship:

Functions of kinship:

Lineage:
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❖ Lineage is a social and kinship system that traces ancestral descent through a specific line, either
patrilineal or matrilineal.
❖ There are two primary types of lineage:
● Patrilineal
● Matrilineal

Groups:
In the context of social organization and stratification, various types of groups exist,
each with its own
characteristics and significance.
● Caste:
✓ A caste is a hereditary social group in India that is traditionally associated with a specific
occupation, social status, and set of cultural norms and practices.
✓ Caste membership is typically determined at birth, and individuals are expected to marry and
socialize within their own caste.
● Class:
✓ Class refers to a system of social stratification based on economic factors, such as wealth,
income, and occupation. It divides society into different socioeconomic categories.
✓ Class is often more fluid than caste, as it is not strictly determined by birth.
✓ People can move up or down in the class hierarchy based on their economic success or setbacks.
● Varna:
✓ In ancient Indian society, varna referred to the four major social categories or classes, which
were originally based on one's occupation.
✓ The varnas are often associated with the caste system, although they are conceptually distinct.
✓ The varnas traditionally consisted of Brahmins (priests and scholars), Kshatriyas (warriors
and rulers), Vaishyas (merchants and farmers), and Shudras (laborers and servants).
✓ Additionally, there were groups outside the varna system, such as the Dalits (formerly referred to
as "Untouchables").
● Religion:
✓ Religion refers to a system of beliefs, practices, and rituals that center around the worship of
deities, spirituality, and moral values.
✓ Religion can be a significant factor in social organization and identity.
✓ Different religions have their own sets of beliefs, texts, and religious leaders. Religious groups
often form communities that share common faith and practices.
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Caste System
❖ The term "caste" itself has its roots in the Portuguese word "casta," which means "race" or
"lineage."
❖ They used the term "casta" to describe the social and racial divisions they observed in the Indian
society they encountered.
❖ Although the term "caste" has its origins in the Portuguese word "casta," the system it describes
has deep historical and cultural roots in India, predating European colonialism.
❖ The British colonial administration did influence and impact the caste system in India during their
rule, but they did not create it.

Caste is:
1. A social group.
2. Membership is confined to those who are born in this group.
3. Members are prohibited from marrying outside the group (Caste endogamy ).
4. It is hereditary in nature.

Characteristics of Caste System:

❖ Caste has a Name: Each caste in a caste system typically has a specific name, which
distinguishes it from other castes. These names often reflect the occupation or social role
associated with that caste.
❖ Segmental Division: The caste system divides society into segments or groups, with
each caste being a distinct segment. These segments are often hierarchical in nature, with
some castes considered higher or lower than others.
❖ Hierarchy: Castes in a caste system are usually arranged in a hierarchical order, with
some castes being considered higher in social status and others lower. This hierarchy can
determine access to resources, opportunities, and privileges.
❖ Restrictions on Marriages: Castes often enforce restrictions on who can marry whom.
Endogamy, the practice of marrying within one's own caste, is common, and marrying
outside one's caste can be socially unacceptable or even prohibited.
❖ Restrictions on Feeding: Some caste-based societies have dietary restrictions based on
caste. For example, certain castes may not eat food prepared by members of lower castes,
and there can be rules governing who can share meals with whom.
❖ Ascribed Status: Caste status is typically ascribed, meaning it is assigned at birth and
not achieved through individual effort or merit. One's caste is determined by their family
background and cannot be easily changed.

Factors Impacting Caste System

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❖ Constitution and Laws: The Indian Constitution, adopted in 1950, abolished

untouchability and provided for affirmative actions in the form of reservations for Scheduled
Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in education,
employment, and political representation.
❖ Urbanization: The process of urbanization has led to increased social mobility and mixing
of people from different castes in urban areas.
❖ Modernization: Modernization, including improvements in education and access to
information, has contributed to changing attitudes toward caste.
❖ Globalization: Globalization has facilitated greater intercultural and international
interactions, which can lead to reduced emphasis on caste distinctions.
❖ Sanskritisation: Sanskritization refers to the process by which lower-caste groups
emulate the customs, rituals, and practices of higher-caste groups in the pursuit of social
upward mobility. This has led to some degree of blurring of caste boundaries as lower-caste
groups adopt the cultural norms of higher castes.

❖ Industrialization and Technology Advancement: Industrialization and technological

advancements have transformed the economy and labor dynamics in India. Traditional
caste-based occupations have given way to more diverse and modern employment
opportunities, leading to changes in economic and social hierarchies.

Actions Taken to Curb Caste Discrimination:

● Legal Measures:
Protection of Civil Rights Act: This act was enacted in 1955 to provide legal
safeguards against discrimination and atrocities faced by Scheduled Castes (SCs)
and Scheduled Tribes (STs). It criminalizes various forms of caste-based
discrimination and offenses.
SC and ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act: This law, passed in 1989 and subsequently
amended, is designed to prevent and punish atrocities and violence against SCs and
STs. It provides for special courts and stricter penalties for offenders.

● Constitutional Measures:
Article 17: Article 17 of the Indian Constitution abolishes "untouchability" and forbids
its practice in any form.
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Articles 14, 15, 16, and 17: These articles of the Constitution lay down the principles
of equality, nondiscrimination, and affirmative action to promote social justice.
National Commission for SC and ST: This constitutional body was established to
monitor the implementation of safeguards and policies for the welfare of Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

● Affirmative Measures:
Reservation for SC/STs: The reservation policy in India allocates a percentage of
seats in educational institutions, government jobs, and legislative bodies to
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. This policy aims to provide opportunities
for historically marginalized communities.

● Grassroots Level Movements:

Temple Entry Movements: Various movements in different states of India fought for
the right of Scheduled Castes to enter temples and worship freely, challenging
discriminatory practices.
Justice Party: This political party in Tamil Nadu worked to address caste
discrimination and promote the interests of non-Brahmin communities.
Dalit Panther Movement: The Dalit Panther movement emerged in the 1970s and
aimed to address issues related to caste discrimination, social justice, and political
representation.

● Civil Society Movements:

Delhi Women Panchayat: This organization works towards empowering Dalit women
and addressing issues related to gender and caste-based discrimination.
National Dalit Movement for Justice: A collective effort to advocate for the rights and
well-being of Dalit people, this movement has raised awareness and campaigned
against caste discrimination.

● Media and Social Media:

→Media, both traditional and digital, have played a significant role in uncovering and
highlighting cases of caste-based discrimination and biases.
→Social media platforms provide a means for individuals and organizations to raise
awareness, share stories, and mobilize support against caste discrimination.
→Additionally, the media can influence public opinion and contribute to social change.

Future of Caste System:

● Future of the caste system will depend on the forces and changes that take place in
the society and response of the people to it.

● The trajectory of the caste system will depend on how Indian society continues to
evolve. Social, economic, and political developments will play a pivotal role in
shaping its future.

Factors Strengthening the Caste System:

● Economic Disparities: Socioeconomic disparities continue to exist along caste lines.
As long as significant economic inequality persists, the caste system may remain
entrenched, with some groups benefiting from their historical advantages.

● Political Exploitation: The caste system can be exploited for political gain, with
politicians using caste identities to mobilize voters. This can reinforce the
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significance of caste in politics.

● Social Conservatism: In some regions and communities, there is resistance to

change and a preservation of traditional caste-based norms and practices, which can
strengthen the caste system's rigidity.

Why is there a strengthening of the Caste System?

❖ Caste-Based Political Parties:The rise of political parties organized along caste lines has
played a role in reinforcing the caste system. These parties typically aim to unite specific
caste groups, advocating for their interests. Consequently, caste-based politics has gained
substantial influence in Indian electoral dynamics.

❖ Caste Identity and Politics in Candidate Selection and Voting: Caste identity significantly
influences the selection of candidates by political parties. Frequently, parties opt for candidates from
particular castes to resonate with their voter base.

❖ Caste-Based Organizations: Various caste-based organizations and associations have emerged

to advocate for the rights and interests of specific caste groups. These organizations often engage in
mobilization and activism, which can reinforce caste identities and divisions.

❖ Affirmative Actions (Reservation Policies): While affirmative action policies were

implemented to uplift marginalized communities, they can inadvertently contribute to the
perpetuation of caste identities.
❖ Caste Panchayats: Caste panchayats are informal, caste-based councils that can reinforce caste
hierarchies and exert control over individual choices, particularly in matters related to marriage and
social interactions.

❖ Caste-Based Writings: Caste-based writings, including religious texts, can perpetuate stereotypes
and norms associated with specific castes.

❖ Caste and Social Esteem: In many parts of India, social status and esteem are closely
tied to one's caste. This social hierarchy can lead to discrimination, stigmatization, and a
reinforced sense of identity within caste communities.

Factors Weakening the Caste System Rigidity and Discrimination:

● Education and Awareness: As education spreads and awareness about social issues
increases, people may be less inclined to adhere to rigid caste norms and may
challenge discriminatory practices.

● Urbanization and Modernization: Urbanization tends to blur traditional caste

distinctions as people from various backgrounds interact in more cosmopolitan
settings. This can lead to a decline in the importance of caste in daily life.

● Inter-Caste Marriages: The increasing trend of inter-caste marriages can break down
caste boundaries and promote social integration.

● Legal Reforms: Ongoing legal measures and affirmative action policies aimed at
reducing discrimination and providing opportunities for marginalized groups can
contribute to weakening the caste system.
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● Social Movements: Grassroots movements and civil society organizations continue to

advocate for social justice, equality, and the rights of historically marginalized
communities.
● Generational Shifts: Younger generations are often more progressive in their views
and may be less bound by traditional caste norms, contributing to a shift away from
the caste system's rigidity.

Population
❖ According to 2011 Census Data, the total population of India: 121 crores (or 1.21 billion).
❖ According to UNFPA’s World Population Report, the Indian population will be 1.4286 billion
which will surpass China's population of 1.4257 billion by the mid-year of 2023.

NOTE:
❖ SDG 3 (3.7): By 2030, ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive healthcare services,
including for family planning, information and education, and the integration of reproductive health
into national strategies and programmes.

Net Population Growth:

❖ Net population growth is the increase in a population's size over a specific period, considering
both births and deaths, while accounting for immigration and emigration.
❖ There are various means of net population growth like:

Growth Rate (2001-2011):

❖ Overall in India the decadal growth rate is around 17.6% in 10 years.

Factors Responsible for the Distribution of Population:

❖ Terrain: The population tends to be higher in areas with smoother terrain due to the ease
of movement and travel, while hilly regions typically have lower population densities because
the rugged terrain presents challenges for mobility and transportation.

❖ Climate: The distribution of the population is influenced by climatic factors such as

temperature.
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❖ Resources: Availability of natural resources define the distribution of population across

the world.
For example: Food, Water (these are also used for Commercial dimensions).

❖ Industries: The presence of industries and services can attract a significant workforce,
leading to urbanization and increased population in specific regions.

❖ Transport: Transportation connects people to jobs, resources, and opportunities,

influencing population distribution by enabling access to desirable locations.

❖ Urbanization: Urbanization attracts people to cities, concentrating population in urban

areas due to economic opportunities and improved living standards.

❖ Natural Disasters are also responsible for the distribution of population. Natural disasters
can disrupt communities, leading to population redistribution as people seek safer areas and
resources for recovery.

❖ Law and Order: Strong and effective law and order systems provide a sense of security,
which can encourage population growth by fostering a stable and attractive living
environment.

Underpopulation:
❖ Underpopulation occurs when the number of people in a region is significantly lower than the
area's carrying capacity or the resources available.
❖ In such areas, there may be an abundance of resources, but the population size is not sufficient to
fully utilize or benefit from them.
❖ Underpopulated regions often face challenges such as a shrinking workforce, limited economic
development, and a lack of services due to the small population.

Optimum Population:
❖ Optimum population refers to a population size that is in balance with the carrying capacity of the
land and resources available in a particular region.
❖ Achieving an optimum population is associated with sustainable resource use, higher standards of
living, and a harmonious balance between population size and available resources.

Overpopulation:
❖ Overpopulation occurs when the number of people in a region exceeds the carrying capacity or
available resources of that area.
❖ This can lead to resource depletion, environmental degradation, and challenges in meeting the
basic needs of the population.
❖ Overpopulated regions often face issues like food and water scarcity, overcrowded living
conditions, increased competition for resources, environmental pollution, and strained infrastructure
and services.

Reason for Overpopulation:

❖ Literacy, Awareness, and Education: Higher levels of education and awareness,
especially regarding family planning and reproductive health, can lead to lower birth rates.
➢ In some cases, regions with lower education levels may experience higher birth rates,
contributing to overpopulation.
 16

❖ Ideological and Religious Dimensions: Cultural and religious beliefs can influence family
size and the use of contraception.
➢ In some cultures or religious groups, there may be a preference for larger families, which can
contribute to overpopulation.
❖ Income: Income levels can impact family size. In low-income settings, families may have
more children for economic reasons, such as labor contributions or to provide security in old
age.
❖ Patriarchy: Societies with strong patriarchal norms may encourage larger families and
discourage women from making independent decisions about family planning.
❖ Contraceptive Access: Access to and availability of contraceptives play a crucial role in
family planning.
➢ Limited access to contraception can lead to unintended pregnancies and larger families,
contributing to overpopulation.
❖ Form of Employment: The type of employment available in a region can influence family size. →
In agrarian societies, for example, larger families may be seen as an asset for farming activities,
which can contribute to overpopulation.
❖ Migration: Migration patterns can impact population growth. In some cases, migration to
urban areas with better economic opportunities can lead to population concentration and
strain on urban infrastructure, contributing to overpopulation in those areas.
❖ Level of Development of Civilization: The overall level of development and
industrialization in a society can affect birth rates.
➢ More developed societies often have lower birth rates due to factors like urbanization and
changing societal norms

Problem Related to Overpopulation:

❖ Unemployment: When the population exceeds the number of available jobs, it can result
in high unemployment rates, as there are not enough employment opportunities to meet the
demand.
❖ Infrastructural Crisis: Overpopulated areas often struggle to provide adequate
infrastructure, including housing, transportation, sanitation, and utilities, leading to
overcrowding and inadequate living conditions.
❖ Poverty: Overpopulation can exacerbate poverty, as limited resources are stretched
among a larger number of people, making it difficult to meet basic needs such as food, clean
water, and shelter.
❖ Health, Nutrition, and Food Issues: Overpopulated regions may face challenges in
providing healthcare services and ensuring access to proper nutrition. Food scarcity can also
become a problem in densely populated areas.
❖ Implementation of Policies: Implementing effective policies in overpopulated regions can
be challenging, as the sheer number of people can overwhelm government resources and
institutions.
❖ Resource Crunch: Overpopulation can strain natural resources, leading to resource
depletion, water scarcity, and competition for essential resources like land and energy.
❖ Migration: Overpopulation can result in migration from densely populated areas to less
crowded regions, putting additional pressure on receiving areas and causing demographic
imbalances.
❖ Socio-Cultural Tensions: In areas with diverse populations, overpopulation can lead to
cultural and social tensions, as different groups compete for limited resources and
opportunities.
❖ Environmental Pollution: Overpopulated regions often produce more waste and pollution,
contributing to environmental degradation, air and water pollution, and other ecological
issues.

Mitigation To Overpopulation:
 17

1. Education and Awareness:

- Education Programs: Implement widespread educational programs to raise awareness
about the consequences of overpopulation and the benefits of family planning.
- Media Campaigns: Utilize various media platforms to disseminate information on family
planning, responsible parenthood, and the advantages of smaller family sizes.

2. Access to Family Planning Services:

- Healthcare Infrastructure: Strengthen healthcare facilities to ensure that family planning
services, including contraceptives, are readily available and accessible.
- Community Outreach: Conduct community-based programs to provide information and
services related to family planning, with a focus on rural areas.

3. Women's Empowerment:
- Education for Women: Promote education for women, as educated women often make
more informed decisions about family planning and have greater economic opportunities.
- Empowerment Initiatives: Implement initiatives that empower women economically and
socially, giving them more control over family planning decisions.

4. Economic Development:
- Job Creation: Encourage policies that promote economic development and job creation,
as improved economic conditions can contribute to lower birth rates.
- Poverty Alleviation: Implement strategies to alleviate poverty, as impoverished
communities often have higher birth rates due to a lack of resources and education.

5. Government Policies:
- Incentives and Disincentives: Introduce policies that provide incentives for smaller
families, such as tax benefits, and disincentives for larger families.
- Maternity and Paternity Leave: Implement policies that support work-life balance,
including maternity and paternity leave, to encourage responsible family planning.

6. Urban Planning and Infrastructure:

- Urbanization Planning: Develop urban planning strategies that accommodate population
growth without causing congestion and resource depletion.
- Infrastructure Development: Invest in infrastructure development to meet the needs of a
growing population, including housing, transportation, and sanitation.

7. Community Engagement:
- Community-Based Programs: Engage communities in the formulation and
implementation of population control programs, ensuring that strategies are culturally
sensitive and well-received.

8. Research and Monitoring:

- Continuous Monitoring: Regularly monitor population trends and adjust policies and
programs accordingly based on up-to-date research and data.

Should India implement a child-limit?

● The simple answer is: A large population does not necessarily impede economic growth.
India can use its large working population to fuel fast economic growth if the right
programmes and policies are put in place, said a 2018 paper by the UNFPA.
 18

● Even if couples in India decide to have only one or two children, India’s population will
continue to increase until 2051 as the population is young, with over 60% under the age
of 35 years.

● China’s one-child policy which led to sex-selective abortions and an aging population with
a fast-declining workforce. The skewed sex ratio also led to increased trafficking of
women and forced prostitution in China.

● It can also lead to unsafe abortions and mortality among women.

One-Child policy will not be effective in India

● People are quick to point out that India is a country with a booming technology industry,
one that relies on young people.

● There is a fear that restrictions on having children will produce a shortage of the
educated young people needed to carry on India’s technological revolution.

● There are already well-documented problems with China’s one-child policy. Worst of all,
there is a gender imbalance resulting from a strong preference for boys.

● Millions of undocumented children were also born to parents who already had one child.
These problems could come to India with the implementation of a two-child policy.

● Most importantly, there is increasing evidence that India’s birth rate is slowing down to
sustainable levels.

● In 2000, the fertility rate was still a relatively high 3.3 children per woman. By 2016, that
number had already fallen to 3 children.

● Furthermore, India’s economy was growing 6% per year in the years leading up to 2019,
more than enough to support modest population growth.

Various initiatives have been taken under the National Family Planning Program providing
broad range of services mentioned as follows:

1. New Contraceptive Choices: The current contraceptive basket comprising of

Condoms, combined oral contraceptive pills, emergency contraceptive pills,
Intrauterine contraceptive uterine device (IUCD) and sterilization has been expanded
with inclusion of two new contraceptives- Injectable contraceptive (Antara
programme) and Centchroman (Chhaya)

2. Postpartum Intrauterine contraceptive device(PPIUCD) incentive scheme under

which PPIUCD services are provided post delivery.

3. Compensation scheme for sterilization acceptors which provides compensation

for loss of wages to the beneficiary and also to the service provider and team for
conducting sterilization.

4. National Family Planning Indemnity Scheme (NFPIS) under which clients are
compensated in the eventualities of death, complication and failure following
sterilization operations.
 19

5. Family Planning Logistics Management Information System (FP-LMIS):

dedicated software has been launched to ensure smooth forecasting, procurement
and distribution of family planning commodities across all the levels of health
facilities.

6. Mission ParivarVikas: Mission ParivarVikas has been introduced for substantially

increasing access to contraceptives and family planning services in seven high focus
states having TFR of more than 3 namely Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Assam..

7. Scheme for Home Delivery of contraceptives by ASHAs at the doorstep of

beneficiaries has been taken up.

8. Scheme for provision of Pregnancy Testing Kits in the drug kits of ASHA for use in
communities.

The following schemes provide for involvement of private partnerships for provisioning of
Family Planning services:

1. Accreditation/ Empanelment of private facilities/providers: The private

facilities/providers are accredited/ empanelled through State/District Quality
Indemnity sub committee for provision of free sterilization services. The accredited
facilities are also provided indemnity coverage.

2. Clinical Outreach Teams (COT) Scheme provides for family planning services
through mobile teams from accredited organizations in far-flung, underserved and
geographically difficult areas in the seven Mission ParivarVikas States namely Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Assam.

Demographic Dividend:

❖ According to the Economic Survey (2018-19), ‘In India, 62.5% of the population lies within the
demographic dividend which will be at its peak in 2041.’

Advantage of Demographic Dividend:

❖ Increase in Economic Growth: A large working-age population can drive economic growth as more
people are available to participate in the labor force, leading to increased productivity and output.

❖ Employment Creation: The demographic dividend provides an opportunity to create more jobs,
reducing unemployment rates and providing livelihoods for a significant portion of the population.
 20

❖ Increased Per Capita Income: With more people working and contributing to the economy, there is
a potential for higher per capita income as the overall economic output is distributed among a larger
number of people.

❖ Higher GDP: The increased productivity and economic activity resulting from a large working-age
population can lead to higher Gross Domestic Product (GDP), which is a measure of a country's
economic performance.

❖ Improvement in Standard of Living: Higher incomes and increased economic growth can translate
into an improved standard of living for the population, with access to better healthcare, education,
housing, and other amenities.

❖ Poverty Reduction: As more people find employment and enjoy higher incomes, there is a potential
for a reduction in poverty rates, leading to an overall improvement in living conditions.

❖ R&D and Innovation: A young and dynamic workforce can foster research and development
(R&D) efforts and innovation, which can drive technological advancements and competitiveness on
the global stage.

Challenges of Demographic Dividend:

❖ Poverty: In some cases, a large working-age population can coexist with high levels of
poverty, especially if there are insufficient job opportunities or if the workforce lacks the
necessary skills to access higher-paying employment.

❖ Low Human Development Index (HDI): Despite a demographic advantage, a country may
still struggle with a low HDI if it fails to invest in education, healthcare, and other aspects of
human development, limiting the potential benefits of the demographic dividend.

❖ Low Skilled Workforce: A significant portion of the working-age population may lack the
skills required for modern job markets, making it challenging to create a productive and
competitive labor force.

❖Infrastructure Constraints: Insufficient infrastructure, such as transportation,

communication, and utilities, can impede economic growth and job creation, hindering the
realization of the demographic dividend.

❖ Behavioral and Ideological Factors: Sociocultural norms and beliefs can influence family
size and women's participation in the workforce. In some cases, these factors may limit the
potential of the demographic dividend.
 21

Urbanization

❖ In the context of urbanization in India, the Directorate of Census Operations is responsible for
conducting census surveys and classifying areas as urban or rural.

❖ They classify urban areas into two main types: (a) Statutory Town (b) Census town
 22

Indian Urbanization:

❖ Urbanization in India is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that has evolved over time.
Understanding its temporal dimension involves looking at the historical context and the changing
patterns of urban growth in India.

❖ Temporal Dimension: ❖ 1950 - 17% ❖ 2011 - 31% ❖ 2030 - 40%

Reasons for Urbanisation:

❖ Urbanization is driven by a variety of factors, and can be categorized into social, economic,
political, and resource-related reasons.

A. Social Reasons:

1. Marriage: People often move to urban areas after getting married to live with their
spouses, who may already be residing in cities. Urban areas tend to offer more housing
options and amenities suitable for families.
 23

2. Education: Cities usually have better educational institutions, including schools, colleges,
and universities. Parents may move to urban areas to provide their children with access to
quality education and better career opportunities.

3. Healthcare: Urban areas typically have advanced healthcare facilities, specialized medical
services, and more healthcare professionals. People may move to cities for better medical
treatment and healthcare access.

4. Housing: Urban areas offer a wider range of housing options, from apartments to single-
family homes. This can be attractive to individuals and families seeking improved living
conditions.

5. Move Away from Discrimination: Some individuals may move to urban areas to escape
discrimination based on factors like caste, religion, or ethnicity that they may face in rural
areas.

6. Lifestyle: Urban living often provides a more cosmopolitan and culturally diverse lifestyle,
attracting people seeking exposure to different cultures, cuisines, and entertainment options.

B. Economic Reasons:

1. Market: Urban areas are hubs for economic activity, including markets, businesses, and
trade. Access to a larger consumer market can encourage businesses to establish
themselves in cities.

2. Job Opportunities: Cities offer a wide range of job opportunities across various sectors,
including manufacturing, services, and technology. People often move to urban areas in
search of better employment prospects and higher wages.

3. Infrastructure: Urban areas generally have better infrastructure in terms of transportation,

communication, and utilities, which can support economic growth and productivity.

C. Political Reasons:

1. Law and Order: Some individuals may move to cities seeking improved law and order and
a sense of safety and security. Urban areas often have more robust law enforcement and
emergency response systems.

2. Justice: Access to legal services, courts, and mechanisms for seeking justice is more
readily available in urban areas. People may move to cities to pursue legal remedies or
address grievances.

D. Resource-Related Reasons:

1. Water: Access to clean and reliable water sources is often more consistent in urban
areas, making them attractive to those facing water scarcity in rural areas.

2. Industries: Urban areas tend to have a concentration of industries and manufacturing

centers, attracting labor and entrepreneurs looking to start or work in businesses.

3. Transport: Better transportation networks in urban areas, including roads, public transit,
and airports, facilitate the movement of goods and people, making urban living more
convenient.
 24

4. Services: Urban areas offer a wide range of services, including banking, legal,
entertainment, and retail, which can be limited in rural settings.

Issues and Challenges of Urbanisation:

❖ Pollution: Rapid urbanization often leads to increased air and water pollution due to
industrial activities, transportation, and the concentration of people and vehicles in cities.

❖ Waste Generation: Urban areas generate significant amounts of waste, including solid
waste and electronic waste. Proper waste management and recycling are essential to
prevent environmental degradation.

❖ Traffic Congestion: Urban areas frequently face traffic congestion and inadequate public
transportation systems, resulting in increased commute times, pollution, and stress for
residents.

❖ Congested Housing: High population density in cities can lead to housing shortages,
unaffordable housing prices, and overcrowded living conditions for many residents.

❖ Slums: Rapid urbanization often leads to the growth of informal settlements or slums
where residents live in substandard housing with limited access to basic services.

❖ Challenges to Culture: Urbanization can erode traditional cultural practices and values as
people adapt to a more cosmopolitan and fast-paced urban lifestyle.

❖ Crime and Law and Order Issues: Urban areas may experience higher crime rates due to factors
like increased population density, economic disparities, and social inequality. ➢Effective law
enforcement and crime prevention measures are crucial.

❖ Unemployment and Poverty: While cities offer economic opportunities, they can also have
a higher cost of living. This can lead to urban poverty and unemployment, particularly
among marginalized communities.

❖ Overcrowding: Overcrowding in public spaces, public transportation, and housing can

result in a reduced quality of life, increased stress, and health issues for urban residents.

❖ Health and Infrastructure: Urban areas must provide adequate healthcare facilities and
infrastructure to meet the needs of a growing population. Inadequate healthcare can lead to
public health issues.

❖ Social Isolation: Despite the large population in urban areas, some residents may
experience social isolation and loneliness due to the fast-paced lifestyle and reduced sense
of community.

❖ Environmental Degradation: Urbanization can lead to habitat destruction, deforestation,

and the degradation of natural ecosystems. Managing urban growth sustainability is
essential for environmental preservation
 25

Strategies to overcome the issues and challenges of urbanization

1. Sustainable Urban Planning: The Smart Cities Mission in India aims to develop cities
that provide core infrastructure, sustainable environment, and a high quality of life. For
instance, the city of Pune has integrated smart solutions for efficient traffic management,
waste disposal, and energy conservation.

2. Infrastructure Development: The Delhi Metro, one of the largest metro networks in the
world, has significantly improved public transportation in the National Capital Region,
reducing traffic congestion and air pollution.

3. Affordable Housing: The Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY) focuses on providing
affordable housing to urban poor. Cities like Ahmedabad have implemented affordable
housing projects, ensuring that residents have access to quality housing at reasonable
prices.

4. Employment Opportunities: The Make in India initiative aims to promote manufacturing

and job creation. Cities like Bengaluru, known as the Silicon Valley of India, have seen
significant growth in the IT sector, providing employment opportunities.

5. Social Services: The Swachh Bharat Abhiyan focuses on improving sanitation and
cleanliness. Indore, through community engagement and awareness programs, has
achieved the status of India's cleanest city.

6. Technology Integration: The Pune Smart City project uses technology for efficient traffic
management, waste management, and public safety. Smart parking solutions and integrated
transportation systems contribute to a more sustainable urban environment.

7. Environmental Sustainability: The Solar Cities program promotes the use of solar energy.
Gandhinagar, Gujarat, is working towards becoming India's first solar city, incorporating
solar power in street lighting and public buildings.

8. Governance and Policy Measures: The e-Governance initiatives, such as the Digital
India program, aim to provide government services electronically. Online portals and digital
platforms enhance transparency and reduce bureaucratic hurdles.

9. Community Participation: The Bhagidari system in Delhi involves citizen participation in

local governance. Through community involvement, residents contribute to decision-making
processes, ensuring their needs are considered.

10. Resilience and Disaster Preparedness: After the devastating floods in Chennai in 2015,
there has been a focus on improving urban resilience. The Chennai Rivers Restoration Trust
works on sustainable flood management and restoration of water bodies.

Impact of Urbanization on Vulnerable Group (+ve and -ve)

1. Housing and Shelter:

- Urbanization can lead to the development of housing projects and improved living
 26

conditions. Government schemes like Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana aim to provide
affordable housing to economically weaker sections.
- Despite such initiatives, vulnerable populations, including migrant workers and slum
dwellers, often face challenges in accessing secure and affordable housing, leading
to the growth of informal settlements.

2. Employment Opportunities:
- Cities in India offer a wide array of job opportunities. However, vulnerable groups,
such as daily-wage laborers, may still face exploitation and inadequate working
conditions in the informal sector.
- Discrimination and limited access to formal employment can leave vulnerable
populations at a disadvantage, contributing to economic disparities.

3. Education:
- Urban areas typically have better educational infrastructure. Government initiatives
like Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan aim to improve access to quality education, benefiting
vulnerable populations.
- Despite efforts, challenges such as affordability, lack of awareness, and cultural
barriers may limit the educational opportunities for vulnerable groups.

4. Healthcare:
- Urbanization has led to improved healthcare facilities, and government programs like
Ayushman Bharat aim to provide health coverage. However, accessibility and
awareness remain challenges for vulnerable sections.
- High healthcare costs, limited accessibility, and inadequate health awareness can
pose significant barriers for vulnerable populations.

5. Social Services:
- Urban areas usually have more extensive social services, including welfare programs
and public distribution systems that can benefit vulnerable populations.
- Despite these services, bureaucratic hurdles, corruption, and insufficient outreach
may result in inadequate support for vulnerable groups.

6. Infrastructure Development:
- Infrastructure development projects, such as the Metro rail systems in various cities,
aim to enhance connectivity and accessibility for all. However, challenges related to
the displacement of vulnerable communities persist.
- Infrastructure development may lead to the displacement of vulnerable communities
without adequate rehabilitation, exacerbating social and economic challenges.

7. Land Rights and Displacement:

- Vulnerable communities in urban areas often face displacement due to development
projects, resulting in the loss of land and livelihoods. Adequate rehabilitation
measures are crucial to address this issue.

8. Environmental Impact:
- Vulnerable populations in India often reside in environmentally risky areas, such as
flood-prone regions or areas with poor air quality, facing a disproportionate burden of
environmental degradation.

9. Social Integration:
- Urbanization, if not accompanied by inclusive policies, can lead to social isolation
 27

and marginalization of vulnerable populations, particularly those belonging to

marginalized castes or tribes.

10. Digital Divide:

- The digital divide is evident in India, where access to technology and digital skills is
uneven. Vulnerable populations may lack access to essential digital services,
hindering their participation in the digital economy.

To address these challenges, India needs urban policies that prioritize inclusivity, social
justice, and the protection of vulnerable sections. Initiatives should focus on affordable
housing, targeted social welfare programs, inclusive education, and healthcare accessibility
for all.

Mitigations of Challenges Faced by Vulnerable Section going through Urbanization:

1. Inclusive Urban Planning

- Consider needs of vulnerable groups
- Allocate space for affordable housing, social amenities, and livelihood opportunities

2. Affordable Housing Initiatives

- Implement schemes like Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana
- Provide economically disadvantaged populations with secure and affordable housing

3. Social Welfare Programs

- Enhance and expand programs for financial support, healthcare benefits, and education
- Ensure inclusion of vulnerable populations in urban growth

4. Community-Led Development
- Encourage active participation of vulnerable groups in decision-making
- Foster culturally sensitive and community-specific solutions

5. Skill Development and Employment Programs

- Implement skill development to enhance employability
- Link with urban development projects for job opportunities

6. Access to Basic Services

- Ensure equitable access to healthcare, education, and sanitation
- Establish community health centers and schools in vulnerable areas

7. Legal Protections and Land Rights

- Strengthen legal protections
- Prevent forced evictions and ensure proper rehabilitation

8. Digital Inclusion
- Bridge the digital divide
- Provide training and access to digital resources

9. Inclusive Employment Practices

- Encourage businesses to adopt fair and inclusive employment practices
- Ensure equal opportunities for vulnerable groups

10. Crisis Preparedness and Response

- Develop plans for crisis preparedness
- Provide shelters and support services during emergencies
 28

Secularism
❖ Secularism refers to the principle of separating religious institutions and religious beliefs from the
institutions and policies of the state.
❖ The extent of separation between the state and religion can vary significantly based on the specific
interpretation and implementation of secularism in different countries or regions.

Characteristics of Indian Secularism

❖ No Official Religion: Indian secularism is based on the principle of not having an official
state religion.
- Unlike some countries that might declare a specific religion as the official religion of
the state, India treats all religions equally under the law.
❖ Religious Neutrality: The Indian government is expected to remain neutral in matters of
religion. It should neither promote nor discriminate against any particular religion.
- This neutrality is a fundamental aspect of Indian secularism.
❖ Religious Freedom as a Fundamental Right: The Indian Constitution grants its citizens the
fundamental right to religious freedom.
- This means that individuals have the right to practice, profess, and propagate their
religion of choice, subject to certain reasonable restrictions in the interest of public
order, morality, or health.
❖ Supremacy of the Law and Secular Nature of the Constitution: The Indian Constitution is
the supreme law of the land, and it upholds the secular nature of the state.
- This means that all laws, including personal laws related to religion, must be
consistent with the secular principles of the Constitution.
❖ Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties: The Indian Constitution includes Directive
Principles of State Policy and Fundamental Duties that guide the government and citizens in
promoting social justice, equality, and a sense of responsibility towards the nation.
- While these are not enforceable in court, they emphasize the commitment to secular
and inclusive values.
❖ Sarva Dharma Sambhav: It is a phrase in Hindi that translates to "equal respect for all
religions."
- It embodies the idea that in India, all religions are treated with respect and given
equal consideration.
- This principle underscores the inclusive nature of Indian secularism.

The status of secularism in India is a complex and debated topic. Secularism, as enshrined
in the Indian Constitution, implies that the state should treat all religions equally and not
favor any particular religion.
1. Constitutional Foundation:
- Positive Aspect: Secularism is a fundamental principle embedded in the preamble of the
Indian Constitution. It underscores the commitment to ensuring a state that is neutral
towards all religions and respects religious diversity.
 29

2. Equal Protection of Laws:

- Positive Aspect: The Constitution guarantees equal protection of laws to all citizens
irrespective of their religion. This includes provisions against discrimination on the basis of
religion.
3. Freedom of Religion:
- Positive Aspect: India ensures the freedom of religion, allowing individuals to practice,
propagate, and profess any religion. This freedom is a crucial aspect of the secular fabric of
the country.
4. Uniform Civil Code (UCC):
- Debated Aspect: The implementation of a Uniform Civil Code, which would provide a
common set of laws for all citizens irrespective of their religion, has been a topic of debate.
The absence of a UCC has been seen by some as a deviation from the ideal of complete
secularism.
5. Reservation Policies:
- Mixed Aspect: Reservation policies based on caste and religion have been implemented
to uplift marginalized sections. While aimed at ensuring social justice, they sometimes
generate debates on the extent to which they adhere to the principle of secularism.
6. Interference in Religious Practices:
- Debated Aspect: Instances of state interference in religious practices, such as reforms
in personal laws or disputes over religious places, have sparked debates on the delicate
balance between ensuring equal treatment and respecting religious autonomy.
7. Communal Tensions and Violence:
- Negative Aspect: Periodic incidents of communal tensions and violence challenge the
secular fabric of India. These incidents highlight the need for efforts to promote inter-
religious harmony and understanding.
8. Political Discourse:
- Mixed Aspect: The political discourse in India sometimes involves discussions around
religious identity, which can be seen as both an expression of diversity and a potential
challenge to secular ideals, depending on the context and intent.
9. Inclusive Policies:
- Positive Aspect: Various government initiatives aim at inclusivity, including scholarships
for minority communities and the promotion of educational and economic opportunities for
all, irrespective of religious identity.
10. Media and Public Opinion:
- Mixed Aspect: The media and public opinion play a significant role in shaping
perceptions of secularism. While there are instances of responsible reporting, there are also
concerns about sensationalism and bias.
11. Legal Safeguards:
- Positive Aspect: The judiciary in India has played a vital role in upholding the principles
of secularism. Courts have intervened to protect the rights of individuals and communities,
ensuring that the state remains secular in its approach.

In conclusion, while the constitutional foundation of secularism in India is strong, the actual
practice and interpretation of secular ideals may vary. Challenges arise from issues such as
communal tensions, debates around religious practices, and questions about the uniformity
of civil laws. The ongoing dialogue and engagement with these issues shape the evolving
status of secularism in India.
 30

Challenges to Indian Secularism, Their Mitigation And Examples

1. Communalism and Religious Tensions:

- Challenge: Communal tensions and religious conflicts pose a significant threat to
secularism.
- Mitigation: Promote interfaith dialogue and understanding to build bridges between
communities. Encourage community leaders to work together for social harmony.
- Example: Initiatives like the "Dharma Sansad" in Kerala bring together religious leaders
for dialogues on peace, tolerance, and communal harmony.

2. Political Instrumentalization of Religion:

- Challenge: Political parties sometimes exploit religious sentiments for electoral gains,
undermining the secular fabric.
- Mitigation: Strengthen laws against hate speech and communal propaganda.
Encourage political leaders to focus on inclusive policies rather than divisive rhetoric.
- Example: Legal actions against hate speech and divisive campaigns can serve as a
deterrent. Civil society initiatives, like awareness campaigns, can promote informed voting
choices.

3. Religious Minority Rights:

- Challenge: Ensuring the rights and representation of religious minorities can be
challenging.
- Mitigation: Implement and strengthen policies that safeguard minority rights. Promote
inclusive governance and representation.
- Example: The Sachar Committee report highlighted the socio-economic status of
Muslims in India, leading to discussions on affirmative action and targeted policies for their
upliftment.

4. Lack of Uniform Civil Code (UCC):

- Challenge: The absence of a Uniform Civil Code raises questions about the uniform
application of laws across religious communities.
 31

- Mitigation: Encourage a constructive national dialogue on the UCC. Explore

incremental reforms that respect diverse cultural practices while ensuring fundamental
rights.
- Example: The ongoing debate on the implementation of a UCC provides an
opportunity for inclusive discussions on family laws and personal rights.

5. Educational Divide:
- Challenge: Educational institutions may perpetuate religious divides, fostering social
segregation.
- Mitigation: Promote secular education that emphasizes tolerance, diversity, and critical
thinking. Encourage interactions among students from different religious backgrounds.
- Example: Educational initiatives like the National Education Policy (NEP) aim to
provide a more inclusive and holistic learning experience.

6. Caste-Based Discrimination:
- Challenge: Caste-based discrimination can intersect with religious identity, creating
complex social hierarchies.
- Mitigation: Strengthen anti-discrimination laws and promote social and economic
policies that address caste-based disparities.
- Example: The reservation system in education and employment aims to uplift
marginalized communities, including those facing discrimination based on caste and religion.

7. Media Sensationalism:
- Challenge: Media sensationalism can contribute to the amplification of communal
tensions.
- Mitigation: Encourage responsible journalism and media literacy. Promote platforms
that showcase positive stories of interfaith harmony.
- Example: Initiatives like fact-checking organizations and awareness campaigns about
responsible reporting contribute to media accountability.

8. Lack of Cultural Understanding:

- Challenge: Lack of understanding among communities about each other's cultures can
lead to stereotypes and prejudice.
- Mitigation: Support cultural exchange programs, festivals, and initiatives that celebrate
the diversity of India's religious and cultural heritage.
- Example: Cultural festivals and events that bring people from different communities
together help foster mutual understanding and respect.

9. Legal Safeguards:
- Challenge: Enforcement of laws protecting secularism may face challenges.
- Mitigation: Strengthen the judiciary and law enforcement agencies. Encourage public
awareness about legal safeguards against discrimination.
- Example: Landmark legal cases that uphold secular values, such as the Supreme
Court judgment in the "Shayara Bano case" on triple talaq, contribute to legal clarity and
protection of individual rights.

10. Promotion of Inclusive Policies:

- Challenge: Policies may not always be inclusive, leading to feelings of marginalization.
- Mitigation: Promote policies that actively involve diverse religious groups in decision-
making processes. Encourage feedback mechanisms for policy evaluation.
- Example: Consultative bodies like the National Integration Council aim to provide a
platform for diverse voices to contribute to policy making.
 32

Mitigating these challenges requires a sustained effort from multiple stakeholders, including
the government, civil society, religious leaders, and the general public. Building a culture of
inclusivity, tolerance, and understanding is essential for strengthening secularism in India.
Ongoing dialogue and proactive measures can contribute to a more harmonious and
equitable society.

Communalism
❖ Communalism is a social and political ideology or phenomenon characterized by the division of a
society along religious lines, often leading to religious-based conflict, tension, or discrimination.
❖ It involves the belief that people of a particular religious community should have distinct political,
social, and economic rights and should be segregated from members of other religious communities.

Key Features of Communalism:

➢ Religious Identity: Communalism is rooted in the strong identification of individuals with
their religious community.
✓ It often emphasizes religious symbols, rituals, and traditions as defining aspects of one's identity.
➢ Religious Polarization: Communalism can lead to the polarization of society, where
individuals or groups are divided along religious lines.
✓ This polarization may be exploited by political leaders for their own gain.
➢ Religious-Based Politics: Communalism can manifest in politics when political parties or
leaders use religious issues to mobilize support or gain power.
✓ This can result in the politicization of religion and the promotion of religious agendas in
government policies.
➢ Conflict and Tension: Communalism can lead to inter-religious conflict, violence, and
tensions.
✓ It may result in riots, discrimination, and persecution based on religious identity.

Causes of Communalism:
❖ Economic Causes:
➢ Funding or Grants to a Particular Community: Unequal distribution of economic resources
or government funding to specific religious or communal groups can lead to resentment and
communal tensions.
➢ Income of an Individual: Economic disparities within communities can sometimes
contribute to communalism, as individuals may seek solidarity and support from their own
community.
➢ Banning NGOs (Illegal Activities): If certain non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
engage in illegal or divisive activities, it can exacerbate communal tensions and lead to
mistrust among communities.

❖ Social Causes:
➢ Education: Differences in educational opportunities and access can contribute to
communalism. Educational institutions that promote exclusivity or bias can further divide
communities.
➢ Customs and Ritual Variations: Differences in religious customs and rituals can
sometimes lead to misunderstandings or conflicts between communities, especially when
there is a lack of cultural sensitivity or awareness.
➢ Ideology: Communalism can be fueled by extremist ideologies that emphasize the
superiority of one's own community and promote intolerance towards others.
➢ Family and Upbringing: The values and beliefs instilled in individuals during their
upbringing, particularly within their families, can play a significant role in shaping their
communal attitudes.
 33

❖ Political Causes:
➢ Vote Bank Politics: Some politicians may exploit communal sentiments to secure votes,
leading to the creation of vote banks based on religious or communal lines.
➢ Political Parties: Communalism can be perpetuated by political parties that use religious or
communal identity as a tool for mobilizing support or dividing the electorate.
➢ Separate Electorate: Policies that create separate electorates for different religious or
communal groups can deepen divisions and promote identity-based politics.

❖ Media:
➢ Fake News: Dissemination of fake news or misinformation that targets specific religious
or communal groups can inflame tensions and contribute to communalism.
➢ Media Trials: Biased media coverage or sensationalist reporting of communal incidents
can exacerbate hostilities and prejudice against particular communities.

Solutions for Communalism:

❖ Social Solutions:
➢ Educational Reform and Moral Teachings: Promote inclusive and secular education that
fosters tolerance, diversity, and understanding among different religious and communal
groups. Incorporate moral and ethical education to instill values of respect and empathy.
➢ Correct Upbringing: Encourage parents, families, and communities to promote values of
secularism, tolerance, and respect for diversity in the upbringing of children.
➢ Respecting the Customs and Rituals of Others: Promote cultural sensitivity and interfaith
dialogue to build understanding and respect for the customs, rituals, and traditions of
different communities.

❖ Economic Solutions:
➢ Regional Development: Invest in equitable economic development in all regions, ensuring
that marginalized communities have access to economic opportunities, resources, and
infrastructure development.

❖ Political Solutions:
➢ Proactive Election Commission: Ensure that the Election Commission monitors and takes
action against politicians and parties that exploit communal sentiments for electoral gains.
Promote fair and unbiased electoral practices.

❖ Preventive Aspects:
➢ Technology: Leverage technology to monitor and counter hate speech, fake news, and
online radicalization. Promote digital literacy to help individuals critically evaluate
information.
➢ Information and Intelligence Gathering: Strengthen intelligence agencies' capabilities to
identify and preempt communal threats, hate crimes, and extremist activities.
➢ Proper Policy in Place: Develop and implement policies that address the root causes of
communalism, promote social cohesion, and protect the rights of minority communities.

❖ Administrative Measures:
➢ Proper Criminal Justice System: Ensure that the criminal justice system is fair and
impartial and that it responds swiftly to communal violence and hate crimes. Hold
perpetrators accountable through the legal system.

➢ Second ARC Report: Implement the recommendations of the Second Administrative

Reforms Commission (ARC) report, which includes suggestions for improving governance,
administrative efficiency, and inclusivity.

❖ Media Solutions:
 34

➢ Media can play a crucial role in either exacerbating or mitigating communal tensions.
➢ Measures to consider include:
- Promoting responsible and unbiased reporting.
- Encouraging diversity in media ownership and representation.
- Training journalists in ethical reporting and conflict-sensitive journalism.
- Countering hate speech and misinformation through media literacy programs.

Regionalism:
❖ Regionalism is a concept that is derived from the word "region" and refers to a form of identity or
loyalty that people have towards a particular geographical region.
❖ It involves a sense of belonging or attachment to a specific area and often encompasses various
aspects of identity, including but not limited to culture, language, religion, ethnicity etc.
 35

Reasons for Regionalism:

❖ Language and Religion: Regions often coalesce around shared linguistic and religious identities. ➢
For example, the demand for a greater Nagaland is rooted in the linguistic and cultural distinctiveness
of the Naga people. ➢ Similarly, regions with a significant religious or linguistic minority may seek
special recognition or autonomy based on these factors.
❖ Development and Geography: Disparities in economic development and geographical factors can
lead to regionalism. ➢ Underdeveloped regions may demand more resources and attention from the
government to address their specific challenges, such as inadequate infrastructure or lack of access to
education and healthcare.
❖ Caste: Some regional movements are influenced by caste dynamics. For instance, the Vanniyar
community's demands in Tamil Nadu are related to social and political empowerment, as well as their
unique historical and social position within the state.
❖ History and Culture: Regions often take pride in their historical heritage and cultural traditions. ➢
Movements rooted in history and culture seek to preserve and promote these aspects, such as the
demand for recognition and protection of traditional practices or historical sites.
❖ Ethnic Indigenous Groups: Many regions in India are home to indigenous ethnic groups with
distinct languages, cultures, and socio-economic challenges. ➢ Movements in Jharkhand and
Chhattisgarh, for instance, have aimed to address the rights and aspirations of indigenous populations
in these states.

Advantages of Regionalism:
❖ Regional Development: Regionalism can lead to focused development initiatives in specific
regions. ➢ Governments may allocate resources and investments to address the unique needs and
challenges of different regions, thereby promoting balanced economic growth and infrastructure
development.
❖ Empowerment: Regional movements often seek greater autonomy and decision-making powers
for local leaders and communities. ➢ Empowering regions to manage their affairs can lead to more
responsive governance and policies tailored to local needs.
❖ Representation: Regionalism can ensure that diverse regions have a voice in national decision-
making processes. ➢ It allows for the representation of regional interests and concerns in legislative
bodies, fostering a sense of inclusivity and fairness.
❖ Power Decentralization or Administration: Regionalism promotes the decentralization of power
and administration. ➢ This can lead to more efficient and effective governance by allowing local
authorities to make decisions that directly impact their communities, rather than relying solely on
centralized decision-making.
 36

❖ Culture Protection: Regionalism often involves efforts to preserve and protect local cultures,
languages, and traditions. ➢ This can help maintain cultural diversity within a country and safeguard
the heritage of various regions.
❖ Benefits to Marginalized People: Regionalism can be a means of addressing the needs of
marginalized or disadvantaged communities within a region. ➢ It may involve policies aimed at
reducing socio-economic disparities and improving the quality of life for marginalized groups.

Issues related to Regionalism:

❖ Security Concerns: Regionalism can sometimes lead to security challenges, especially when it
fuels separatist or secessionist movements. ➢ These movements may lead to internal conflicts,
insurgency, or even acts of terrorism, posing threats to national security.
❖ Political Instability: Excessive regionalism can contribute to political instability, particularly when
regional parties prioritize narrow regional interests over national governance. ➢ Frequent changes in
regional governments can disrupt policy continuity and governance.
❖ Uneven Development: While regionalism can promote development in certain areas, it may
exacerbate regional disparities. ➢ Overemphasis on a few developed regions can result in neglect and
underdevelopment in others, leading to economic and social inequalities.
❖ Vote Bank Politics: Politicians may exploit regional sentiments for electoral gains, engaging in
vote bank politics. ➢ This can lead to short-term policies and populist measures that cater to regional
interests but may not align with long-term national development goals. ❖ Region vs. Nation
Issues: Regionalism sometimes pits regional interests against national interests. ➢ This can create
conflicts where regional governments resist national policies, leading to a lack of coordination and
cooperation between different levels of government.
❖ Financial Issues: Regionalism can strain the finances of a country, particularly if regions demand
greater fiscal autonomy or a larger share of national resources. ➢ Balancing the fiscal needs of
regions while maintaining national financial stability is a complex challenge.

Resolving Regionalism Issues:

❖ Education and Awareness: Promote education and awareness programs that highlight India's
cultural diversity, historical unity, and the importance of national integration. ➢ Such initiatives can
foster a sense of belonging to the larger Indian identity and reduce parochialism.
❖ Team India Approach: Encourage states to adopt a "Team India" approach, emphasizing
cooperation and coordination between the central government and state governments. ➢ Niti Aayog
can play a crucial role in facilitating this collaboration by aligning national and regional development
goals.
❖ Regional Development: Prioritize regional development through targeted policies and
investments. ➢ Focus on addressing economic disparities, improving infrastructure, and providing
equal access to education, healthcare, and employment opportunities across regions.
❖ Meeting Regional Aspirations: Engage in constructive dialogue with regional leaders and
communities to understand their specific aspirations and concerns. ➢ Tailor policies and programs to
meet these aspirations while ensuring that they align with national goals.
❖ Increasing Linkages: Foster greater connectivity between regions by investing in transport and
communication infrastructure. ➢ Improved transportation and communication networks can enhance
economic interactions, trade, and cultural exchanges between regions.
❖ Empowerment through Technology: Leverage technology to empower regions in various
sectors such as education, healthcare, and agriculture. ➢ Digital initiatives can bridge the urban-rural
divide and promote equitable access to opportunities and services.
❖ Devolution of Powers: Encourage greater devolution of administrative and fiscal powers to state
and local governments. ➢ Decentralization can empower regions to make decisions that better suit
their unique needs and preferences.

Government Steps:
 37

❖ National Integration Council (NIC - 1983): The NIC was established to promote unity and
integrity across diverse regions and communities in India. ➢ It provides a platform for political
leaders, policymakers, and regional representatives to discuss and address issues related to
regionalism and communalism.
❖ Zonal Councils: India has six zonal councils (Northern, North-Eastern, Eastern, Central, Southern,
and Western) that serve as consultative bodies to foster cooperation and coordination among states
within specific zones. ➢ These councils facilitate dialogue and collaboration on regional issues.
❖ Niti Aayog (Cooperative Federalism): Niti Aayog, formed in 2015, emphasizes cooperative
federalism by working closely with state governments to formulate policies and plans that cater to
regional needs while aligning with national development goals. ➢ It aims to promote balanced growth
across regions.
❖ Ek Bharat Shreshtha Bharat (EBSB - 2016): EBSB is an initiative that encourages cultural
exchanges and interactions between states and Union Territories.➢ It fosters a sense of national
integration by promoting understanding and appreciation of India's diverse cultures, languages, and
traditions.
❖ Gati Shakti: The Gati Shakti initiative, launched in 2021, aims to boost infrastructure development
by integrating various modes of transport and communication. ➢ It seeks to enhance connectivity
between regions, improve logistics, and stimulate economic growth across the country.

Women
Problems regarding women:

❖ Fetus Issues:
➢ Sex Selection: The preference for male children over female children has led to the
practise of sex selection, where families use prenatal diagnostic techniques to determine the
sex of the fetus and, in some cases, selectively abort female fetuses.
✓ This practice contributed to the imbalanced sex ratios and reinforced gender discrimination.

➢ Female Foeticide: Female foeticide refers to the selective abortion of female fetuses, often
due to a preference for male children.
✓ This practice is a form of gender-based discrimination and violence against women that occurs
before birth.
✓ Female foeticide is a grave social issue with serious consequences, particularly in countries like
India and China, where it has been more prevalent.

❖ Infant Issues:
➢ Female Infanticide: Female infanticide is the killing of female infants shortly after birth due
to a preference for male children.
✓ It reflects deeply rooted gender bias and can result in a disproportionate number of male children
compared to female children in a given population.
➢ Discrimination: Gender-based discrimination against female infants is pervasive in some
societies.
✓ This discrimination can lead to unequal access to healthcare, nutrition, and educational
opportunities, negatively impacting the well-being and future prospects of female infants.

➢ Malnutrition: Female infants may face a higher risk of malnutrition due to neglect in
feeding practises, which can result from gender bias within families.

❖ Early Age Issues:

 38

➢ Sexual Abuse: Sexual abuse of girls at a young age is a distressing problem that can
have severe physical and psychological consequences.
✓ It is often perpetrated by individuals known to the child or within their family or community.

➢ Physical Violence: Physical violence against girls during their early years can lead to
physical injuries, emotional trauma, and long-lasting psychological scars.
✓ Such violence can occur within the family or community.

➢ Neglect with Respect to Education and Medical Care: Neglecting a girl's access to
education and necessary medical care during her early years can hinder her overall
development and future opportunities.
✓ This neglect may arise due to gender bias within families or communities.

❖ Adulthood Issues:
➢ Early Marriage: Early marriage, particularly for underage girls, can deprive them of
education and personal development.
✓ It often leads to early childbearing, which poses health risks.
➢ Early Pregnancy: Early pregnancies, a consequence of early marriage, can result in
higher maternal mortality rates and increased health risks for young mothers.
➢ Sexual Abuse and Harassment: Women in adulthood may face various forms of sexual
abuse and harassment, both in public and private spheres.
➢ Maternal Mortality Increases: Early pregnancies can lead to higher maternal mortality
rates due to the physical and emotional challenges faced by young mothers.
➢ Dowry: The practise of demanding dowry from the bride's family can result in financial
burdens, exploitation, and domestic violence.

❖ Old Age Issues:

➢ Neglect: Elderly women may experience neglect within their families or communities.
✓ This neglect can take various forms, including emotional neglect, lack of care and support, and
isolation.
✓ It can lead to loneliness and deteriorating mental health.

➢ Leaving Them in Old Age Homes: Some families choose to leave elderly women in old
age homes or care facilities, often due to various reasons such as financial constraints, lack
of support, or neglect.
✓ This abandonment can be emotionally distressing for elderly women and may result in feelings of
isolation and abandonment.

➢ Health: Health issues become more prevalent and complex in old age.
✓ Elderly women may face specific health challenges related to aging, including chronic diseases,
mobility issues, and mental health problems.
✓ Access to appropriate healthcare can be a concern, especially for those without adequate support.

❖ Economic Problems:
➢ Low Labour Force Participation Rate: The low labor force participation rate among
women, at approximately 18%, indicates that a substantial portion of the female population is
not actively engaged in formal employment.
✓ This can be due to various factors, including cultural norms, lack of opportunities, and family
responsibilities.
➢ Pay Disparity and Pay Package Variations: Gender-based pay disparities persist in many
parts of the world.
✓ Women often earn less than their male counterparts for similar work, which is referred to as the
gender pay gap.
 39

✓ Additionally, pay packages for women may vary significantly, with women often occupying lower
paying positions.
➢ Limited Job Opportunities: Women may face limited job opportunities, especially in
sectors that are traditionally male-dominated or have restrictive hiring practices.
✓ This limits their choices and career advancement opportunities.
➢ Underrepresentation in All Sectors: Not all sectors of the economy have equal
representation of women.
✓ Women are often underrepresented in sectors like STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics), manufacturing, and leadership positions in various industries.

❖ Political Problems:
➢ Low Participation: Women's participation in politics, particularly at the national level, is
often low.
✓ The approximately 11% representation you mentioned highlights the underrepresentation of
women in legislative bodies and political leadership roles.
✓ This low participation can be attributed to various factors, including cultural norms, barriers to
entry, and gender bias.

➢ Lesser Number of Women Holding Positions in Political Parties: Political parties often
have fewer women in leadership positions and as candidates in elections.
✓ This lack of representation within political parties can limit women's access to influential roles
within the political system.

➢ Women Voters: While women make up a significant portion of the voting population, there
may still be challenges related to women's voter registration, accessibility to polling stations,
and voter education.
✓ Efforts are needed to ensure that women can exercise their right to vote freely and without
constraints.

➢ Pati Pradhan at Panchayat Level: At the Panchayat (local governance) level in India, there
is a provision for "Pati Pradhan" or "Husband's Leadership,".
✓ Women who are elected as Panchayat leaders may face challenges in asserting their independent
leadership due to societal norms and expectations.

Some Facts on Women’s presence:

❖ According to the Election Commission of India, women's participation makes up 49% of the voters
in India.
❖ Although the percentage of female MPs in the 17th Lok Sabha is the highest since Independence,
only 14% of them are women.
❖ Reservation for Women in Panchayati Raj Institutions: Clause (3) of Article 243D of the
Constitution ensures participation of women in Panchayati Raj Institutions by mandating not less than
1/3rd reservation for women out of a total number of seats to be filled by direct election and a number
of offices of chairpersons of Panchayats.
❖ Registrar General of India: It reports that the work participation rate for women is 25%, one of the
lowest rates in the world.
❖ Periodic Labour Force Survey: According to the most recent PLFS data(2019-20), the estimated
Worker Population Ratio (WPR) on a typical status basis for people aged 15 and over was 73.0% for
men and 28.7% for women, respectively.
❖ SCBs data: According to data from India's Scheduled Commercial Banks' Basic Statistical Returns,
women own 37.03 per cent of bank accounts in rural areas, compared to about 34% in semi-urban,
urban, and metropolitan areas.
❖ Women in Managerial Positions: According to Periodic Labour Force Survey data, there were
18.8% of women in managerial positions among Indian officials in 2020 and 18.1% in 2021.
❖ Glass Ceiling It is interpreted as a metaphor for the covert, hidden obstacles that prevent
minorities and women from obtaining promotions, raises in wages, and better chances.
 40

❖ SDG 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.
❖ Article 39 in The Constitution Of India 1949: that there is equal pay for equal work for both men
and women.

WOMEN IN INDIAN AGRICULTURE

❖ Position of women in agriculture(Agri Census 2015-16) of 30.33% of total cultivators and 40.67%
of agriculture labor are women.
❖ Only 13.95% of total operational holdings are operated by women. (Source: Agriculture Census,
2015-16).

Social Issues Related To Women In India:

❖ Education and Literacy: Persistent gender disparities in education for Indian women,
influenced by cultural norms and economic factors, limit opportunities. Barriers to female
enrollment in schools, shaped by societal expectations, contribute to a literacy gap, with a
preference for educating male children.

❖ Health: Women's health concerns, including maternal mortality and reproductive health,
require focused attention. Access to quality healthcare remains a challenge, impacting
women's overall well-being.

❖ Suicide: India faces a growing issue of female suicides, attributed to various factors,
including societal pressures, dowry-related conflicts, and mental health issues.

❖ Domestic Violence: Domestic violence against women is prevalent, often resulting from
traditional gender norms and economic dependence. Legal frameworks exist, but
implementation remains a challenge.

❖ Adverse Outcomes of Patriarchy: Patriarchal norms perpetuate gender inequalities,

restricting women's autonomy, decision-making, and freedom.

❖ Physical and Mental Abuse: Gender-biased practices, such as male child preference and
sex selection, contribute to maternal mortality and infant neglect. These issues have societal
and health ramifications.

❖ Ideological Challenges: Women's movements face ideological obstacles, including

resistance to gender equality, stereotyping, and cultural conservatism.

❖ Marriage and Early/Forced Marriages: Early and forced marriages persist in some
regions, denying women their right to choose their partners and make life choices
independently. These issues affect women's personal and social development.

Reasons for Low. Sex Ratio:

❖ Male Child Preference (a Patriarchal Attitude): Deep-seated patriarchal beliefs often lead
to a preference for male offspring. Sons are seen as providers, heirs, and guardians of
family honor, perpetuating gender imbalances.
❖ Loose Implementation of the Act of 1994: The Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic
Techniques (PCPNDT) Act of 1994 aimed at curbing sex-selective practices, but lax
enforcement allowed illegal gender based abortions to persist.
❖ Fear of Dowry (in the future): Families may prefer male children to avoid the financial
burden of dowry, which is prevalent in many societies and seen as a potential liability when
raising daughters.
❖ Malnourishment: In some regions, female children receive inferior nutrition and
healthcare, leading to higher mortality rates, contributing to skewed sex ratios.
 41

❖ Rise in Crime against Women, Suicides, etc.: A hostile environment with rising incidents
of crimes against women and female suicides can deter families from having female
children, fearing for their safety and wellbeing.
❖ Having Fewer Children (Post LPG Era): As education and economic opportunities for
women increase, families tend to have fewer children, which can inadvertently exacerbate
gender imbalances when coupled with a preference for sons.

Government Steps:
Education and Awareness (from grassroot level):
❖ Promoting gender equality through education, starting from the grassroots level.
❖ Initiatives to educate communities on the importance of valuing both male and female children.
❖ Raising awareness about the legal implications of gender-based discrimination and sex-selective
practices.
Strict Implementation of the Law:
❖ Enforcing existing laws, such as the Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques
(PCPNDT) Act, to prevent sex-selective abortions.
❖ Imposing penalties on healthcare providers and families involved in gender-based abortions.
Financial Independency (guidance + mentoring):
❖ Empowering women through financial independence and economic opportunities.
❖ Providing guidance and mentoring programs to help women gain skills, access employment, and
become financially self-sufficient.
❖ Encouraging families to invest in the education and economic well-being of their daughters.

Addressing the challenges faced by women in Indian society:

1. Education Empowerment:
- Implement initiatives to promote female education, including scholarships and awareness
campaigns.
- Establish more girls' schools and ensure accessibility to quality education.
2. Legal Reforms:
- Strengthen and enforce laws against gender-based discrimination, violence, and
harassment.
- Advocate for legal reforms that promote gender equality in areas such as inheritance and
property rights.
3. Economic Opportunities:
- Promote economic empowerment through skill development programs and
entrepreneurship initiatives for women.
- Encourage workplace policies that support work-life balance and equal opportunities.

4. Healthcare Access:
- Improve access to healthcare services, with a focus on maternal health and family
planning.
- Address cultural taboos surrounding women's health to encourage preventive care.
5. Awareness and Sensitization:
- Conduct awareness campaigns to challenge stereotypes and promote gender sensitivity.
- Integrate gender education into school curricula to foster understanding and equality from
a young age.
6. Political Participation:
- Encourage women's participation in politics through affirmative action and reserved
seats.
- Promote leadership training programs to build the capacity of women in political roles.
7. Community Engagement:
- Involve communities in discussions and initiatives to challenge traditional norms.
- Support grassroots organizations working towards women's empowerment.
 42

8. Media Representation:
- Advocate for positive and diverse portrayals of women in media and popular culture.
- Encourage media platforms to highlight women's achievements and stories.
9. Support for Victims of Violence:
- Establish and strengthen support systems for victims of gender-based violence.
- Ensure the efficient functioning of helplines, counseling services, and safe shelters.
10. Technological Inclusion:
- Promote digital literacy and technology access for women to enhance their economic
and social participation.
- Address online harassment and ensure a safe digital environment for women.
11. Policy Advocacy:
- Engage in policy advocacy to influence systemic changes that address gender
disparities.
- Collaborate with lawmakers to enact and implement gender-inclusive policies.
12. Community Policing and Security:
- Implement community policing to address safety concerns and prevent gender-based
violence.
- Enhance security measures in public spaces to ensure the safety of women.
13. International Collaboration:
- Collaborate with international organizations to share best practices and learn from
successful gender empowerment models.
- Participate in global initiatives that focus on women's rights and gender equality.
14. Research and Data Collection:
- Conduct research and collect data on gender disparities to inform evidence-based
policies.
- Regularly assess and evaluate the impact of interventions to refine strategies.
15. Inclusive Workplace Policies:
- Advocate for and implement inclusive workplace policies, including equal pay, maternity
leave, and measures to prevent workplace harassment.
- Encourage companies to adopt diversity and inclusion initiatives.

By combining these measures and fostering a collective commitment to gender equality,

India can make significant strides toward addressing the challenges faced by women in its
society. Ongoing collaboration among government, civil society, and the private sector is
essential for sustained progress.

Scheme for Women:

❖ Swadhar Greh Scheme: It aims to provide temporary shelter and support services to
women in difficult circumstances, such as victims of domestic violence, trafficking, and
homelessness.
❖ Home for Widows: It provides a safe and supportive environment for widowed women,
offering housing, healthcare, and counseling.
❖ One Stop Centres: It establishes centers that offer various services to women affected by
violence, including medical aid, legal support, and counseling.
❖ Women Helpline (WHL) Scheme: It is a 24/7 helpline for women in distress, providing
assistance, counseling, and guidance.
❖ Hub for Empowerment of Women (HEW): It is focused on skill development and
empowerment of women, providing training and resources for self-employment.
❖ Indira Gandhi National Widow Pension Scheme: It provides financial assistance to
widowed women below the poverty line.
❖ The National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP): It encompasses various schemes,
including pensions for widows and destitute women, to provide financial support to
vulnerable groups.
❖ MGNREGA (Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act): It guarantees
100 days of wage employment to rural households, including women, to improve livelihoods. ❖ Nari
 43

Arthik Sashaktikaran Yojana: It empowers women through self-help groups and income-
generation activities, promoting financial independence.
❖ National Family Benefit Scheme: It offers financial assistance to the family in the event of
the primary breadwinner's death.
❖ Beti Bachao Beti Padhao Scheme: It promotes the education and welfare of girls,
addressing gender discrimination and female feticide.
❖ Women Helpline Scheme: It provides a toll-free helpline for women in distress, offering
counseling and support.
❖ UJJAWALA Scheme: It aims to rescue and rehabilitate victims of trafficking and
commercial sexual exploitation.
❖ Working Women Hostel: It provides safe and affordable accommodation for working
women, especially those from rural areas.
❖ Support to Training and Employment Program for Women (STEP): It encourages skill
development and employment opportunities for women.
❖ Nari-Shakti Puraskar: It recognizes and honors exceptional contributions and
achievements by women.
❖ Mahila Shakti Kendras (MSK): It establishes centers to empower women through skill
development, counseling, and awareness programs.
❖ NIRBHAYA: It is a scheme for the safety of women, focusing on enhancing security and
reducing violence against women.
❖ Mahila e-Haat: It is an online platform that enables women entrepreneurs to showcase
and sell their products.
❖ Mahila Police Volunteers: It engages trained volunteers to support women in distress and
improve women's safety.

Health
Issues in the Health Sector
1. Poor Doctor-Population Ratio
➢ According to the National Health Profile 2021, India has a doctor-population ratio of 1:11082. This
is much lower than the WHO recommended ratio of 1:1000.
➢ The doctor-population ratio in India varies widely from state to state. The highest doctor-
population ratio is in Kerala (1:764), and the lowest ratio is in Bihar (1:26500). ‘
2. Budget allocation for the Health Sector
➢ It is presently an allocated fund in the health sector that is about 1.1 to 1.5 percent overall of GDP.
➢ The National Health Policy (NHP) 2017 has set a target of increasing public health expenditure to
2.5% of GDP by both the Centre and States to be achieved by 2025, while WHO prescribes that about
5% of GDP should be expended.
3. Affordability
➢ The private sector provides about 58% of total hospitals in India and serves about 81% of doctors,
but it is more expensive compared to government hospitals.
4. Infrastructure
➢ Lack of maintenance of healthcare facilities: Many healthcare facilities in India are poorly
maintained, leading to a decline in the quality of care.
✓ A 2019 study by the Comptroller and Auditor General of India found that many public health
facilities in the country were in poor condition, with leaking roofs, broken floors, and inadequate
lighting.
➢ Inadequate Medical Equipment and Technology: Many healthcare facilities, especially in
rural areas, lack modern medical equipment and technology. The absence of essential
diagnostic tools hampers accurate diagnosis and timely treatment.
 44

➢ Shortage of Healthcare Personnel: India faces a shortage of healthcare professionals,

including doctors, nurses, and paramedical staff. The doctor-to-patient ratio is low, leading to
overburdened healthcare workers and challenges in providing quality care.
5. Fake doctors.
➢ According to a 2016 World Health Organization (WHO) report, an estimated 57.3% of doctors in
India are unqualified, meaning they have not completed the required medical training or have fake
degrees. This makes India one of the countries with the highest proportion of fake doctors in the
world.
6. Poor Health Insurance penetration in India
➢ According to the Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India (IRDAI), only 37% of
the Indian population has health insurance coverage. This is significantly lower than the global
average of 75%.
7. Medical Research, Education and Awareness
➢ Medical research is underfunded in India. According to a 2022 report by the Indian
Council of Medical Research (ICMR), India's public spending on medical research was only
0.2% of GDP in 2020-21, which is much lower than the global average of 2%.
➢ Poor quality of medical education: The quality of medical education in India varies widely
from institution to institution. Some institutions provide high-quality education, while others
provide poor-quality education. This can lead to disparities in the quality of healthcare
provided by different healthcare professionals.
➢ A 2021 study by the National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER) found that only
53% of Indians have a good understanding of health.

Some measures by the Government in the Health Sector

❖ National Health Mission (NHM): The NHM is a comprehensive mission that aims to
improve the health of the Indian population by increasing access to quality healthcare
services, especially for the poor and marginalized.
❖ Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (AB-PMJAY): AB-PMJDY is the
world's largest health insurance scheme, providing free health insurance coverage of up to
Rs. 5 lakh per family per year to over 50 crore poor and vulnerable Indians. AB-PMJAY has
helped to reduce the financial burden of healthcare on poor and vulnerable families.
❖ Pradhan Mantri National Dialysis Programme (PMNDP): PMNDP provides free dialysis
treatment to poor and needy patients. PMNDP has helped to improve access to dialysis
treatment for poor and needy patients.
❖ Jan Aushadhi Kendras: Jan Aushadhi Kendras are retail pharmacies that sell generic
drugs at affordable prices. Jan Aushadhi Kendras have helped to reduce the cost of
medicines for poor and needy patients.
❖ Mission Indradhanush: Mission Indradhanush is an immunization campaign that aims to
achieve full immunization coverage for all children in the country. Mission Indradhanush has
helped to improve immunization coverage for children in the country.
❖ National Digital Health Mission (NDHM): Launched in August 2020, NDHM aims to create
a digital health ecosystem with the implementation of electronic health records (EHRs).
Progress data on the implementation of EHRs and telemedicine services may be available
from government sources.
❖ Pradhan Mantri Swasthya Suraksha Yojana (PMSSSY): It is a health insurance scheme
launched by the Government of India on April 1, 2018. It provides free health insurance
coverage of up to Rs. 5 lakh per family per year to over 50 crore poor and vulnerable
Indians.
❖ The National Health Policy 2017 (NHP 2017): It is a comprehensive policy that aims to
improve the health of the Indian population by increasing access to quality healthcare
services, especially for the poor and marginalized.
 45

Additional Information:
❖ Budgetary Outlay: Healthcare has been range-bound between
1.2% and 1.4% in the period 2014-20.
❖ According to public health research organization Center for
Disease Dynamics and Economic Policy, India had 69,265
hospitals in 2019, which translates roughly to one hospital for every
20,350 Indians.
❖ There are only 25,778 public hospitals, against 43,487 private
ones. ❖ With roughly 1.9 million hospital beds in India, there are
only 0.71 million beds in public hospitals, compared to 1.18 million
in the private sector.
Source: Livemint

Globalization
Antony Giddens is a British sociologist who has written extensively on globalization. He
defines globalization as "the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant
localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles
away and vice versa."

There are a number of factors that have led to globalization, including:

❖ Advancements in Technology: Technological advancements, particularly in information
and communication technologies (ICT), have significantly reduced barriers to
communication, information exchange, and transportation. The internet, smartphones, and
digital platforms have made it easier for people, businesses, and governments to connect
and collaborate on a global scale.
❖ Trade Liberalization: The reduction of trade barriers, such as tariffs and quotas, has
facilitated the movement of goods and services across borders. Trade agreements like the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the World Trade Organization (WTO)
have promoted global trade.
❖ Financial Integration: Global financial markets have become increasingly interconnected.
The ease of capital flow and international investment has led to greater economic
interdependence among nations.
❖ Transportation Infrastructure: Improvements in transportation infrastructure, including air
travel, container shipping, and road networks, have made the movement of goods and
people faster and more cost effective, reducing geographical barriers.
❖ Multinational Corporations: Multinational corporations (MNCs) have played a significant
role in globalization. These companies operate in multiple countries, facilitating the
exchange of goods, services, and capital across borders.
❖ Global Supply Chains: Businesses now rely on global supply chains, where different
components of a product are manufactured in different countries. This enables cost savings,
but it also increases global interconnectivity.
❖ Political Agreements and Trade Treaties: Bilateral and multilateral agreements, such as
the European Union (EU), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and the
Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP), have
encouraged trade and cooperation among member countries.
 46

❖ Cultural Exchanges: The exchange of cultural ideas, values, and practices through media,
entertainment, and the arts has contributed to globalization. Globalized media and cultural
products have reached audiences worldwide.
❖ Migration and Labor Mobility: The movement of people across borders for work,
education, and other reasons has created diverse and interconnected communities. This
leads to the exchange of skills, knowledge, and cultural practices.
❖ Political Changes: Political changes, such as the end of the Cold War and the opening up
of formerly closed economies, have encouraged countries to engage more with the global
community.
❖ Global Institutions: International organizations like the United Nations (UN), International
Monetary Fund (IMF), and World Bank promote global cooperation and set standards in
areas like human rights, economic development, and environmental protection.
❖ Consumer Demands: Consumer preferences for a variety of products and services from
around the world have driven globalization. Companies aim to meet these demands by
sourcing products globally.
❖ Education and Research: The global exchange of knowledge, research, and education
through international collaborations and institutions has furthered globalization.
❖ Crisis Response and Health Pandemics: The response to global crises, such as health
pandemics (e.g., COVID-19) and humanitarian emergencies, requires international
cooperation, emphasizing the need for a global perspective.

Due to globalization, Indian culture has impacted the global culture in a number of
ways.
This includes:
❖ Food: Indian food is now popular all over the world, with Indian restaurants found in major
cities all over the globe. Indian dishes such as curry, naan, and tandoori chicken are now
well-known and enjoyed by people from all cultures.
❖ Music: Indian music has also become increasingly popular in recent years, with artists like
AR Rahman and Anoushka Shankar gaining international recognition. Indian music has also
influenced Western music, with many artists incorporating Indian elements into their work.
❖ Cinema: Bollywood films are now popular all over the world, with many people enjoying
the elaborate dance sequences, colorful costumes, and catchy songs. Bollywood films have
also influenced Western cinema, with some Hollywood films incorporating Bollywood
elements into their work.
❖ Fashion: Indian fashion is also becoming increasingly popular around the world, with
many people enjoying the vibrant colors and intricate patterns of Indian clothing. Indian
fashion designers such as Manish Malhotra and Sabyasachi Mukherjee are now known all
over the globe, and their designs are worn by celebrities from all walks of life.
❖ Yoga: Yoga, a traditional Indian practice, has also become increasingly popular around
the world in recent years. Many people enjoy the physical and mental benefits of yoga, and it
has now become a mainstream form of exercise in many countries.

Indian culture is impacted by globalization, which includes:

❖ Westernization of Lifestyle: For instance, the adoption of Western clothing, fast food, and
consumer products has become widespread, particularly in urban areas. Traditional attire is
often replaced by Western-style clothing, and fast food chains like McDonald's and KFC
have established a significant presence in India.
❖ Language Shift: English, as a global lingua franca, has gained prominence in India due to
globalization. While English proficiency has become important for accessing global
opportunities, it has also resulted in a gradual shift away from regional languages. This can
be seen in the education sector, where English-medium schools are often favored over
those that teach in regional languages.
❖ Media Influence: Indian media, particularly the entertainment industry, has been
significantly impacted by globalization. Bollywood films, for instance, have incorporated more
 47

Western elements and themes to appeal to a global audience. The influence of Western
music, fashion, and lifestyle is evident in Indian movies and television.
❖ Cultural Appropriation: Global fashion brands and designers sometimes appropriate
Indian cultural symbols, textiles, and designs without proper acknowledgment or respect for
their origins. This has led to concerns about cultural appropriation and the commercialization
of traditional Indian art forms.
❖ Impact on Traditional Industries: Traditional Indian industries, such as handloom and
handicrafts, have faced challenges due to globalization. Mass-produced, cheaper goods
often compete with handcrafted products, affecting the livelihoods of artisans and traditional
artisans' communities.
❖ Youth and Cultural Shifts: The younger generation in India, influenced by global trends
and values, may have different perspectives on issues like relationships, marriage, and
personal freedom. This can sometimes lead to intergenerational conflicts and debates within
families and communities.

Cultural Conflicts:
Globalization has occasionally led to cultural conflicts. For example, there have been
debates about the celebration of Western holidays like Valentine's Day and Halloween,
which some view as encroaching on traditional Indian cultural practices.

Education Sector in India:

❖ The education sector in India is vast and diverse, characterized by a complex mix of public and
private institutions, a wide range of educational levels, and varying standards of quality.

Issues in the education sector in India can be addressed through a combination of policy
measures and targeted interventions. Here are some key issues and corresponding
solutions, along with examples of government schemes aimed at mitigating them:

1. Lack of Access to Quality Education:

- Solution: Improve infrastructure, enhance teacher training, and implement technology-
driven learning methods to ensure access to quality education for all.
- Example: The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) aims to provide universal access to quality
education by addressing infrastructure gaps, training teachers, and introducing innovative
teaching methods.

2. Gender Disparities:
- Solution: Implement policies and programs that promote girls' education, including
scholarships, awareness campaigns, and safe transportation to schools.
- Example: The Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao (BBBP) initiative focuses on improving the
female literacy rate by encouraging the education of girls and addressing gender-based
discrimination.

3. High Dropout Rates:

- Solution: Introduce retention programs, provide midday meals, and create a conducive
learning environment to reduce dropout rates.
- Example: The Midday Meal Scheme aims to improve attendance and retention by
providing nutritious meals to students in government schools.
 48

4. Quality of Teachers:
- Solution: Enhance teacher training programs, introduce performance-based incentives,
and recruit qualified educators to improve the overall quality of teaching.
- Example: The National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) works towards maintaining
and improving the standards of teacher education in India.

5. Inequitable Access to Higher Education:

- Solution: Implement affirmative action policies, scholarship programs, and outreach
initiatives to ensure equitable access to higher education.
- Example: The Post-Matric Scholarship Scheme for Scheduled Castes (SC) and
Scheduled Tribes (ST) students provides financial assistance to enable access to higher
education.

6. Outdated Curriculum and Pedagogy:

- Solution: Regularly review and update the curriculum, introduce skill-based education,
and promote innovative teaching methodologies.
- Example: The National Curriculum Framework (NCF) aims to provide a framework for
school education that incorporates contemporary pedagogical approaches and relevant
content.

7. Inadequate Infrastructure:
- Solution: Invest in building and upgrading school infrastructure, including classrooms,
libraries, and laboratories, to create a conducive learning environment.
- Example: The Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) focuses on enhancing
secondary education by improving infrastructure and access to quality education.

8. Digital Divide:
- Solution: Bridge the digital divide by promoting digital literacy, providing access to
technology, and incorporating e-learning tools in the education system.
- Example: The Digital India initiative aims to transform India into a digitally empowered
society, ensuring that technology is accessible to all, including students in remote areas.

9. Assessment and Examination Stress:

- Solution: Introduce continuous and comprehensive evaluation methods, reduce the
emphasis on rote learning, and provide counseling support to reduce examination-related
stress.
- Example: The Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) system, introduced by
the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE), focuses on assessing students through
various formative and summative assessments.

10. Lack of Vocational Education:

- Solution: Promote vocational education and skill development programs to enhance
employability and cater to diverse career choices.
- Example: The Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) aims to enable a large
number of Indian youth to take up industry-relevant skill training to help them secure a better
livelihood.

By implementing these solutions and aligning them with ongoing government schemes, India
can address the multifaceted challenges in the education sector and work towards creating a
more inclusive, equitable, and quality education system.

Key Aspects of NEP,2020

 49

The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 is a comprehensive framework that outlines the
vision and direction for the development of education in India. Here are the key aspects of
the NEP 2020:

1. Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE):

- Emphasizes the importance of foundational learning in the early years and proposes the
integration of ECCE into the formal education system.
- Focuses on holistic development, ensuring that children are prepared for formal
schooling.
2. School Education:
- Introduces changes in the school curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment methods. A
shift from rote learning to a more experiential and holistic approach is emphasized.
- Aims to make education more student-centric, promoting critical thinking and creativity.

3. Multilingualism and Language Diversity:

- Encourages the use of mother tongue or local language as the medium of instruction
until at least Grade 5, along with the gradual introduction of other languages.
- Aims to preserve and promote linguistic diversity while facilitating better understanding
and learning outcomes.
4. Assessment Reforms:
- Proposes a shift from high-stakes exams to continuous and comprehensive evaluation
(CCE) methods, including formative and summative assessments.
- Aims to reduce exam-related stress and promote a more holistic evaluation of students'
learning and skills.
5. Higher Education Reforms:
- Introduces a four-year undergraduate program with multiple exit options, academic credit
transfers, and a flexible curriculum. Emphasizes a multidisciplinary approach.
- Seeks to provide students with a broader and more flexible education, encouraging
interdisciplinary learning.
6. Vocational Education and Skill Development:
- Integrates vocational education into mainstream education, enabling students to acquire
practical skills along with academic knowledge.
- Aims to enhance employability and bridge the gap between education and industry
requirements.
7. Teacher Education Reforms:
- Proposes a transformative and integrated framework for teacher education, including
continuous professional development and a focus on multidisciplinary education.
- Aims to enhance the quality of teachers and align their training with the evolving needs
of the education system.
8. Use of Technology in Education:
- Encourages the integration of technology in teaching and learning processes.
Emphasizes the development of digital infrastructure.
- Seeks to enhance accessibility, flexibility, and effectiveness in education delivery.

9. Promotion of Indian Languages:

- Highlights the importance of preserving and promoting classical and regional languages,
integrating them into the academic curriculum.
- Aims to foster a sense of cultural identity and inclusivity by recognizing the richness of
India's linguistic diversity.

10. Research and Innovation:

- Emphasizes the importance of research and innovation in higher education,
encouraging the establishment of research-intensive universities.
- Aims to position India as a global hub for cutting-edge research and innovation.
 50

11. Regulatory Reforms:

- Proposes the establishment of a single regulatory body for higher education, replacing
multiple existing regulatory bodies.
- Aims to streamline regulatory processes, reduce redundancy, and promote autonomy
among educational institutions.

12. Equity and Inclusion:

- Focuses on addressing socio-economic disparities in education, promoting inclusivity,
and providing special provisions for underprivileged and marginalized groups.
- Aims to ensure that the benefits of education reach all sections of society, reducing
educational inequalities.

The NEP 2020 represents a paradigm shift in the approach to education in India, aiming to
make it more flexible, inclusive, and aligned with the needs of the 21st century. Its
successful implementation requires collaboration between central and state governments,
educational institutions, and other stakeholders.

Poverty
In 2011, government reports indicated that approximately 21.9% of people in India were
living below the poverty line.
➢ This statistic highlights the magnitude of the challenge and the pressing need for effective poverty
alleviation measures.

❖ Poverty can be broadly categorized into two types:

➢ Absolute Poverty: This concept is often defined by international organizations such as the
World Bank, which sets a specific income threshold, currently around $1.90 per day, to
delineate absolute poverty.
✓ Individuals or communities falling below this income level face extreme deprivation and struggle
to meet even their most basic needs.
➢ Relative Poverty: Relative poverty is a more flexible concept and is primarily due to
income inequality within a society.
✓ It refers to the condition in which people have significantly lower incomes and living standards in
comparison to the broader population.
✓ It doesn't rely on a fixed threshold but rather on the disparity in wealth and resources within a
given society.
 51

UNDP data On Poverty Estimation

❖ Global Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) was released by the
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Oxford
Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI) at the University
of Oxford. A total of 415 million people moved out of poverty in India
within just 15 years from 2005/2006 to 2019/2021.
❖ It said that 25 countries, including India, successfully halved their
global MPI values within 15 years, showing that rapid progress is
attainable. These countries include Cambodia, China, Congo,
Honduras, India, Indonesia, Morocco, Serbia, and Vietnam.
❖ In India, 415 million poor people moved out of poverty from
2005/2006 to 2019/2021, with incidence falling from 55.1% in
2005/2006 to 16.4% in 2019/2021.
❖ In 2005/2006, about 645 million people were in multidimensional
poverty in India, with this number declining to about 370 million in
2015/2016 and 230 million in 2019/2021.
❖ India was among the 19 countries that halved their global
Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) value during one period - for
India it was 2005/2006–2015/2016.
Source Credit: The Hindu

Causes of Poverty in India:

1. Overpopulation:
- Rapid population growth strains resources and job opportunities, contributing to
widespread poverty.

2. Unemployment:
- Lack of job opportunities, especially in rural areas, results in high unemployment rates.

3. Low Agricultural Productivity:

- Outdated farming practices, lack of modern technology, and unpredictable weather
conditions lead to low agricultural output.

4. Lack of Education:
- Limited access to quality education hinders skill development and employment prospects.

5. Social Inequality:
- Discrimination based on caste, gender, and ethnicity perpetuates economic disparities.

6. Urban-Rural Divide:
- Unequal development between urban and rural areas leads to rural poverty.

Effects of Poverty in India:

1. Malnutrition and Health Issues:

- Poor nutrition and lack of access to healthcare lead to widespread health problems.

2. Limited Access to Education:

- Children from impoverished families often face barriers to education, perpetuating the
cycle of poverty.
 52

3. Vulnerability to Disasters:
- Poor communities are more susceptible to the adverse impacts of natural disasters.

4. Crime and Social Issues:

- Poverty can contribute to increased crime rates and social unrest.

5. Cycle of Generational Poverty:

- Poverty often passes from one generation to the next, creating a cycle that is challenging
to break.

Mitigation Strategies for Poverty in India:

1. Employment Generation:
- Implement schemes that focus on creating job opportunities, especially in rural areas
(e.g., MGNREGA).

2. Agricultural Reforms:
- Modernize farming techniques, provide irrigation facilities, and ensure fair pricing for
agricultural products.

3. Education and Skill Development:

- Invest in education infrastructure, promote skill development programs, and enhance
vocational training opportunities.

4. Social Welfare Programs:

- Implement targeted welfare schemes to provide financial assistance, food security, and
healthcare to impoverished families (e.g., PM-KISAN, PDS).

5. Financial Inclusion:
- Facilitate access to formal banking and financial services for marginalized communities.

6. Affordable Housing Initiatives:

- Develop schemes that provide affordable housing options for the poor (e.g., Pradhan
Mantri Awas Yojana).

7. Gender Empowerment:
- Promote gender equality through initiatives that empower women economically and
socially.

Government Schemes for Poverty Alleviation

1. Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Yojana (PMGKY):
- Objective: Providing financial support and free food grains to vulnerable sections during
the COVID-19 pandemic.

2. Deen Dayal Antyodaya Yojana (DAY-NRLM):

- Objective: Alleviating rural poverty by promoting self-employment and organizing rural
poor into Self-Help Groups (SHGs).

3. National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA):

- Objective: Ensuring livelihood security by providing at least 100 days of guaranteed wage
employment in rural areas.

4. Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY):

- Objective: Promoting financial inclusion by ensuring access to financial services like
banking and insurance for all.
 53

5. National Food Security Act (NFSA):

- Objective: Ensuring food security by providing subsidized food grains to eligible
beneficiaries through the Public Distribution System (PDS).

6. Swachh Bharat Abhiyan:

- Objective: Improving sanitation and hygiene to enhance the overall health and well-being
of communities.

Addressing poverty in India requires a multi-dimensional approach involving economic,

social, and educational reforms, along with the effective implementation of targeted
government programs. Ongoing efforts are essential to break the cycle of poverty and create
sustainable livelihoods for the marginalized population.

Vulnerable Sections
Scheduled Caste
Some Data and Information Regarding Scheduled Caste:
❖ Population Share: As of the 2011 Indian Census, Scheduled Castes constituted
approximately 16.4% of India's total population.
➢ This highlights the significant size of this community within the country.

❖ Rural Majority: It's notable that the majority of Scheduled Caste individuals, about 74%,
reside in rural regions or areas.
➢ This reflects the socio-economic disparities and challenges that many Scheduled Caste individuals
face, particularly in rural settings.

❖ Historical Stigma and Discrimination: Discrimination against Scheduled Castes has been
pervasive throughout India's history, dating back to the evolution of the caste system.
➢ This long-standing discrimination has contributed to their disadvantaged position in society.

❖ Overrepresentation in Prisons: The fact that 20.74% of prisoners in Indian jails belong to
Scheduled Castes is indicative of the multiple factors contributing to their higher
representation in the criminal justice system.
➢ These factors may include poverty, limited access to justice, drug abuse, and other socio-economic
issues.

❖ Terminology: Prominent leaders and activists have used different terminology to refer to
Scheduled Castes.
➢ Mahatma Gandhi referred to them as "Harijan," which means "Children of God." Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar used the term "Dalit" to describe the same community.
➢ These terms reflect different perspectives on their identity and the need for social justice.

❖Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms: In 1919, the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms in British India

categorized Scheduled Castes as "depressed classes," recognizing their disadvantaged
status within society.

❖ Formal Use of the Term: The term "Scheduled Caste" was first formally used in the Simon
Commission, which was appointed in 1927 to propose reforms for British India.
 54

❖ Legal Recognition: The term "Scheduled Caste" was incorporated into the Government of
India Act of 1935, marking a legal recognition of this category within the colonial Indian legal
framework.

Current Status of Scheduled Caste (Census, 2011):

❖ Poverty Levels: Approximately 36.6% of Scheduled Caste individuals were reported to be
living below the poverty line in 2011.
➢ This highlights the persistent economic challenges faced by this community.

❖ Income Levels: Only 5% of Scheduled Caste households were reported to have a monthly
income above 10,000 Indian Rupees.
➢ This reflects a significant income disparity within the community and underscores the need for
economic empowerment.

❖ Literacy Rates: The literacy rate for Scheduled Castes was reported to be 66% in 2011,
which is lower than the overall literacy rate for India, which was 74% at the same time.
➢ This gap indicates disparities in educational opportunities and access.

❖ Gender Disparities: The data also reveals gender disparities within the Scheduled Caste
community.
➢ The literacy rate for Scheduled Caste women was 56%, which is notably lower than the national
average for women's literacy in India, which was 65% in 2011.

In India, several safeguards have been put in place to protect the rights and interests of
Scheduled Castes (SCs) and to address historical injustices and discrimination. These
safeguards are enshrined in the Constitution of India and various laws. Here are key
safeguards provided to SCs:
 55

Constitutional Safeguards:
1. Reservation in Legislatures:
- Article 330: Reserves seats for SCs in the Lok Sabha (House of the People).
- Article 332: Reserves seats for SCs in the State Legislative Assemblies.
2. Reservation in Local Bodies:
- Article 243D: Reserves seats for SCs in Panchayats.
- Article 243T: Reserves seats for SCs in Municipalities.
3. Reservation in Services:
- Article 16(4): Enables the state to make provisions for reservation in appointments for
SCs in government jobs.
4. Special Officer for SCs and STs:
- Article 338: Provides for the appointment of a Special Officer for Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes to investigate and monitor the implementation of safeguards.
5. National Commission for Scheduled Castes:
- Article 338A: Empowers the President to establish a National Commission for Scheduled
Castes to safeguard their rights and interests.

Legal Safeguards:
1. Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955:
- Criminalizes practices of untouchability and enforces penalties for offenses related to
discrimination.
2. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989:
- Provides for legal safeguards against offenses committed against SCs and STs and
prescribes stringent punishments.
3. Equal Remuneration Act, 1976:
- Ensures that there is no discrimination in remuneration between employees belonging to
the Scheduled Castes and other employees.

Educational Safeguards:
1. Post-Matric Scholarship Scheme:
- Provides financial assistance to SC students for pursuing higher education.
2. National Fellowship for Scheduled Caste Students:
- Offers financial support to SC students pursuing M.Phil. and Ph.D. programs.

Economic Safeguards:
1. Special Component Plan (SCP) and Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP):
- Allocates funds for SCs and Scheduled Tribes (STs) in proportion to their population for
economic development.
2. National Scheduled Castes Finance and Development Corporation (NSFDC):
- Facilitates economic development and provides financial assistance to SC individuals for
entrepreneurial ventures.

Employment Safeguards:
1. Reservation in Public Employment:
- Provides reservation for SCs in government jobs to ensure representation in various
sectors.
2. Stand-Up India Scheme:
- Facilitates bank loans for SCs, Scheduled Tribes, and women to promote
entrepreneurship and self-employment.

Social Safeguards:
1. Dr. Ambedkar Post-Matric Scholarship for Economically Backward Classes:
- Offers financial assistance to students from economically backward SC families.
2. Mukhyamantri Ambedkar Hastshilp Vikas Yojana:
 56

- Supports traditional artisans from SC communities by providing financial assistance and

training.

Housing Safeguards:
1. Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY):
- Aims to provide affordable housing for all, including SC individuals, with a focus on
constructing pucca houses.

These safeguards collectively aim to address historical injustices, eliminate discrimination,

and uplift the socio-economic status of Scheduled Castes in India. While progress has been
made, ongoing efforts are essential to ensure the effective implementation and enforcement
of these measures.

Mitigating the issues faced by Scheduled Castes (SCs) in India involves implementing
targeted measures to address historical disadvantages, social discrimination, and economic
disparities. Here are some key areas of concern and examples of government initiatives
aimed at their mitigation:

1. Education:
- Issue: Limited access to quality education.
- Mitigation:
- Example: Post-Matric Scholarship Scheme for SC Students
- The scheme provides financial assistance to SC students studying at the post-
matriculation or post-secondary stage to help them complete their education.

2. Employment and Entrepreneurship:

- Issue: Higher unemployment rates and limited opportunities for entrepreneurship.
- Mitigation:
- Example: Stand-Up India
- The initiative facilitates bank loans between Rs. 10 lakh and Rs. 1 crore to at least one
Scheduled Caste or Scheduled Tribe borrower and one woman borrower per bank branch
for setting up a greenfield enterprise.

3. Land Ownership and Agriculture:

- Issue: Limited access to and ownership of agricultural land.
- Mitigation:
- Example: Land Purchase Scheme for Scheduled Castes
- Some states have specific schemes that provide financial assistance or subsidies to
SC individuals for purchasing agricultural land.

4. Social Discrimination and Violence:

- Issue: Discrimination and violence against SC individuals.
- Mitigation:
- Example: Prevention of Atrocities Act (Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes)
- The Act provides legal safeguards and prescribes stringent punishment for atrocities
committed against SCs and STs, aiming to deter such offenses.

5. Healthcare:
- Issue: Limited access to quality healthcare.
- Mitigation:
- Example: National Health Mission (NHM)
- NHM focuses on providing accessible and affordable healthcare to all, including SC
communities, through various programs and initiatives.

6. Infrastructure and Housing:

 57

- Issue: Inadequate infrastructure and housing in SC-dominated areas.

- Mitigation:
- Example: Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY)
- PMAY aims to provide affordable housing to all urban and rural citizens, including SC
individuals, by ensuring the construction of pucca houses.

7. Political Representation:
- Issue: Underrepresentation in political positions.
- Mitigation:
- Example: Reservation of Seats in Local Bodies
- Many states have reserved seats for SC individuals in local bodies, ensuring their
representation and participation in the political process.

8. Financial Inclusion:
- Issue: Limited access to formal banking and financial services.
- Mitigation:
- Example: Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY)
- PMJDY aims to provide financial inclusion by ensuring access to banking facilities,
insurance, and pension schemes for all, including SC individuals.

9. Skill Development:
- Issue: Limited skill development opportunities.
- Mitigation:
- Example: Skill Development Initiatives
- Various skill development programs, such as the Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas
Yojana (PMKVY), aim to enhance the employability of SC individuals by providing them with
relevant skills.

10. Legal Aid and Awareness:

- Issue: Lack of legal awareness and access to justice.
- Mitigation:
- Example: Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act
- The Act not only prescribes penalties for offenses but also includes provisions for the
welfare and protection of the rights of SC individuals, including legal support.

Conclusion:
Government initiatives play a crucial role in mitigating the challenges faced by Scheduled
Castes in India. While these programs aim to address various aspects of socio-economic
development, their effective implementation, coupled with social awareness and inclusive
policies, is vital for creating a more equitable and just society.

Scheduled Tribes
Stats and Informations:
❖ The statistics and information you've provided offer insights into the demographic and social
characteristics of Scheduled Tribes (STs) in India, according to the 2011 census and other sources.

➢ STs Occupy 86% of the Indian Population (Census 2011): According to the 2011 census,
Scheduled Tribes make up approximately 8.6% of the total Indian population.
✓ This means that STs are a significant demographic group in India.

➢ Decadal Population Growth Rate: The decadal population growth rate for STs is recorded
at 23.6%.
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✓ This is notably higher than the overall population growth rate in India, which was approximately
17.6% during the same period.
✓ This indicates a relatively faster growth rate among STs.

➢ Sex Ratio: The sex ratio is an important demographic indicator.

✓ The sex ratio for India as a whole is 940 (i.e., 940 females per 1,000 males), while the sex ratio for
STs is higher at 990.
✓ A higher sex ratio among STs indicates a better gender balance.

➢ Prisoner Population: Approximately 11.14% of the total prisoners in India are from
Scheduled Tribes.
✓ This statistic highlights the potential vulnerabilities and challenges faced by STs, which may
contribute to their overrepresentation in the prison population.

➢ Number of STs and PVTGs: India recognizes 705 Scheduled Tribes. Among these, 75 are
categorized as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs).
✓ PVTGs are considered the most marginalized and vulnerable tribal communities and receive
special attention and protective measures to improve their socio-economic conditions.

Criteria for Inclusion in the ST List:

❖ The Lokur Committee, which was established in 1965 to review the criteria for the inclusion of
communities in the Scheduled Tribes (ST) list in India, provided the following criteria for inclusion:
➢ Indication of Primitive Traits: Communities considered for inclusion in the ST list should
exhibit certain primitive traits.
✓ These traits could include unique cultural practices, a traditional way of life, and a distinctiveness
that sets them apart from the broader population.
✓ Primitive traits are often indicative of the community's historical isolation.

➢ Distinctive Culture: Communities being considered for inclusion in the ST list should
possess a distinctive culture that sets them apart from the mainstream population.
✓ This cultural distinctiveness can encompass language, customs, traditions, and social practices.

➢ Shyness of Contact with Community at Large: A community's shyness or reluctance to

interact or assimilate with the larger society is one of the criteria.
✓ Such shyness can be a reflection of the community's desire to maintain its cultural identity and
autonomy.

➢ Geographical Isolation: Geographical isolation is an important factor in the identification of

Scheduled Tribes.
✓ Communities residing in remote and geographically isolated areas may have preserved their
distinct culture and way of life due to limited contact with the outside world.

➢ Backwardness: Backwardness refers to the socio-economic and educational

disadvantages faced by a community.
✓ Communities considered for inclusion in the ST list are often characterized by socio-economic
backwardness, limited access to education, and poor living conditions.
Issues/Problems of Scheduled Tribes (STs) in India:

1. Land Alienation:
- Issue: Historical and ongoing land alienation has deprived many ST communities of their
traditional lands.
- Mitigation: Implement and strengthen laws protecting tribal land rights. Facilitate
community-led land reforms and ensure proper implementation of the Forest Rights Act.

2. Lack of Education:
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- Issue: Limited access to quality education due to remote locations, inadequate

infrastructure, and cultural factors.
- Mitigation: Establish more schools in tribal areas, provide scholarships, and promote
culturally sensitive and multilingual education. Implement special educational programs for
tribal children.

3. Unemployment and Underemployment:

- Issue: Limited employment opportunities, leading to high rates of unemployment and
underemployment.
- Mitigation: Promote skill development programs, create avenues for sustainable
livelihoods in tribal areas, and implement reservation policies in government jobs.

4. Healthcare Disparities:
- Issue: Limited access to healthcare facilities, resulting in poor health indicators among
tribal communities.
- Mitigation: Improve healthcare infrastructure in tribal areas, train healthcare professionals
from tribal communities, and promote traditional healthcare practices.

5. Cultural Marginalization:
- Issue: The erosion of tribal cultures due to external influences and assimilation.
- Mitigation: Preserve and promote tribal languages, cultures, and traditions. Involve tribal
communities in decision-making processes that affect their cultural heritage.

6. Exploitation and Displacement:

- Issue: Exploitation by non-tribal entities and displacement due to development projects.
- Mitigation: Ensure the implementation of laws protecting tribal rights, conduct thorough
impact assessments before initiating development projects, and involve tribal communities in
decision-making.

7. Lack of Political Representation:

- Issue: Underrepresentation of tribal communities in political positions.
- Mitigation: Implement reservation policies in legislative bodies, encourage political
participation through awareness campaigns, and support the formation of tribal councils.

8. Social Discrimination:
- Issue: Discrimination and prejudice against tribal communities.
- Mitigation: Enforce strict anti-discrimination laws, promote awareness and sensitivity
training, and empower tribal communities to assert their rights.

9. Infrastructure Deficiencies:
- Issue: Inadequate infrastructure, including roads, electricity, and connectivity, in tribal
areas.
- Mitigation: Invest in infrastructure development, improve connectivity, and ensure that
tribal areas have access to basic amenities.

10. Vulnerability to Climate Change:

- Issue: Tribal communities often reside in ecologically sensitive areas, making them
vulnerable to the impacts of climate change.
- Mitigation: Implement climate-resilient development strategies, provide alternative
livelihood options, and involve tribal communities in sustainable resource management.

Government Initiatives for Mitigation:

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1. Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights)
Act, 2006:
- Mitigation: Recognizes and vests forest rights and occupation in forestland in forest-
dwelling Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers.

2. Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP):

- Mitigation: Allocates funds in proportion to the tribal population for economic development
and welfare schemes.

3. Integrated Tribal Development Agencies (ITDAs):

- Mitigation: Implement various development programs specifically designed for tribal
areas and communities.

4. Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS):

- Mitigation: Establishes residential schools to provide quality education to tribal children.

5. National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM):

- Mitigation: Focuses on enhancing livelihood opportunities for tribal communities through
skill development and income-generating activities.

6. Vanbandhu Kalyan Yojana:

- Mitigation: Aims at holistic development by addressing the basic needs of tribal
communities, including education, healthcare, and infrastructure.

7. Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 (PESA):

- Mitigation: Grants local self-governance powers to tribal communities in scheduled areas,
ensuring their participation in decision-making processes.

8. Special Central Assistance to Tribal Sub-Scheme (SCA to TSS):

- Mitigation: Provides additional funds to states for tribal development, including education,
healthcare, and infrastructure.

9. National Tribal Policy (NTP), 2006:

- Mitigation: Aims at the overall socio-economic development of tribal communities by
addressing various issues they face.

10. Pradhan Mantri Van Dhan Yojana:

- Mitigation: Promotes tribal livelihoods by harnessing the traditional skills and knowledge
of tribal communities and providing them with market linkage opportunities.

Addressing the issues faced by Scheduled Tribes requires a comprehensive and inclusive
approach, involving policy reforms, community participation, and sustainable development
strategies. Ongoing efforts are essential to ensure the effective implementation of existing
initiatives and the creation of new measures that respond to the evolving needs of tribal
communities.

Children

Impact of Child Labour:

1. Physical and Mental Health:

- Impact: Child labour can have severe physical and mental health consequences, as
children are often exposed to hazardous conditions, long working hours, and inadequate
nutrition.
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2. Education Deprivation:
- Impact: Child labour deprives children of their right to education, limiting their future
opportunities and perpetuating the cycle of poverty.

3. Social and Emotional Development:

- Impact: Children engaged in labor miss out on essential social interactions and the
development of emotional skills, affecting their overall well-being.

4. Vulnerability to Exploitation:
- Impact: Child labour makes children vulnerable to exploitation, abuse, and trafficking,
exposing them to physical, emotional, and sexual violence.

5. Cycle of Poverty:
- Impact: Child labour is often a consequence and perpetuator of poverty, as families may
rely on children's income for survival.

Provisions Against Child Labour in India:

1. Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986:

- Provision: Prohibits the employment of children in certain occupations and processes,
and regulates the conditions of work in others.

2. Right to Education (RTE) Act, 2009:

- Provision: Ensures free and compulsory education for children aged 6 to 14, aiming to
eliminate barriers to education.

3. Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015:

- Provision: Addresses child labour as a form of child abuse and provides for rehabilitation
and social reintegration of rescued child labourers.

4. National Policy on Child Labour, 1987:

- Provision: Outlines a comprehensive strategy for tackling child labour, including
rehabilitation of rescued child labourers.

5. Constitutional Provisions:
- Provision: Various constitutional articles, such as Article 21 (Right to Life), Article 23
(Prohibition of Traffic in Human Beings), and Article 24 (Prohibition of Employment of
Children in Factories), contribute to the protection of children from exploitation and
hazardous work.

Mitigations Against Child Labour:

1. Education and Awareness:

- Mitigation: Promote awareness about the importance of education and the harmful effects
of child labour. Implement campaigns to encourage school enrollment.

2. Effective Implementation of Laws:

 62

- Mitigation: Strengthen enforcement mechanisms to ensure the effective implementation

of existing laws against child labour.

3. Poverty Alleviation Programs:

- Mitigation: Implement poverty alleviation programs to address the root causes of child
labour, providing financial support to families.

4. Skill Development Programs:

- Mitigation: Provide skill development opportunities for adults in families engaged in child
labour, enabling them to find alternative, sustainable employment.

5. Social Protection Measures:

- Mitigation: Implement social protection measures such as conditional cash transfers or
scholarships to economically vulnerable families, reducing the need for child labour.

6. Rescue and Rehabilitation:

- Mitigation: Strengthen rescue operations to identify and rescue child labourers, followed
by rehabilitation programs to reintegrate them into society.

7. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR):

- Mitigation: Encourage businesses to adopt responsible and ethical practices, ensuring
that their supply chains are free from child labour.

8. International Collaboration:
- Mitigation: Collaborate with international organizations and neighboring countries to
address cross-border issues related to child labour.

9. Community Empowerment:
- Mitigation: Empower communities through education, health, and skill development
initiatives, creating an environment that discourages child labour.

10. Monitoring and Reporting Mechanisms:

- Mitigation: Establish robust monitoring mechanisms to track instances of child labour and
facilitate timely intervention.

Eliminating child labour requires a multi-dimensional approach, addressing both the root
causes and consequences. The concerted efforts of governments, civil society, businesses,
and international organizations are essential for creating a world where every child can enjoy
their right to a childhood and education.
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❖ NCRB Report 2015:

➢ Number of Child Rapes: According to the report, in
2015, there were 8,800 reported cases of children being
raped.
✓ These cases involve child victims who have been
subjected to sexual violence.
➢ Perpetrators as Neighbors: The report indicates that
in 35% of the reported cases, the perpetrators were
identified as neighbours of the child victims.
✓ This suggests that a significant proportion of child
sexual abuse incidents involve individuals who live in
close proximity to the victims.
➢ Family Member Perpetrators: In 10% of the cases, the
child victims were sexually abused by family members.
✓ This is a deeply distressing aspect of child sexual
abuse, as it involves individuals within the child's own

Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act

1. Purpose:
- The POCSO Act, enacted in 2012, aims to provide a legal framework for the protection of
children from sexual offenses and to ensure their safety and well-being.

2. Definition of Offenses:
- The Act defines various sexual offenses against children, including but not limited to,
sexual assault, sexual harassment, and using a child for pornographic purposes.

3. Age of Consent:
- The Act recognizes any person below the age of 18 as a child and establishes that they
cannot provide legal consent for any sexual activity.

4. Special Courts:
- Special courts are established under the Act to fast-track the legal proceedings related to
offenses against children, ensuring timely justice.

5. Stringent Penalties:
- The POCSO Act prescribes stringent penalties for offenders, including imprisonment and
fines, with provisions for enhanced punishment based on the severity of the offense.

6. Protection of Child Witnesses:

- The Act includes measures to protect the identity and privacy of child victims and
witnesses during legal proceedings, aiming to minimize their trauma.

The POCSO Act is a crucial legislative step towards preventing and addressing sexual
offenses against children, emphasizing the need for a child-friendly legal process and
ensuring strict punishment for offenders.

Impact of child marriage

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The Government of India has implemented several initiatives to prevent child marriage and
promote the well-being of children. Here are some key government programs and initiatives:

1. Beti Bachao Beti Padhao (BBBP) Campaign:

- Objective: Launched to address declining child sex ratios and promote the education and
empowerment of girls.
- Focus on Child Marriage: The campaign raises awareness about the adverse effects of
child marriage and encourages communities to discourage this practice.

2. National Plan of Action for Children, 2016:

- Objective: Aims at ensuring the well-being of children, including preventing child
marriage.
- Focus on Child Marriage: Includes strategies to address child marriage through
education, health, and social protection measures.

3. Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Empowerment of Adolescent Girls (SABLA):

- Objective: Focuses on the holistic development of adolescent girls, including education,
health, and life skills.
- Focus on Child Marriage: Promotes awareness about the harmful effects of early
marriage and encourages skill development for economic empowerment.

4. Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS):

- Objective: Addresses the health, nutrition, and development needs of children.
- Focus on Child Marriage: ICDS includes community-level initiatives to raise awareness
about the negative impact of child marriage on the health and development of girls.

5. Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006:

- Objective: Prohibits the solemnization of child marriages and provides for legal measures
against those involved in the marriage of a child.
- Implementation: The act establishes a legal framework to prevent and penalize child
marriages.

6. National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR):

- Objective: Works towards the protection and promotion of child rights.
- Focus on Child Marriage: NCPCR actively works to prevent child marriage by monitoring
and reporting violations and advocating for policy changes.
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7. Childline 1098:
- Objective: Operates a 24/7 toll-free helpline for children in distress.
- Focus on Child Marriage: Childline addresses cases of child marriage, provides
counseling, and facilitates intervention by local authorities.

8. Ujjawala Scheme:
- Objective: Aims at preventing trafficking and rescuing victims.
- Focus on Child Marriage: Addresses child marriage as a form of trafficking, providing
rehabilitation and support for rescued victims.

9. Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY):

- Objective: Provides financial assistance to pregnant and lactating women for their health
and nutrition needs.
- Focus on Child Marriage: By supporting women during pregnancy and lactation, the
program indirectly contributes to discouraging child marriage.

10. National Family Health Survey (NFHS):

- Objective: Collects and disseminates information on population, health, and nutrition.
- Focus on Child Marriage: The survey includes data on the prevalence of child marriage,
helping policymakers design targeted interventions.

These initiatives reflect the government's commitment to preventing child marriage through
legal measures, awareness campaigns, and comprehensive development programs for
children and adolescents. Ongoing efforts are essential to address the complex socio-
cultural factors contributing to child marriage and to ensure the effective implementation of
these initiatives.

Impact of Low Child Sex Ratio:

1. Gender Imbalance:
- Impact: Low child sex ratio indicates a skewed distribution of male and female children,
leading to gender imbalance in the population.

2. Social Consequences:
- Impact: The imbalance can result in social issues such as reduced prospects for
marriage, increased bride trafficking, and higher instances of violence against women.

3. Economic Implications:
- Impact: Over the long term, a skewed sex ratio may affect the labor force, economic
productivity, and the overall development of society.

4. Increased Violence:
- Impact: The shortage of women may lead to increased violence, including human
trafficking, forced marriages, and other forms of exploitation.

5. Generational Effects:
- Impact: The consequences of low child sex ratios can extend to future generations,
perpetuating imbalances and creating societal challenges.

Mitigations for Low Child Sex Ratio:

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1. Legal Measures and Enforcement:

- Mitigation: Strengthen and enforce laws prohibiting sex-selective practices, prenatal sex
determination, and female feticide.
- Example: The Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (PCPNDT) Act in
India penalizes sex determination and regulates the use of diagnostic techniques.

2. Awareness and Sensitization:

- Mitigation: Conduct awareness campaigns to educate communities about the importance
of gender equality and the consequences of sex-selective practices.
- Example: "Save the Girl Child" campaigns in various countries, including India, aim to
change societal attitudes toward the value of girls.

3. Economic Incentives:
- Mitigation: Introduce economic incentives for families that have female children,
encouraging a positive perception of the value of girls.
- Example: The "Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao" campaign in India involves financial incentives
and scholarships to promote the education of girls.

4. Women Empowerment Programs:

- Mitigation: Implement programs that empower women economically and socially,
providing them with opportunities for education and employment.
- Example: Microfinance initiatives and skill development programs for women can
contribute to their empowerment.

5. Community Engagement:
- Mitigation: Engage community leaders, religious institutions, and local influencers to
advocate for gender equality and discourage discriminatory practices.
- Example: Community-based initiatives in various countries involve leaders in promoting
gender equality and discouraging harmful practices.

6. Healthcare Access and Education:

- Mitigation: Ensure improved access to healthcare and education for girls, emphasizing
their equal value and rights.
- Example: Providing free healthcare and education to girls can address underlying factors
contributing to a low child sex ratio.

7. Strict Implementation of Marriage Laws:

- Mitigation: Enforce laws that prohibit child marriage and ensure strict penalties for
violations.
- Example: The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act in India sets the legal age for marriage
and prescribes penalties for those involved in child marriages.

8. Technology and Monitoring:

- Mitigation: Use technology, such as data analytics and monitoring tools, to track and
prevent sex-selective practices.
- Example: Implementing digital platforms for birth registrations and sex ratio monitoring
can aid in identifying areas with imbalances.

9. International Collaboration:
- Mitigation: Collaborate with international organizations to share best practices, gather
data, and implement strategies to address gender imbalances.
- Example: Partnerships between countries and international organizations can lead to
joint efforts to address the global issue of low child sex ratios.
Problems Related to Old Age People:
 67

1. Health Issues:
- Problem: Increased prevalence of chronic illnesses, disabilities, and age-related health
conditions among the elderly.

2. Financial Insecurity:
- Problem: Many elderly individuals face financial challenges due to limited income,
inadequate pension, or lack of family support.

3. Social Isolation:
- Problem: Old age can lead to social isolation, loneliness, and a reduced sense of
belonging.

4. Elder Abuse:
- Problem: Instances of physical, emotional, or financial abuse targeting elderly individuals.

5. Lack of Access to Healthcare:

- Problem: Limited access to quality healthcare, especially in rural areas, leading to unmet
medical needs.

6. Digital Divide:
- Problem: Many older individuals face challenges in adapting to and accessing digital
technologies, limiting their participation in the modern economy.

Effects and Impact:

1. Health Deterioration:
- Effect: Lack of proper healthcare and social support can lead to a decline in the overall
health and well-being of older individuals.

2. Financial Stress:
- Effect: Financial insecurity can result in stress, affecting both mental and physical health.

3. Mental Health Issues:

- Effect: Social isolation and loneliness can contribute to mental health issues such as
depression and anxiety.

4. Decreased Quality of Life:

- Effect: Cumulative challenges can significantly impact the overall quality of life for elderly
individuals.

5. Vulnerability to Exploitation:
- Effect: Financial and physical vulnerabilities increase the risk of elder abuse and
exploitation.

Mitigations:

1. Social Security Programs:

- Mitigation: Strengthen and expand social security programs, including pension schemes,
to provide financial support to the elderly.

2. Accessible Healthcare Services:

- Mitigation: Improve access to affordable and quality healthcare services, particularly in
rural areas.

3. Elderly-Friendly Infrastructure:
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- Mitigation: Create infrastructure that caters to the needs of older individuals, such as age-
friendly public spaces and transportation.

4. Community Engagement Programs:

- Mitigation: Develop community engagement programs to combat social isolation and
promote a sense of community among the elderly.

5. Financial Literacy Programs:

- Mitigation: Implement financial literacy programs to empower older individuals to manage
their finances effectively.

6. Elderly Care Facilities:

- Mitigation: Establish and promote the availability of elderly care facilities, including
assisted living and nursing homes.

7. Technology Training:
- Mitigation: Provide training programs to help older individuals adapt to and use modern
technologies, reducing the digital divide.

8. Legal Protection against Elder Abuse:

- Mitigation: Enforce and strengthen legal measures to protect older individuals from
abuse, exploitation, and neglect.

Government Schemes:

1. National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP):

- Scheme: Provides financial assistance to elderly individuals through Old Age Pension.

2. Pradhan Mantri Vaya Vandana Yojana (PMVVY):

- Scheme: Offers a pension plan for senior citizens, providing them with a regular income.

3. Integrated Programme for Older Persons (IPOP):

- Scheme: Aims at improving the quality of life for elderly individuals through various
support services.

4. Rashtriya Vayoshri Yojana:

- Scheme: Provides physical aids and assistive living devices to senior citizens to support
their health and well-being.

5. Ayushman Bharat - Health and Wellness Centers:

- Scheme: Focuses on strengthening primary healthcare services, benefiting elderly
individuals in need of medical assistance.

6. National Program for the Health Care of the Elderly (NPHCE):

- Scheme: Aims at providing comprehensive healthcare to the elderly, including preventive,
curative, and rehabilitative services.

7. Senior Citizens Savings Scheme (SCSS):

- Scheme: Offers a savings instrument with a higher interest rate for senior citizens to
secure their financial future.