Journal of Cleaner Production 260 (2020) 121113

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Mechanical performance of engineered cementitious composite

incorporating glass as aggregates
Adeyemi Adesina *, Sreekanta Das
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Windsor, Windsor, Ontario, Canada

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Engineered cementitious composites (ECC) are gaining massive attention in the construction industry
Received 13 December 2019 due to their enhanced mechanical and durability properties compared to that of conventional concrete.
Received in revised form However, the high cost associated with ECC as a result of the use of ultrafine silica sand has limited its
2 March 2020
widespread applications. Therefore, this study was carefully designed and carried out to develop a
Accepted 12 March 2020
cheaper and eco-friendly ECC by incorporating glass in the form of beads as aggregates in ECC. This study
Available online 17 March 2020
employs the use of glass to replace the ultrafine silica sand in the ECC in the range of 0e100%. The
Handling editor: Baoshan Huang mechanical performance of the ECC mixtures in terms of the compressive, flexural and tensile properties
was evaluated. Results from this study showed that glass can serve as an eco-friendly alternative to the
Keywords: ultrafine silica sand up to 100% replacement in ECC mixtures without any detrimental effects on the
Engineered cementitious composite mechanical properties. The use of only glass as aggregate in ECC mixtures resulted in a 5.3%, 21.5% and
Glass aggregate 32.5% increase in the compressive, tensile and flexural strengths, respectively. Sustainability and cost
Mechanical properties analysis of the mixtures showed that the use of glass as aggregate in ECC mixtures can be used to reduce
Sustainability
the cost and embodied carbon by 16.6% and 5.9%, respectively. Also, ECC mixture with only glass as
aggregate exhibited strain-hardening like behaviour with multiple cracks formation. Microstructural
investigation showed that fibres are well distributed in the matrix.
© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Sustainability awareness is increasing in the construction in-
dustry, and significant attention is being paid on the cementitious
composite sector to improve the sustainability of its materials. The
huge detrimental impact of the construction industry in terms of its
sustainability is a result of its high ordinary Portland cement (OPC)
consumption coupled with the degradation of the environment and
carbon dioxide emissions as a result of aggregates retrieval. One of
the promising cementitious materials that will be used in signifi-
cantly large quantities in the next coming years by the construction
industry is engineered cementitious composites (ECC). ECC are a
unique type of fibre reinforced composites (FRC) capable of
exhibiting higher tensile strength and strain. The higher perfor-
mance of ECC is based on its micromechanical design, which results
in saturated multiple crack formation (Li et al., 2002, 2001). The
micromechanics design optimizes the composition and interfacial
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: adesina1@uwindsor.ca (A. Adesina), sdas@uwindsor.ca
(S. Das).
properties of ECC to exhibit higher strain capacity while using fibre
volume as low as 2%.
In contrast to the conventional concrete, after the first crack, ECC
exhibits strain hardening like behaviour due to its high ductility
which behaves similarly to that of metals. Large-sized aggregates
are avoided in ECC mixtures as the micromechanical design in
which ECC was based, shown a decrease in interfacial friction with
these types of aggregates which reduces the possibility of having a
strain hardening behaviour (Li, 2007). Therefore, ECC is mainly
made with ultrafine silica sand (USS) with a maximum size of 250
mm and the average size of 110 mm. However, the USS used for ECC is
expensive and not readily available compared to the conventional
sand used for other cementitious composites (i.e. concrete, mortar
and grout). Also, the production process of USS which is energy-
intensive combined with its transportation increases the overall
energy and carbon footprint of ECC.
Several attempts have been made to improve sustainability and
reduce the cost of ECC mixtures with the use of high content of fly
€
ash (i.e. 2.2 times OPC) (Al-Najjar et al., 2016; Ozbay et al., 2013,
2012). Nevertheless, more significant savings and reduction of the
embodied carbon can be achieved by replacing the USS used in ECC

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121113
0959-6526/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 A. Adesina, S. Das / Journal of Cleaner Production 260 (2020) 121113
with alternative materials such as recycled materials (Guan et al.,
2019; Zhang and Zhang, 2018). Several types of recycled materials
have been incorporated into ECC as aggregate (Guan et al., 2019;
Huang et al., 2013; Li and Yang, 2017). For example, Li and Yang
(2017) incorporated recycled concrete fines while Zhang et al.
(2015) integrated crumb rubber as aggregate into ECC. Both
studies reported an increase in ductility. However, the latter re-
ported a corresponding decrease of about 35% in the compressive
strength. Iron tailings of various sizes were used as aggregates in
ECC by Huang et al. (2013a). The mixtures containing the iron
tailing had a reduction of about 10.6% in the tensile strain and no
significant reduction in the tensile strength.
Similarly, Turk and Demirhan (2013) were able to replace up to
100% silica sand in ECC with limestone powder (LSP). The incorpo-
ration of LSP as the aggregate was found to enhance the overall
mechanical properties of ECC at an early age. The use of waste ma-
terials as aggregates in other cementitious materials such as mortar
and concrete has been extensively explored (Adesina and Awoyera,
2019; Amaral et al., 2020; Awoyera et al., 2019; Awoyera and
Adesina, 2020). For example, Amaral et al. (2020) used a mathe-
matical model to optimize the proportion of ornamental stone waste
that can be used to replace sand in mortar mixtures. Their study
showed that the replacement of 21% by weight of sand with orna-
mental stone waste in mortar mixtures is optimum in terms of the
sustainability benefits. On the other hand, there exist large quanti-
ties of glass that are generated as wastes all over the world (Jani and
Hogland, 2014). Several studies have utilized the use of recycled
glass as partial replacement of the binder and/or aggregate in con-
crete and mortar mixture (de Azevedo et al., 2017; Dos Santos et al.,
2018; Islam et al., 2017; Wright et al., 2014; Xiao et al., 2020a, 2020b).
For example, Xiao et al. (2020b) were able to use glass as both binder
and aggregate as an eco-friendly alternative to stabilize road bases.
The use of glass for construction applications not only resulted in
improving the sustainability of the construction industry, but it also
helps to manage these wastes (i.e. glass) effectively. A similar study
by Xiao et al. (2020a) also showed that glass in the form of powder
can be used alongside fly ash as an aluminosilicate precursor in
geopolymer pastes. However, the use of glass products in ECC mix-
tures has only been limited to the use of glass powder as partial
replacement of OPC with no study on the use of glass as aggregate
(Adesina and Das, 2020, 2019; Siad et al., 2018, 2017). In order to
propel more sustainable application of ECC, eco-friendly ECC mix-
tures incorporating different proportions of glass (GL) in the form of
beads as replacement of USS was developed and evaluated in this
study. A comprehensive experimental study was carried out to
investigate the effect of different proportions of the GL on the me-
chanical properties of ECC. The mechanical properties investigated
are the compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural strength,
modulus of elasticity, and Poisson’s ratio. A sustainability and cost
analysis of the mixtures was also carried out to evaluate the sus-
tainability and economic advantage associated with the use of GL as
aggregate in ECC mixtures. Microstructural evaluation was also
carried on ECC mixtures to have more understanding of the micro-
structural properties of the mixtures.
This paper presents the experimental program employed in this
study in terms of the materials used and the test methods utilized.
The results of the experimental program are presented, analyzed
and discussed. Based on the observations made, conclusions were
drawn and presented.
2. Experimental program
2.1. Materials and mixture proportions
In order to explore the effect of the incorporation of GL solely as
aggregate in ECC, only the percentage of the GL was varied while
other components remained unchanged. Type 1 ordinary Portland
cement (OPC) that conforms to ASTM C150 (2012a) and ASTM class
F fly ash (FA) were used as the binder. The chemical composition of
the binders and aggregates is presented in Table 1. Ultrafine silica
sand (USS) and recycled glass (GL) in the form of beads was used as
aggregates in this study. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
images of the aggregates are shown in Fig. 1, and its physical
properties presented in Table 1. The particle size distribution of the
USS and GL is presented in Fig. 2. The maximum and average grain
size of the GL is 170 mm and 100 mm, while that of USS is 200 mm
and 110 mm. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibres with properties pre-
sented in Table 2 were used at 2% by volume to reinforce the ECC
mixtures. In order to reduce the bond between the fibre and matrix,
the PVA fibre was coated with a hydrophobic oiling agent (1.2% by
weight). To ensure adequate workability, a polycarboxylic high
range water reducer (HRWR) was used for all mixtures.
2.2. Mixture proportion
All ECC mixtures in this study were made with FA to OPC ratio of
2.2, and the water to binder ratio at 0.25. GL was in the range of
25%e100% to replace the USS. The detail mixture design for this
study is presented in Table 4. The denotation used for the mixture
ID in Table 4 indicates the percentage of USS being replaced with
GL. For example, 0 GL indicates solely USS was used as aggregate,
while 100 GL indicates that USS was totally replaced with GL as
aggregate in the ECC mixture.
2.3. Mixing and specimens preparation
All mixtures were mixed using a 70-L high-speed Hobart mixer.
OPC, FA and the aggregates were first dry-mixed for 2 min after
which the required water which has been premixed with the
HRWR was added to the mixture and mixed for an additional 2 min.
After excellent fluidity has been achieved, PVA fibres were
dispersed by hand slowly into the mixture as mixing continues,
followed by additional 1-min mixing. The fresh ECC mixtures were
cast into various steel moulds and covered with plastic sheets to
avoid moisture loss. All specimens were demoulded at approxi-
mately 24 h after casting and cured under water till testing day.
2.4. Tests
2.4.1. Compressive strength
The compressive strength of the ECC mixtures was carried out in
accordance with ASTM C 109 (2012b) using cubic specimens with a
dimension of 50 mm
50 mm x 50 mm. Five cube specimens were
tested for each mixture at each age (i.e. 28 and 90 days). The test
was carried out using a 300 KN Universal Testing Machine at a
loading rate of 900N/s.
2.4.2. Modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio
For this test, six specimens were tested to obtain the modulus of
Table 1
Chemical composition of binders and aggregates used.
Compound OPC FA USS GL
CaO 62.43 1.33 19.17 9.17
SiO2 19.78 61.3 46.65 71.55
Al2O3 5.38 19.91 6.6 0.72
Fe2O3 2.67 6.9 3.07 0.66
SO3 3.47 0.28 e e
Na2O 0.12 1.02 1.13 13.82
 A. Adesina, S. Das / Journal of Cleaner Production 260 (2020) 121113 3

(a) (b)
Fig. 1. Aggregates used (a) USS (b) GL.

Fig. 2. Particle size distribution of aggregates.

Table 2
Properties of PVA fiber.

Length (mm) Diameter (mm) Elastic modulus (GPa) Elongation (%) Tensile strength (MPa) Density (g/cm3)

8 40 41 6 1600 1.3

Table 3 Table 4
Properties of aggregates. Mixture proportion of ECC (kg/m3).

Properties USS GL Mixture ID OPC FA USS Recycled glass Water PVA fibre SP

Specific gravity 2.57 2.49 0 GL 380 840 460 0 305 26 2

Hardness, Knoop 430 515 25 GL 380 840 345 115 305 26 2
Compressive strength (MPa) e 248 50 GL 380 840 230 230 305 26 2
Absorption 2.71 0.12 75 GL 380 840 115 345 305 26 2
Shape Angular Spherical 100 GL 380 840 0 460 305 26 2
Colour Mix of white and brown Clear
Free silica content (%) e 0
4 A. Adesina, S. Das / Journal of Cleaner Production 260 (2020) 121113
elasticity (MOE) and Poisson’s ratio for each ECC mixture. In order
to obtain these properties, two linear variable displacement
transducer (LVDTs) were used to measure the change in length in
the vertical and horizontal direction. The test setup and schematics
are shown in Fig. 3. According to ASTM C 469 (2014), the
compressive strength of three specimens from each mixture was
first determined, and the MOE and Poisson’s ratio tests were
stopped at 40% of the average peak load obtained for each mixture.
2.4.3. Tensile properties
Direct tensile testing was employed in this study due to the
nature of the material instead of the split tensile test. Dog-bone-
shaped specimens were designed and made using ASTM E8
(2013) as guidance since there exists no universal standard to
evaluate the tensile performance of ECC mixtures. The dimension of
the specimens used in this study is similar to that recommended by
the Japan Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE, 2008). Dog-bone-shaped
specimens were used in this study compared to coupon specimens
as they have been found to eliminate the possibility of having a high
degree of cracking at the grip-specimen interface. Before testing,
the surface of the specimens was painted with a speckle pattern to
Fig. 3. MOE and Poisson ratio test setup (a) front view (b) plan view (c) testing.
allow the capture of strain using digital image correlation (DIC)
method. To determine the strain-hardening behaviour of the ECC
specimens, a direct tensile test was carried out on four specimens
for each of the ECC mixtures. Universal testing machine with 50 kN
capacity and displacement control was used for the direct uniaxial
tensile loading. Typical specimen schematics and test setup are
shown in Fig. 4. A quasi-static loading speed of 0.10 mm/min was
used during the test, and the load values are obtained from the
testing machine, while the extension and strain were obtained
using extensometer and DIC images captured respectively.
2.4.4. Flexural properties
The flexural performance of the ECC mixtures in this study was
carried out in accordance with ASTM C 1609 M (2013)). Prism
specimens with a dimension of 100
100
350 mm were tested
using four-point bending as shown in Fig. 5. A 25 mm LVDT was
used to measure the midspan deflection of the prism, and at the
same time pictures of the beam were taken every 5 s for DIC. For
each ECC mixture at a particular age, four specimens were tested. A
computerized accurate data acquisition system was used to obtain
the load and mid-span deflection during the test from the universal
 A. Adesina, S. Das / Journal of Cleaner Production 260 (2020) 121113 5

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 4. Tensile property test (a) front view of specimen (b) side view of specimen (c) test setup.

Fig. 5. Four-point bending (a) schematic of setup (b) setup during test.
6 A. Adesina, S. Das / Journal of Cleaner Production 260 (2020) 121113

testing machine and LVDT, respectively.
Based on the load and midspan deflection data obtained for each
mixture, a representative load-deflection curve based on the four
specimens tested for each mixture was obtained, and the flexural
properties evaluated from the curve. The first cracking load of the
mixture is the load obtained at the point where the material passed
its elasticity point (i.e. first point where the slope equals zero) while
the peak load is the maximum load taken by each mixture. The
flexural strength was obtained based on the maximum load and
cross-sectional area of the specimen.
2.4.5. Sustainability and cost analysis
A simplified sustainability and cost analysis of the mixtures
evaluated in this study and the conventional M45 ECC mixture was
carried out using a method similar to that used by Xiao et al.
(2020a) with few modifications. The conventional M45 ECC
mixture is the most common ECC mixture investigated in the open
literature and has a ratio of fly ash to Portland cement to be 1.2
(Abid et al., 2018; Li, 2007; Ma et al., 2015; Wang and Li, 2007). In
order to improve the sustainability of ECC mixtures in this study,
the ratio of fly ash to Portland cement for all mixtures was
increased to 2.2. The sustainability criteria (i.e. embodied energy
and carbon) and cost used for the analysis are presented in Table 5.
The references provided in Table 5 are for the embodied carbon and
energy, while the cost is the average price of the material in Canada.
A sustainability index and cost index were also calculated to eval-
uate the sustainability and cost advantage of the mixtures using Eq.
(1) to Eq. (3). The CO2i , Ei , C$i in Eqs. (1)e(3) represent the
embodied carbon index, embodied energy index and cost index,
respectively. These indices were obtained by dividing the sustain-
ability criteria and cost with the corresponding tensile ratio of the
mixtures (i.e. ti). The tensile ratio is obtained by dividing the tensile
strength of the mixture at 90 days with the corresponding tensile
strain.
 
kgCO2
Embodied carbon kg
CO2i ¼  
ti MPa
%
used to evaluate the microstructure of some of the mixtures. The
model of the ESEM is FEI Quanta 200 3D with a 20 keV accelerating
voltage. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images and energy-
dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) spectrums from the mixtures
were obtained and analyzed.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Density
The density of the ECC mixtures at 28 days is presented in Fig. 6.
It can be observed that the density of the mixtures decreases with
increasing GL content. This reduction in density is a result of the
lower density of the GL grains compared to that of the USS. The
density at the full replacement of USS with GL resulted in about 11%
reduction when compared with that of the control (i.e. 0 GL). This
observation is similar to other studies where the incorporation of
glass as aggregates into conventional cementitious composites (i.e.
mortar and concrete) was found to result in a lower density (Ismail
and AL-Hashmi, 2009; Ling and Poon, 2011; Penacho et al., 2014).
Structurally, reducing the density of cementitious composites is of a
significant advantage as it reduces the overall dead load of the
structural member. As a result of the reduction in the dead load,
there would be a significant saving in the cost of foundation and
reinforcement required for the structural member. Therefore, the
use of glass aggregate not only improves the sustainability as a
result of its replacement of the USS in ECC but also improves its
structural efficiency of the composite.
3.2. Compressive strength
The compressive strengths of the five ECC mixtures explored in
this study at 28 and 90 days are presented in Fig. 7. The results in
(1)

 
MJ
Embodied energy kg
Ei ¼   (2)
ti MPa
%

Cost ðC$Þ
C$i ¼   (3)
ti MPa
%

2.4.6. Microstructural properties

An environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM) was Fig. 6. Density of ECC mixtures.

Table 5
Sustainability and cost of materials.

Materials Embodied carbon (kgCO2/kg) Embodied energy (MJ/kg) Cost (C$/kg) References for embodied energy and carbon

OPC 0.83 5.50 0.24 Hammond and Jones (2008)

FA 0.01 0.10 0.015 Hammond and Jones (2008)
USS 0.026 0.175 0.55 Huang et al. (2013a)
GL 0.03 0.45 0.04 Hossain et al. (2017)
PVA fibre 3.6 106.54 49.47 Huang et al. (2013a)
Water 0 0 0.005 Jones et al. (2011)
HRWR 1.48 36.76 1.82 Huang et al. (2013a)
 A. Adesina, S. Das / Journal of Cleaner Production 260 (2020) 121113
Fig. 7. Compressive strength of ECC mixtures at different ages.
this figure represent the average compressive strength of five cubic
specimens for each ECC mixture and age. It can be observed that the
compressive strength of all mixtures was similar regardless of the
aggregate composition. This observation can be as a result of the
similar hardness and particle sizes of the glass and ultra silica sand
used in this study (Table 3 and Fig. 2). The maximum difference in
the compressive strength of the ECC mixtures is 9.5% at 28 days and
5.3% at 90 days. However, ECC mixtures incorporating GL have a
slightly higher compressive strength which slightly increases as GL
content increases. Compared to the control ECC mixture (i.e. 0 GL),
the compressive strength of 25 GL, 50 GL, 75 GL and 100 GL at 28
days are 2.6%, 4.7%, 6.8% and 9.5% higher. Similarly, at 90 days, the
compressive strength of mixture incorporating 100% GL as aggre-
gate is 5.3%% higher than that with only silica sand as aggregate.
The higher compressive strength of mixtures incorporating GL can
be attributed to the spherical shape of the GL grain which creates a
(a)
Fig. 8. Failed ECC specimens in compression (a) 0 GL (b) 100 GL.
7
more densified matrix. In addition, the slightly higher compressive
strength of mixtures incorporating GL which increases with
increasing GL can be attributed to the higher hardness of the GL
which results in a higher compressive strength capacity of the
composite. This observation is similar to that of Gorospe et al.
(2019) where they observed an increase in compressive strength
when similar glass beads with bigger grain sizes were used in
mortar mixtures. A possible pozzolanic reaction of the glass bead
can also be attributed to the higher compressive strength observed
for ECC mixtures containing glass as aggregate. Idir et al. (2011)
reported a significant pozzolanic reaction in cement-based com-
posites incorporating glass with particles less than 140 mm as fine
aggregate. These observations indicate that the use of glass as ag-
gregates in ECC mixtures does not result in any detrimental effects
on the compressive performance of the mixtures. In fact, the
compressive strength of the mixtures was slightly enhanced with
the incorporation of the glass beads as aggregate in the ECC
mixtures.
An observation of the failed specimens under compression
shows that all the ECC mixtures exhibited compressive ductile
failure which is in contrast to how conventional concrete/mortar
fails. This ductile failure can be attributed to the presence of PVA
fibres within the matrix which resulted in closely spaced parallel
microcracks formation under loading and provides the specimens
with a significant residual load after the peak load. The bridging
effect of the PVA fibre in the matrix also prevents the spalling of the
composites and formation of close parallel cracks in the direction of
the applied load. Pictures of some of the failed cubic specimens for
0 GL and 100 GL is presented in Fig. 8. This observation corresponds
to that made by Zhou et al. (2015) where they reported a ductile
failure for cylindrical ECC specimens incorporating different pro-
portions of USS as aggregate. ECC mixtures incorporating only GL as
aggregate (i.e. 100 GL) exhibiting similar ductile behaviour like that
with only USS as aggregate (i.e. 0 GL) indicates the use of GL as
aggregate does not any significant effect on the compressive
behaviour of the resulting composite.
(b)
8 A. Adesina, S. Das / Journal of Cleaner Production 260 (2020) 121113

3.3. Modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio

As of present, there is very limited literature on the modulus of

elasticity (MOE) and Poisson’s ratio of ECC mixture. Therefore, this
test was carried to bridge the huge knowledge gap by evaluating
these properties in the ECC mixtures investigated in this study.
MOE is one of the critical properties of cementitious materials as it
indicates the initial elastic behaviour of specimens under
compressive load while the Poisson’s ratio is the ratio between the
lateral and axial strain of the composite. The Poisson’s ratio is an
indication of the deformation of a material and can range between
0.1 and 0.45 (Belyadi et al., 2019). The higher the Poisson ratio of a
composite, the harder it takes the composite to fracture. The MOE
and Poisson’s ratio of the ECC mixtures at 28 are presented in
Table 6. The results presented in Table 6 represent the average
values of three specimens obtained using test procedures in
accordance with ASTM C469 as stated earlier. The MOE and Pois-
son’s ratio were calculated according to Eqs. (4) and (5),
respectively. Fig. 9. Correlation between the compressive strength and MOE of ECC mixtures.

S2  S1
E0 ¼
ε2  ε1
εt2  εt1
n0 ¼
ε2  ε1
In Eq. (4); E0 ; S1 ; S2 represent the MOE, stress corresponding to
a longitudinal strain of 50 millionths and stress corresponding to
40% of ultimate load, respectively. For Eq. (5), n0 , εt2 and εt1
represent the Poisson’s ratio, the transverse strain of the specimen
produced by stress S2 and transverse strain of the specimen pro-
duced by stress S2 , respectively. In both Eq. (4) and Eq. (5), ε1 and ε2
represent the longitudinal strain of 50 millionths and longitudinal
strain produced by stress S2 , respectively.
Table 6 shows that the incorporation of GL resulted in increasing
modulus of elasticity (MOE) with increasing GL content. The MOE of
mixtures incorporating 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% GL are 0.1, 0.8, 0.9,
and 1.3 GPa higher compared to that with no GL. However, there is
no distinct difference in the MOE of the specimens as the MOE of all
the mixtures is in the range of approximately 17e18 GPa. This
observation is similar to that made in a study by Zhou et al. (2015)
where they reported MOE of ECC mixtures up to 19 GPa when the
conventional USS was used as aggregate. The slightly higher MOE
(i.e. 19 GPa) observed in some of their mixtures can be attributed to
the higher binder to the aggregate ratio used (i.e. 5). However, their
ECC mixtures with a binder to an aggregate ratio of 2.5 similar to
that used in this study (i.e. 2.65) have an average MOE of 17.8 GPa.
Similar to the MOE, there was no significant difference in the
Poisson’s ratio of ECC mixtures incorporating only USS as aggre-
gates and those with different levels of GL as aggregates (see
Table 6). The Poisson’s ratio of all mixtures can be estimated to be
about 0.40. This result contradicts that of Zhou et al. (2015) where
the Poisson’s ratio observed was approximately 0.20 in ECC mix-
tures made with higher USS content. Similarly, the Poisson’s ratio
for concrete has been reported to be approximately 0.20 (Bouziadi
(4) et al., 2020). Therefore, the higher Poisson’s ratio (i.e. greater than
0.20) observed for all ECC mixtures in this study indicates it possess
higher fracture resistance which makes it suitable for applications
where enhanced mechanical performance is desired. The similar
(5)
Poisson’s ratio of all mixtures also indicated that there is no
detrimental effect of glass on the Poisson’s ratio of the mixtures.
Fig. 9 shows the correlation between the MOE and compressive
strength. It can be observed from Fig. 9 that there exists a strong
correlation between the MOE and the compressive strength. This
strong relationship is as a result of MOE being a compressive
strength dependent property, thereby following a similar trend
with the compressive strength observed for the ECC mixtures. This
observation corresponds with that of Xu and Cai (2010) and Zhou
et al. (2015), where they found increasing MOE with increasing
compressive strength in ECC mixtures containing higher USS
aggregate and prism ECC specimens evaluated respectively.
3.4. Tensile properties
Direct tension tests were carried out on dog-boned specimens to
assess their tensile properties. The observed tensile strength and
strain for each of the ECC mixtures evaluated are presented in
Table 7. The tensile properties reported for each mixture is based on
the average performance of four specimens in which the final
failure occurred within the gauge length.
From Table 7, it can be observed that the tensile strength of all
mixtures increases with age. This increase in the tensile strength of
the ECC mixtures with age can be attributed to the continuous
hydration and pozzolanic reaction of the OPC and FA, respectively.
The tensile strengths of 0 GL and 100 GL are 2.99 MPa and 4.40 MPa,
Table 7
Tensile properties of ECC mixtures.
Mixture Age (days) Tensile strength (MPa) Tensile strain (%)

0 GL 28 2.99 ± 0.63 2.74 ± 0.09

Table 6 90 4.02 ± 0.81 3.82 ± 0.14
MOE and Poisson’s ratio of ECC mixtures. 25 GL 28 3.96 ± 0.18 2.86 ± 0.08
90 4.33 ± 0.11 4.06 ± 0.34
Mixture ID MOE (GPa) Poisson’s ratio
50 GL 28 4.16 ± 0.12 2.98 ± 0.55
0 GL 16.6 ± 0.72 0.38 ± 0.01 90 4.41 ± 0.18 4.57 ± 0.13
25 GL 16.7 ± 0.45 0.37 ± 0.02 75 GL 28 4.35 ± 0.13 3.07 ± 0.06
50 GL 17.4 ± 0.77 0.37 ± 0.02 90 4.52 ± 0.27 4.75 ± 0.74
75 GL 17.5 ± 0.51 0.38 ± 0.01 100 GL 28 4.40 ± 0.94 3.31 ± 0.12
100 GL 17.9 ± 0.43 0.40 ± 0.03 90 4.89 ± 0.48 5.60 ± 0.38
 A. Adesina, S. Das / Journal of Cleaner Production 260 (2020) 121113
Fig. 10. Correlation between the tensile and compressive strength of ECC mixtures.
respectively, and these strengths increased by 34.4% and 11.14% at
90 days. A similar trend in the tensile strain can be observed as
shown in Table 7. The tensile strength of 25 GL, 50 GL, and 75 GL
increased by 1.20 MPa, 1.59 MPa and 1.68 MPa between 28 and 90
days. The incorporation of GL as aggregate into the ECC mixtures
was found to enhance the tensile properties of the mixtures. The
improvement of the tensile properties can be attributed to the
possible pozzolanic reaction with the glass which results in more
product formation and enhancement of the bond between the fibre
and the cementitious matrix. The tensile strength and ultimate
tensile strain of the evaluated mixtures increased with increasing
GL content. The tensile strength of 25 GL, 50 GL, 75 GL, and 100 GL
was 32.1%, 28.9%, 45.2% and 47.0% higher than that of reference
mixtures, 0 GL at 28 days, while at 90 days, they were 7.8%, 9.5%,
12.2% and 21.5% higher. Similarly, the tensile strain of 25 GL and
75 GL is 4.1% and 11.8% higher than the control mixture (i.e. 0 GL) at
28 days. At 90 days, the tensile strain of 50 GL and 100 GL is 24% and
46.4% higher than 0 GL. The improved tensile properties associated
with the incorporation of GL can be attributed to the physical
properties of the GL grains. In addition, the possible pozzolanic
reaction contribution of the glass aggregates can be responsible for
the enhanced tensile strength observed for mixtures incorporating
GL. The compressive strength of cementitious composites has been
closely correlated with its tensile strength. The correlation between
the tensile strength and compressive strength is presented in
Fig. 10. It can be observed from Fig. 10 that there exists a strong
correlation between the compressive and tensile strength of ECC
mixtures evaluated in this study at all ages. The R2 for the rela-
tionship at both 28 and 90 days was found to be 0.96 and 0.91,
respectively. These tensile property results further solidify the
viability of GL being a suitable alternative for the conventional USS
used for ECC mixtures.
3.5. Flexural properties
3.5.1. Load-deflection curve
The strain hardening-like capacity of ECC after the first cracking
demonstrates the ability to deflect more under loading compared
to that of conventional concrete or cement mixture. The load-
deflection curves from the four-point bending test of the beams
from all the ECC mixtures evaluated are presented in Fig. 11. The
curve presented for each ECC mixture and age is a typical repre-
sentation of the curve obtained from testing four specimens. It can
9
be observed from Fig. 11 that the GL content and age have a sig-
nificant effect on its load-carrying capacity and deflection. The
characteristics exhibited with the load-deflection curve of each
mixture is a good representation of the ductility of the ECC mixture.
3.5.2. Peak load, residual strength, toughness and flexural strength
ratio
The flexural properties obtained for the ECC mixtures from the
load-deflection curve at different ages are presented in Table 8. It is
observed from Table 8 that the peak load of the ECC mixtures in-
creases with age and increasing GL content. The increasing load
capacity can be attributed to the reasons mentioned earlier for the
effect of age, the pozzolanic reaction of the GL and GL content.
The residual strength of the ECC mixtures calculated in accor-
dance with ASTM C 1609 at different ages and net deflection of
0.5 mm and 2 mm is shown in Table 8. This table shows that there is
no direct correlation between the GL content on the resulting re-
sidual strength. However, the residual strength for each deflection
and each ECC mixture increased with age, except for 25 GL at
0.5 mm deflection. The increase in the residual strength of the ECC
mixtures with age can be attributed to the progress of hydration
and pozzolanic reaction within the matrix.
The toughness of the ECC mixtures was obtained by calculating
the area under the load-deflection curve and the results at each age
presented in Table 8. The toughness of the composites indicates the
capacity to resist cracking when loaded. It can be found from
Table 8 that neither the age nor the GL content has a significant
effect on the toughness of the mixtures except for 75 GL and 100 GL.
The toughness of all the ECC mixtures evaluated at 28 and 90 days is
in the range of 10e14 J and 11e15 J, respectively. However, it can be
seen that the toughness of ECC mixtures incorporating GL as 75%
and 100% replacement of USS is slightly higher than that o the
control (i.e. 0 GL). This effect of GL on the toughness of the ECC
mixtures showed that the use of GL as aggregate in ECC mixtures
even up to 100% replacement of USS does not have any detrimental
or beneficial effect on its toughness.
3.5.3. First cracking load
The first cracking loads of the ECC mixtures at 28 and 90 days
are presented in Fig. 12. The figure shows that the first cracking load
increases with age and GL content, and this is similar to the ob-
servations for other strength properties. The use of 100% GL as
aggregate led to a 60.0% and 38.4% increase in first cracking load at
28 and 90 days, respectively. In terms of age, the first cracking load
of 0 GL, 25 GL, 50 GL and 75 GL increase by 21.8%, 13.0%, 18.7% and
18.5% at 90 days when compared to that at 28 days.
3.5.4. Flexural strength (MOR)
The flexural strength (i.e. modulus of rupture or MOR) of the
mixtures at 28 and 90 days is presented in Fig. 13. It can be found
that the flexural strength of all mixtures increases with age. The
incorporation of GL into the ECC mixtures was also found to
improve the flexural strength of the mixtures at all ages. However,
the effect was found to be considerable only in mixtures incorpo-
rating 50% and more GL content as replacement of USS. For
example, the strength of 25 GL was approximately 1% and 2% higher
than that of 0 GL at 28 days and 90 days, respectively. Whereas, the
increase in strength in mixtures 50 GL, 75 GL and 100 GL was 25.6%,
31.1% and 32.5% as compared to the strength of 0 GL at 90 days.
These observations are similar to those reported by Batayneh et al.
(2007) and Mageswari and Vidivelli (2010) where they observed an
increase in the flexural strength of concrete mixtures incorporating
10 A. Adesina, S. Das / Journal of Cleaner Production 260 (2020) 121113

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)
Fig. 11. Load-deflection curves for (a) 0 GL (b) 25 GL (c) 50 GL (d) 75 GL (e) 100 GL.
 A. Adesina, S. Das / Journal of Cleaner Production 260 (2020) 121113 11

Table 8
Flexural properties of ECC mixtures.

Mixture ID Age (Days) Peak load (kN) Residual strength (MPa) Toughness (J) Flexural strength ratio (%)
D D
f 600 f 150

0 GL 28 6.16 1.45 1.83 10 0.5

90 7.04 1.46 1.85 11 0.5

25 GL 28 6.23 1.81 1.39 10 0.5

90 7.21 1.00 1.62 10 0.5

50 GL 28 6.76 1.74 1.54 11 0.5

90 8.83 1.99 2.62 14 0.5

75 GL 28 8.31 1.91 1.77 13 0.5

90 9.23 1.99 2.61 15 0.5

100 GL 28 8.97 2.02 2.62 14 0.5

90 9.32 1.89 2.73 15 0.5

Fig. 12. First peak load of ECC mixtures.

glass as fine aggregate. The increase in flexural strength with the

Fig. 13. Flexural strength of ECC mixtures at different ages.
incorporation of GL can be attributed to the surface texture, the
shape of GL alongside the possible pozzolanic reaction of the GL as
mentioned earlier. These physical properties of the GL alongside
the contribution of the pozzolanic reaction will result in the
densification of the matrix. The densification of the matrix will
result in an enhanced bond between the fibre and the matrix. These
results show not only is GL a viable substitute for USS in ECC, but GL
also enhances the flexural properties in terms of its flexural
strength.
Fig. 14 shows the correlation between the compressive strength
and the flexural strength of ECC mixtures evaluated at two different
ages (i.e. 28 days and 90 days). It can be found from Fig. 14 that
there is a linear relationship between the compressive strength and
flexural strength. However, the compressive strength has a better
correlation with the tensile strength (see Fig. 10) compared to the
flexural strength (see Fig. 14). This observation somewhat agrees
with that of Zhu et al. (2014), where they observed a direct corre-
lation between the compressive strength and flexural strength of
other ECC mixtures.
12 A. Adesina, S. Das / Journal of Cleaner Production 260 (2020) 121113
Fig. 14. Correlation between the compressive and flexural strength of ECC mixtures.
3.5.5. Midspan deflection
The deflection or bendability of a material is a good indication of
its ductility. The maximum midspan deflection of the mixtures
evaluated in this study is shown in Fig. 15. It can be concluded that
similar to the mechanical properties, the deflection of the mixtures
is also affected by GL content and age. The incorporation of GL into
ECC mixtures was found to extend the midspan deflection at the
replacement level of USS with GL content starting from 50% at an
early age (i.e. 28 days). However, at 90 days the midspan deflection
of all mixtures incorporating GL was higher than that of the control
mixture that is the mixture with no GL. The maximum midspan
deflection of mixtures 25 GL, 50 GL, 50 GL, and 100 GL increased by
7.4%, 40.8%, 30% and 36.8%, respectively when compared to 0 GL.
The increase in the midspan deflection of the mixtures can be
attributed to the morphology of the GL used. The uniform and
spherical shape of the GL particles allow the ease to pull out of the
fibres as the load increases.
3.5.6. Crack characterization
After the four-point bending test at 28 days was ended, the
formation of cracks on the tension face of the specimens was
evaluated by measuring the width of the cracks formed within a
gauge length using a digital optical microscope. The width of most
of the cracks formed for each ECC mixture evaluated is presented in
Table 9. Fig. 16 shows typical cracks developed on the tension face
Fig. 15. Midspan deflection of ECC mixtures.
Table 9
Average crack width of ECC mixtures.
Mixture ID Crack width (mm)
0 GL ~68
25 GL ~66
50 GL ~64
75 GL ~62
100 GL ~62
of a 100 GL specimen. Table 9 shows that the width of most cracks
formed is approximately 68 mm for 0 GL. The lower average crack
width observed for mixtures with GL can also be attributed to the
spherical shape and smoothness of the GL grains. The physical
properties of the GL coupled with its fineness will result in a
reduction in the void content and a corresponding lower crack
formation in the matrix. The possible pozzolanic reaction of the GL
could also be associated with the decreasing width of crack with
higher GL content.
3.5.7. Sustainability and cost analysis
Using the data presented in Table 5, the sustainability, cost and
the corresponding indices of the five mixtures evaluated in this
study alongside the conventional M45 ECC mixture are presented
in Table 10. The mixture design of M45 and the corresponding
tensile properties is obtained from Wang and Li (2007). A lower
sustainable index and cost index indicates a more environmentally
friendly and cheaper ECC, respectively. It can be seen from Table 10
that all mixtures evaluated in this study are more sustainable and
less expensive than the conventional M45 ECC mixtures due to the
higher content of OPC replaced with FA. The incorporation of GL as
aggregate in ECC mixtures also resulted in a significant reduction in
the cost and carbon footprint of the mixtures. ECC mixture made
with 100% GL as aggregate is 16.6% cheaper and has 5.9% less
embodied carbon than those made with only USS as aggregate. The
results herein indicate that the use of USS as aggregates in ECC can
be used to improve the overall sustainability and reduce the cost of
ECC mixtures.
3.5.8. Microstructural properties
The microstructural properties of the ECC mixtures were eval-
uated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-
dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). The SEM image of specimens
containing 0% and 100% GL is presented in Fig. 17. It can be observed
from Fig. 17 that the fibres are well distributed and embed in the
matrix. The consistent distribution of the fibres in the matrix will
ensure proper bridging between the components of the matrix
which results in the enhanced flexural and tensile properties
observed. Fig. 18 presents a closer look at the fibre in 0 GL and this
figure shows a large quantity of unhydrated FA which implies that
more increase in the mechanical performance will continue as the
pozzolanic reaction continues. Also, from Fig. 18, it is being
observed that the hydration products are well adhered to the PVA
fibre which shows there is a strong interfacial bond between the
PVA fibre and the cementitious matrix. The magnification of Fig. 17
is 100 times, while that of Fig. 18 is 500 times.
To further understand the microstructure of 100 GL, EDS anal-
ysis was carried out and the SEM image (at 1000x) and EDS analysis
of the evaluated spots and area presented in Fig. 19 and Fig. 20,
respectively. The oxide composition of the spots and areas shown in
Fig. 19 is presented in Table 9.
The highest peak of the spectrum showing area 1 is carbon and
potassium confirming the composition of the fibres remains intact,
and the hydration reaction has no significant deteriorating effect on
the fibre. The high intensity of silica observed in spot 1 and spot 2
 A. Adesina, S. Das / Journal of Cleaner Production 260 (2020) 121113 13

Fig. 16. Crack development on 100 GL.

Table 10
Sustainability and cost of ECC mixtures.

Mixture Embodied carbon (kgCO2/m3) Embodied energy (MJ/m3) Cost (C$/m3) CO2i Ei C$i

M45 786.8 7451.6 1850 749.3 7096.7 1762.4

0 GL 432.3 5098.5 1648 411.7 4855.3 1569.7
25 GL 425.8 5026.1 1589 405.6 4786.8 1513.8
50 GL 419.4 4954.3 1530 399.5 4718.3 1457.9
75 GL 413.0 4882.3 1472 393.3 4649.9 1402.1
100 GL 406.6 4810.5 1413 387.2 4581.5 1346.3

(a) (b)
Fig. 17. Fibers in mixture with (a) 0 GL (b)100 GL.

(Fig. 20) indicates the high presence of fly ash in the mixtures
which results in a higher content of silicon dioxide in the mixture as
indicated in Table 11.
Though the oxide quantification shows that CO2 is present in the
spots and areas, it should be noted that it is not literally the pres-
ence of the carbon dioxide gas instead it shows the possible reac-
tion of oxygen with carbon.
4. Conclusions
A comprehensive study on the viability of using glass as
aggregate in ECC was undertaken, and this paper presents the
results from the study which is on the evaluation of the mechanical
performance. This study explored the viability of producing an
economical and greener ECC with the use of GL as aggregate in ECC.
GL was used in a proportion ranging from 0 to 100% replacement of
conventional aggregate and several mechanical properties were
evaluated. Results from this study showed that glass aggregates in
the form of beads are an excellent alternative to replace the
expensive conventional silica sand used for ECC mixtures. In
addition to the lower cost of the glass aggregate, its use in the ECC
mixture can also eliminate the environmental deterioration, high
embodied energy and carbon associated with the processing and
transportation of ultrafine silica sand. Based on this extensive
14 A. Adesina, S. Das / Journal of Cleaner Production 260 (2020) 121113

Fig. 18. Unhydrated FA and hydration products on the PVA fiber.

achieved with the total replacement of USS with GL in ECC

mixtures.
2. The incorporation of glass as aggregate into ECC resulted in a
decrease in the density of the mixtures and the density reduced
as the level of recycled glass increased. Therefore, the use of
recycled glass also creates a pathway to significantly reduce the
dead load of structures made with ECC
3. This study did not find a significant effect of the incorporation of
glass on the MOE and Poisson’s ratio of ECC mixtures incorpo-
rating it as aggregate.
4. The use of GL as aggregates in ECC mixtures enhanced the
compressive, tensile, and flexural properties of ECC mixtures.
The 90 days compressive, tensile, and flexural strengths of ECC
mixtures with only GL as aggregates (at 100% replacement) is
5.3%, 21.5%, and 32.5%, respectively higher than that with only
USS as aggregate (0% replacement).
5. The use of GL as aggregate resulted in lower crack width for-
mation which can be attributed to the physical properties of the
Fig. 19. Microstructure of 100 GL showing GL, FA and PVA fiber. GL alongside the possible pozzolanic reaction of the GL with
time.

experimental study, the following conclusions can be drawn.

Based on this study, glass aggregates in the form of beads are an
excellent alternative to replace the expensive conventional silica
1. The sustainability of ECC can be improved significantly with the
sand used for ECC mixtures. Though the sizes of glass beads used in
use of glass as aggregate instead of the conventional silica sand.
this study (i.e. less than 300 mm) have been found to not result in an
The high cost associated with silica sand can also be eliminated
alkali-silica reaction. Further studies on the physical resistance
with the use of recycled glass. A reduction of 25.7 kgCO2/m3 and
such as abrasion and impact resistance of the ECC mixtures incor-
288 MJ/m3 in embodied carbon and energy, respectively, can be
porating glass should be carried out.
A. Adesina, S. Das / Journal of Cleaner Production 260 (2020) 121113 15

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 20. EDS spectrum of (a) spot 1 (b) spot 2 (c) area 1.
16 A. Adesina, S. Das / Journal of Cleaner Production 260 (2020) 121113

Table 11 stresses. In: Hydraulic Fracturing in Unconventional Reservoirs. Elsevier,

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