International Geology Review

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Asymmetric crustal structure of the ultraslow-

spreading Mohns Ridge

Tao Zhang, Jian Lin & Jinyao Gao

To cite this article: Tao Zhang, Jian Lin & Jinyao Gao (2020) Asymmetric crustal structure
of the ultraslow-spreading Mohns Ridge, International Geology Review, 62:5, 568-584, DOI:
10.1080/00206814.2019.1627586

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2019.1627586

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INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW
2020, VOL. 62, NO. 5, 568–584
https://doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2019.1627586

ARTICLE

Asymmetric crustal structure of the ultraslow-spreading Mohns Ridge

a,b
Tao Zhang , Jian Linc,d and Jinyao Gaoa,b
a
Key Laboratory of Submarine Geosciences, State Oceanic Administration, Hangzhou, China; bSecond Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of
Natural Resources, Hangzhou, China; cDepartment of Geology and Geophysics, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA,
USA; dKey Laboratory of Ocean and Marginal Sea Geology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology,
Guangzhou, China

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

New analysis of the geophysical data of the ultraslow-spreading Mohns Ridge and its off-axis Received 15 October 2018
structure reveals a distinctive asymmetric structure. We calculate residual bathymetry (RB) and Accepted 1 June 2019
residual mantle Bouguer gravity anomaly (RMBA) and decompose the anomalies into symmetric KEYWORDS
and asymmetric components between the ridge conjugates. The western flank of the Mohns Ridge at Mohns Ridge; vesteris
crustal age of ~50–15 Ma is characterized by a broad zone of elevated RB and more negative RMBA, plateau; asymmetric crustal
which we term the Vesteris Plateau (VP). The VP anomaly has a surface area of ~1.12 × 105 km2 and an structure; residual
excess crust volume of ~2.33 × 105 km3, making it a significant anomaly comparable to other bathymetry; residual mantle
anomalies such as the Bermuda Rise. Extending north of the Kolbeinsey Ridge for more than bouguer anomaly; off-axis
500 km, the VP lies above an anomalous upper mantle region of low shear-wave seismic velocity, magmatism; ridge flank
indicating that the VP might represent the northernmost reach of the Iceland-Jan Mayen mantle tectonic uplift
anomaly. In addition, the western ridge flank of the Mohns Ridge at crustal age of 6–0 Ma is
associated with higher RB and more positive RMBA relative to the eastern conjugate, indicating
tectonic uplift and associated exposure of lower crust and upper mantle near the ridge axis.

1. Introduction exhibits prominent asymmetric tectonic features (Vogt

et al. 1982; Crane et al. 1991, 2001; Géli 1993; Dauteuil
Abundant observations suggest that crustal structure can
and Brun 1996). Along the central (72.5°N) and northern
be highly asymmetric across a mid-ocean ridge axis as
(~73.5°N) sections of the Mohns Ridge, the topography of
a result of either magmatic or tectonic processes (e.g.
the western flank is systematically higher than that of the
Carbotte and Scheirer 2004). At a regional scale, asymmetric
eastern conjugate. The specific causes of observed topo-
crustal structure may reflect excess volcanism due to off-
graphic asymmetry are still being debated. For example,
axis hotspots, resulting in elevated topography and thicker
the asymmetric topography at the northern end of the
crust at the ridge flank with off-axis volcanism (e.g. Sleep
Mohns Ridge was interpreted to be the result of complex
1990; Ito et al. 2003; Dyment et al. 2007; Wang et al. 2011). At
compressional tectonic interaction between the Mohns
a local scale, asymmetry may be an expression of local
and Knipovich Ridges (Crane et al. 2001), or as the result of
tectonic extension and uplift near the ridge axis, especially
tectonic extension on large normal and detachment faults
at the ‘inside corner’ of a ridge-transform intersection (e.g.
(Bruvoll et al. 2009; Pedersen et al. 2010). In order to better
Severinghaus and Macdonald 1988; Tucholke and Lin 1994;
understand the underlying causes of the observed asym-
Tucholke et al. 1998; Smith et al. 2006; Searle and Bralee
metric topography, it is necessary to also consider gravity
2007; Escartín et al. 2008; Wang et al. 2015). Also at a local
and seismic velocity anomalies. Furthermore, there is
scale, the footwall side of normal or detachment faults has
a need to investigate the potential causes of asymmetry
been associated with elevated topography and thinned
within the broader context of regional tectonics.
crust (e.g. Buck 1988; Tucholke and Lin 1994; Escartín and
In this paper, we conduct a comprehensive analysis of
Lin 1995; Cann et al. 1997; Tucholke et al. 1998).
the topography and gravity anomalies of the entire Mohns
One of the most prominent examples of asymmetric
Ridge and off-axis regions with crustal age of ~50–0 Ma,
crustal structure has been identified along the ultraslow-
aiming at a better understanding of the underlying causes
spreading Mohns Ridge. Stretching from the Jan Mayen
of observed crustal asymmetry. We first calculate residual
Fracture Zone (FZ) in the south to the Knipovich Ridge in
bathymetry (RB) and residual mantle Bouguer anomaly
the north (Figure 1), the 550-km-long Mohns Ridge
(RMBA) of the Mohns Ridge and off-axis regions. We

CONTACT Jian Lin, jlin@whoi.edu; Department of Geology and Geophysics, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA, USA
Supplementary data can be accessed here.
© 2019 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
 INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 569

Figure 1. (a) Location map of the North Atlantic region. The base map is derived from SRTM30_PLUS (Smith and Sandwell 1997). TT’
shows the location of the profile in Figure 9(b). Insert map: Red dots show paleo-position of the Iceland hotspot at 10 Ma intervals
(Lawver and Müller 1994). (b) Bathymetry of the Mohns Ridge and surrounding regions. Dashed frame indicates the position of
Figure 2–4. Boxes A and B indicate areas with multibeam bathymetric data (Renard et al. 1989; Pedersen et al. 2010). Spreading
rates are based on the Nuvel-1 model (DeMets et al. 1994). VP, Vesteris Plateau; VS, Vesteris Seamount; EB, Eggvin Bank; JM, Jan
Mayen Ridge.

then analyze the correlations between RB and RMBA and
their relationship to shear-wave seismic velocity anoma-
lies in the upper mantle. The origins of the asymmetry are
considered with respect to the hotspot-related Vesteris
Plateau (VP) and near-ridge tectonism.
2. Geological setting
The Mohns Ridge provides a natural laboratory to exam-
ine the relationship among symmetric/asymmetric crustal
structure, hotspot magmatic anomalies, and tectonism in
an ultraslow-spreading setting. The spreading rate of the
Mohns Ridge has changed several times since the initial
spreading at magnetic anomaly chron C24B (~53 Ma)
(Eldholm et al. 1990; Géli 1993; Mosar et al. 2002): the
full spreading rate was 36 mm/yr at anomaly C23
(~51 Ma), decreased to less than 10 mm/yr at anomaly
C7 (~24 Ma), and then increased to the present-day rate of
~15–17 mm/yr. The present-day spreading rate varies
from ~17 mm/yr at the southern end of the Mohns
Ridge to ~15 mm/yr at the northern end.
The Mohns Ridge evolved from continental rifting
between the North American and Eurasian plates
(Talwani and Eldholm 1977; Torsvik et al. 2001; Engen
et al. 2008). Between anomalies C13n (~33 Ma) and C7
(~24 Ma), the spreading direction of the Mohns Ridge
changed from ~150° to 110°-120° with a ~ 30°–40°coun-
ter-clockwise rotation, while the overall trend of the ridge
axis remained unchanged, causing the spreading direc-
tion to become highly oblique to the overall trend of the
ridge axis (Dauteuil and Brun 1996; Engen et al. 2008).
However, local strikes of neo-volcanic ridges are nearly
perpendicular to the spreading direction, indicating little
local-scale oblique spreading (Géli et al. 1994; Dauteuil
and Brun 1996).
Due to the presence of the Iceland (Vogt et al. 1982)
and Jan Mayen (Neumann and Schilling 1984; Schilling
et al. 1999) hotspots, the rift valley of the Mohns Ridge
deepens systematically northward from its southern end
near the Jan Mayen FZ. Limited seismic data have
revealed on-axis crustal thickness of 3.4–4.0 km at the
central section (72.5°N) of the Mohns Ridge (Klingelhöfer
et al. 2000), which is significantly thinner than the global
average crustal thickness of 6–7 km (e.g. Chen 1992).
Average crustal thickness near 72.5°N on the eastern
flank is ~4.5 km at 22–18 Ma, decreasing to 3.6–4.0 km
at crustal age of 15–3 Ma (Klingelhöfer et al. 2000).
Asymmetry in morphology of the Mohns Ridge is
observed on both regional and local scales. Sub-
sedimentary basement on the western flank is consis-
tently more elevated than the eastern flank (Vogt et al.
1982; Géli 1993). For crust younger than 12 Ma, the more
elevated topography on the western flank is confirmed by
high-resolution multibeam bathymetry in at least two
survey areas (Figure 1(b)). In Box A at the junction of the
Mohns and Knipovich Ridges, the western rift shoulder is
570 T. ZHANG ET AL.

higher than the eastern conjugate by 600–800 m (Bruvoll thickness of Eldholm and Windisch (1974) (Figure 2(b)).
et al. 2009). Detailed studies have revealed that the higher The sediment grid at 1-deg grid spacing from Laske and
topography on the western flank may have resulted from Masters (1997) are also used for areas near continental
tectonism and detachment faulting (Bruvoll et al. 2009; margins to supplement the NGDC data. In general,
Pedersen et al. 2010). In Box B at 72.5°N (Figure 1), the
western rift shoulder is ~500 m higher than the eastern
conjugate (Renard et al. 1989; Géli 1993). Furthermore,
most faults with vertical throw greater than 50 m are
concentrated on the western shoulder, in sharp contrast
to the much smoother seafloor of the eastern conjugate
(Dauteuil and Brun 1996).

3. Data and methods

3.1 Data sources
We use satellite-derived free-air gravity anomaly (FAA)
data with grid spacing of 1-min (version 23.1, http://
topex.ucsd.edu/marine_grav/mar_grav.html, Sandwell
and Smith 1997; Sandwell et al. 2014, Figure 2(a)). In Box
B of the study area (Figure 1), the satellite-derived FAA
from Sandwell et al. (2014) are coherent (γ2 ≥ 0.5) with
shipboard gravity for wavelengths longer than 13 km
(Figure S1(a)). The standard deviation (STD) difference
between the satellite-derived and shipboard gravity is
3.7 mGal (Figure S1(b–c)), while the internal STD of the
shipboard gravity at crossover points is 2.3 mGal.
We use a bathymetric grid with 1-min spacing from the
global topography dataset of Smith and Sandwell (1997),
which is the predicted topography derived from satellite
gravity data together with available ship track echo
sounding measurements (version 18.1, http://topex.ucsd.
edu/WWW_html/mar_topo.html). In our study area along
the Mohns Ridge axis (Figure S2), approximately 85% of
the grid cells are constrained by at least one echo sound-
ing measurement. Our analysis reveals that the composite
topographic data of our study area (Figure S2) are coher-
ent (γ2 ≥ 0.5) with echo sounding data down to a wave-
length of 7 km for grid cells with at least one echo
sounding measurement (Figure S3(a)). For grid cells with-
out echo sounding measurements, features with wave-
lengths greater than ~15 km are coherent (γ2 ≥ 0.5,
Figure S3(a)). The calculated STD between the composite
and echo sounding topography for individual data cells
are 66 m and 113 m (Figure S3(c)), respectively, for grid
cells with and without at least one echo sounding
measurement.
We use the sediment thickness data with 5-min spa- Figure 2. Data used in this study. (a) Free-air gravity anomaly
cing from Divins (2003), which are downloaded from the (FAA) from Sandwell and Smith (1997). (b) Sediment thickness
National Geodetic Data Center (NGDC, http://www.ngdc. (Laske and Masters 1997; Divins 2003). Areas with only the
relatively low-resolution sediment data from Laske and Masters
noaa.gov/mgg/sedthick/sedthick.html). For our study
(1997) are masked by a translucent pattern. (c) Crustal age
area, the sediment data in the Divins (2003) dataset are based on magnetic data (Müller et al. 2008). White lines corre-
primarily based on the seismically-determined sediment spond to isochrons at 5 Ma intervals.
 INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 571

sediment thickness is less than 500 m on the Mohns Ridge

axis and is in general thicker on the eastern flank than the
western conjugate. Sediment thickness reaches more
than 2,000 m on the eastern flank near the Bear Island
sediment fan at ~72°N, 10°E.
We use the magnetic anomaly-derived crustal age data
with 2-min grid spacing (Figure 2(c)) from Müller et al.
(2008) to estimate the gravitational effects of lithospheric
cooling. For our study area, the estimated age uncertain-
ties from the Müller et al. (2008) database are less than
1 Ma for crust younger than 35 Ma. However, age uncer-
tainties could be as large as 5 Ma for seafloor older than
35 Ma, especially for areas close to the Jan Mayen FZ,
Greenland FZ, and Norwegian margin (Figure S4).

3.2 Residual bathymetry

The RB is calculated by removing the topographic
effects of sediment loading and lithospheric cooling
from the observed bathymetry (Figure 3(a)). The
removed sediment loading effects include both the
present-day sediment thickness and the estimated iso-
static topographic adjustment based on the empirical
relationship of Crough (1983). We also remove esti-
mated seafloor subsidence (d) with age (t) based on
the global lithospheric cooling model of Stein and Stein
(1992), as shown in formula (1):
1
dðtÞ ¼ C0 þ C1 t2 ðmÞt < 20Ma (1)

¼ C2  C3 expðC4 tÞðmÞt  20Ma

where C0 , C1 , C2 , C3 , and C4 are assumed to be 2,600,
365, 5,651, 2,473, and −0.0278, respectively, based on
the model of Stein and Stein (1992). Thus, the RB
should reflect the initial topography formed at the
spreading axis together with further topographic
changes induced by off-axis magmatism and
tectonism.

3.3 Residual mantle bouguer gravity anomaly and

crustal thickness
We calculate the mantle Bouguer gravity anomaly (MBA,
Figure S5) by removing the gravitational effects of the
water-sediment, sediment-crust, and crust-mantle inter-
faces from the FAA, assuming a reference crustal thickness
of 4 km as suggested by the seismic refraction data
(Klingelhöfer et al. 2000) collected in Box B at the Mohns
Ridge. The densities for seawater, crust, and mantle are
assumed to be 1,030, 2,800, and 3,300 kg/m3, respectively,
while the densities for sediment are assumed to be 1,950
and 2,100 kg/m3 for sediment layers at depth ranges of
Figure 3. Residual bathymetry of the Mohns Ridge and study
region. (a) Residual bathymetry. The Vesteris Plateau (VP) with
prominent residual bathymetry is marked with dashed line. (b)
Symmetric residual bathymetry. (c) Asymmetric residual bathy-
metry. Locations of flowlines A-A’ to F-F’ in Figure 6–7 are
shown. Areas with only low-resolution sediment data are
masked by a translucent pattern.
0–500 m and 500–1,500 m, respectively. The calculation
follows the methods of Parker (1973) and Kuo and Forsyth
(1988).
572 T. ZHANG ET AL.

We further calculate the residual mantle Bouguer grav-

ity anomaly (RMBA, Figure 4) by removing the gravitational
effects of lithospheric cooling from the MBA, assuming
vertical cooling of a 100-km-thick lithosphere with top
and bottom temperatures of 0°C and 1,350°C, respectively,
and density anomaly ΔρðTÞ¼ρ0 ½1  αðTT0 Þ, where ρ(T)
is mantle density and ρ0 is the mantle density at reference
temperature T0. We assign a thermal expansion coefficient
of α = 3.5 × 10−5/K. Thus, the RMBA reflects the combina-
tion of crustal thickness variations and mantle/crustal den-
sity anomalies deviating from the assumed reference
models.
We also calculate an end-member crustal thickness
model by downward continuation of the RMBA signals
(e.g. Parker 1973; Kuo and Forsyth 1988; Lin et al. 1990;
Wang et al. 2011; Lin and Zhu 2015). The assumed
depth of downward continuation from the sea surface
is 7 km to account for the average seafloor depth of
3 km and average crustal thickness of 4 km according
to the seismic refraction data in the 72°N region
(Klingelhöfer et al. 2000).

3.4 Symmetric and asymmetric components of RB

and RMBA
To reveal the subtle features in the topography and
gravity anomalies, we decompose the RB and RMBA
grids into symmetric and asymmetric components
across the Mohns Ridge. Conjugate points on the two
flanks of the Mohns Ridge are first identified through
constructing a series of flowlines using the GPlates soft-
ware (Seton et al. 2012, http://www.gplates.org).
For each pair of conjugate points on the two flanks,
we chose the flank with the deeper RB as a reference
point and assigned it as the symmetric component
(RBsym). The asymmetric component is then calculated
as RBasym = RBtotal – RBsym, where RBtotal is the total
residual bathymetry. For a RMBA pair, we select the
flank with the more positive RMBA as a reference
point and assign it as symmetric component RMBAsym.
The asymmetric component is then calculated as
RMBAasym = RMBAtotal – RMBAsym. The resulting grids of
the symmetric and asymmetric RB and RMBA are shown Figure 4. Residual mantle Bouguer gravity anomaly (RMBA) of
in Figures 3 and 4, respectively. the Mohns Ridge and study region. (a) RMBA. (b) Symmetric
RMBA. (c) Asymmetric RMBA. Black contour lines show where
the RMBA is more negative than −70 mGal. The Vesteris
4. Results Plateau (VP) with negative asymmetric RMBA is marked with
dashed line. Areas with only low-resolution sediment data are
In this section, we first highlight the characteristics of masked by a translucent pattern.
the along- and across-isochron variations in the RB and
4.1 Along-isochron variations on the eastern flank
RMBA. We then identify the distinctive asymmetric fea-
tures in the RB and RMBA that reflect off-axis and near- Along the Mohns Ridge axis (Figure 5(a)), the RB deepens
ridge processes. systematically northward by ~2.0 km. Local variations of
 INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 573

0.3–1.3 km with length scales of 15–45 km are also
observed, reflecting segmentation of the Mohns Ridge.
Along the 5 Ma crustal isochron, the RB averaged over
a 5 Ma age bin first deepens sharply by ~0.7 km within the
first 50–80 km north of the Jan Mayen FZ and then
deepens much more gradually northward by ~0.9 km at
distance of 80–550 km (Figure 5(b)). Along the isochrons
of 15, 25, and 35 Ma, the averaged RB also deepens north-
ward by ~0.5, ~0.3, and ~0.3 km, respectively, over the
entire isochron length (Figure 5(c–e)).
The RMBA along the Mohns Ridge axis increases north-
ward by ~90 mGal (Figure 5(a)), indicating thinner crust
and/or cooler mantle in the north. Along the 5 Ma iso-
chron, the averaged RMBA shows variations similar to the
RMBA along the ridge axis (Figure 5(b)). Along isochrons
of 15, 25, and 35 Ma, the along-isochron variations in the
averaged RMBA are ~70, ~15 and ~35 mGal, respectively
(Figure 5(c–e)).
4.2 Along-isochron variations on the western flank
The along-isochron variations in the RB and RMBA are
much greater on the western flank than the eastern
conjugate (Figure 5(f–i)). Along the 5 Ma isochron, the
averaged RB deepens sharply by ~1.0 km within the
first 50–80 km north of the Jan Mayen FZ. The averaged
RB deepens northward by 0.8–1.3 km along the
5–35 Ma isochrons. Along the 5, 15, 25, and 35 Ma
isochrons, the averaged RMBA increases by ~160,
~120, ~90, and ~110 mGal, respectively (Figure 5(f–i)).
4.3 Across-isochron variations
Along all flowlines across the Mohns ridge axis, the most
prominent local-scale feature of the RB is a rift valley from
~2 Ma to the present, which is 1.3 ± 0.2 km deeper than
the surrounding seafloor (Figure 6). Along flowline A-A’ on
the western flank (Figure 6(a)), the RB deepens by ~0.9 km
from 50 Ma to 2 Ma, with a local RB high centred at 33 Ma.
The most elevated RB along flowline B-B’ is located at the
Vesteris Seamount at crust age of ~41 Ma (Figure 6(b)).
Along all flowlines, the variations in RMBA on the
eastern flank are less than 60 mGal, which are generally
smaller than the variations of 45–120 mGal on the
western flank (Figure 6). Along flowline A-A’ on the
western flank, the RMBA increases by ~120 mGal from
50 Ma to the present, indicating thicker crust and/or
warmer mantle under older seafloor. The amplitude of
the RMBA variations from 50 Ma to the present then
gradually decreases northward to 45–90 mGal along
flowlines B-B to E-E’ on the western flank (Figure 6
(a–e)).

Figure 5. Residual bathymetry (RB) and residual mantle Bouguer gravity anomaly (RMBA) along isochrons of the Mohns Ridge. RB
and RMBA are indicated by solid and dashed lines, respectively. (a) RB and RMBA along the Mohns Ridge axis. (b-e) The averaged RB
and averaged RMBA of the eastern flank. (f-i) The averaged RB and averaged RMBA of the western flank. For each point on the
isochrons, the averaged RB and averaged RMBA values are obtained by averaging across-isochron values over an interval of 10 Ma
along the flowline. Shaded areas indicate the STD of the averaged RB and averaged RMBA at 10 Ma intervals.
574 T. ZHANG ET AL.

Figure 6. Residual bathymetry (RB) and residual mantle Bouguer gravity anomaly (RMBA) profiles versus crustal age along flowlines.
The locations of the profiles are shown in Figure 3(c). The S-wave anomaly is based on the ‘Savani’ model (Auer et al. 2014), which is
a variable resolution whole-mantle model of anisotropic shear-velocity variations. Notice that the low-velocity anomaly in general
agrees with the low RMBA. For each point on the flowlines, RB and RMBA values are obtained by averaging along-isochron values
over a half degree of latitude. Shaded areas indicate the STD of the RB and RMBA in a half degree of latitude. Areas with lower-
resolution sediment data are masked by a translucent pattern. The latitude of the Mohns Ridge axis across each flowline profile is
also shown.

4.4 Asymmetry between conjugate flanks A-A’ (Figure 7(a)), the RB is 0.5–1.5 km shallower on the
western flank than the eastern conjugate for crustal age
Overall, the RB and RMBA exhibit strong asymmetry
of 50–15 Ma, although the topographic asymmetry
between the conjugate flanks (Figure 3, 4, and 7),
decreases sharply from 15 Ma to the present. Along
much of which is associated with the presence of an
the same flowline, the RMBA is more negative (mini-
anomalous region of elevated RB and negative RMBA,
mum of −105 mGal) on the western flank for crustal age
which we term the Vesteris Plateau (VP). Along flowline
of 50–6 Ma, with the degree of asymmetry generally
 INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 575

Figure 7. Asymmetric residual bathymetry (RB) and asymmetric residual mantle Bouguer gravity anomaly (RMBA) profiles versus
crustal age along flowlines. The locations of the profiles are shown in Figure 3c. The asymmetric RB and RMBA are indicated by solid
and dashed lines, respectively. For each point on the flowlines, the asymmetric RB and RMBA values are obtained by averaging
along-isochron values over a half degree of latitude. Shaded areas indicate the STD of the asymmetric RB and RMBA in a half-degree
latitude. The Vesteris Plateau (VP) and area of type II asymmetry are shaded with yellow and green, respectively. The latitude of the
Mohns Ridge axis across each flowline profile is also shown.

increasing with crustal age. However, for crustal age of
6–0 Ma, the RMBA is more negative (minimum of
−20 mGal) on the eastern flank.
Along flowline B-B’ (Figure 7(b)), the asymmetric
components of the RB and RMBA exhibit similar varia-
tions to those of flowline A-A’, with a localized higher
RB (maximum of 1.6 km) and more negative RMBA
(minimum of −105 mGal) at the Vesteris Seamount at
crustal age of ~41 Ma. Along flowlines C-C’ and D-D’
(Figure 7(c,d)), the more negative RMBA on the western
flank is associated with a shallower RB for crustal age of
35–15 Ma and 30–15 Ma, respectively. For crust
younger than 10 Ma, the RMBA is more negative (mini-
mum of −11 mGal) on the eastern flank along flowlines
C-C’ and D-D’. Along flowline EE’ from 10 Ma to the
present (Figure 7(e)), the RB is up to 0.5 km shallower
and the RMBA is up to 16 mGal more positive on the
western flank than the eastern conjugate. Along flow-
line F-F’ (Figure 7(f)), for crust younger than 10 Ma, the
RB is shallower by up to 1.5 km on the western flank,
which is associated with a 13 mGal more positive RMBA.
Overall, the RB and RMBA show two prominent asym-
metric types (Figure 8). In Type I asymmetry, the shallower
RB on the western flank is correlated with more negative
RMBA, suggesting that at least part of the shallower RB of
the VP is isostatically compensated by thicker crust and/or
hotter mantle. Type I asymmetry is most prominent at the
VP at crustal age of 50–15 Ma on the western flank, where
the maximum asymmetric component of the RB is 1.5 km
and the minimum asymmetric component of the RMBA is
−105 mGal along flowline A-A’ in the south (Figure 7(a)).
Type I asymmetry gradually decreases northward and is
confined to crustal age of 30–15 Ma in the north (Figure 7
(e)), primarily reflecting the anomalies associated with
the VP.
In Type II asymmetry, the western flank has shallower
averaged RB and more positive RMBA (Figure 8) for crustal
age of 0–6 km. Type II asymmetry is found mostly at
crustal age of 6–0 Ma in the south (Figure 7(a)) and
10–0 Ma in the north (Figure 7(f)). Type II asymmetry is
the most profound in the north close to the intersection of
the Mohns Ridge and Knipovich Ridge; the asymmetric
576 T. ZHANG ET AL.

Figure 8. Averaged residual bathymetry (RB) and asymmetric residual mantle Bouguer gravity anomaly (RMBA) versus crustal age.
The averaged RB and RMBA values are calculated by averaging all data points along isochrons. The anomalies on the eastern and
western flanks are shown by blue and red lines, respectively. Type I and II asymmetries are shaded with yellow and green,
respectively. (a) Averaged RB. The spreading rates on the western and eastern flanks along the flowline crossing the Mohns Ridge at
72.5°N (Mosar et al. 2002) are shown in red and blue, respectively. (b) Averaged RMBA.

component of the RB is 0.5–1.5 km shallower and the comparable to major postulated melt anomalies in the
RMBA is 13–16 mGal more positive on the western flank north Atlantic Ocean including the Bermuda Rise
of the Mohns Ridge axis (Figure 7(e–f)). (3.12 × 105 km3) (Wang et al. 2011).

4.5 Distinctive anomalies of the Vesteris Plateau
The Vesteris Plateau is associated with the largest area
(~1.12 × 105 km2) of negative RMBA on the western flank
and is located to the northwest of the Jan Mayen FZ
(Figure 4). The width of the VP is ~300 km (covering
crustal age of 55–15 Ma) in the south and narrowing to
~100 km (covering crustal age of 30–15 Ma) in the north.
The northern part of the VP is an elongated zone of
negative RMBA on the western flank and extends north-
ward for ~500 km from the Jan Mayen FZ, along the
northward extension of the Kolbeinsey Ridge and
approaching the Knipovich Ridge (Figures 4 and 7). The
asymmetric RB anomaly on the VP decreases from 1.5 km
in the south (Figure 7(a)) to less than 0.1 km in the north
(Figure 7(e)). The amplitude of the associated RMBA asym-
metry also decreases northward by ~70 mGal from south
to north (Figure 7(e)).
The VP has a mean asymmetric RMBA of −41 mGal
and a mean asymmetric crustal thickness of ~2 km,
relative to the eastern conjugate. The calculated excess
crustal volume of the VP is ~2.33 × 105 km3, which is
5. Discussion
5.1 Type I asymmetry: thicker crust and/or hotter
mantle under the vesteris plateau
Along the northward extension of the Kolbeinsey Ridge,
the tongue-shaped part of the VP extends ~500 km to the
north, approaching the Knipovich Ridge (Figures 3 and 4).
There are a few potential explanations for the distinctive
anomalies under the VP. One possibility is that the elevated
basement in the vicinity of the Vesteris Seamount is asso-
ciated with a change in the trend of the Greenland FZ at
anomaly C13n (~33 Ma), as proposed by Eldholm and
Windisch (1974). However, neither the anomalous RB nor
RMBA are observed on the conjugate eastern flank of the
VP. The anomalous VP thus cannot be attributed to the
variations in on-axis magmatism related to the rotation of
spreading direction. Another possibility is that the asym-
metric RB and RMBA of the VP are caused by asymmetric
spreading rates. Yet, there is no systematic asymmetry in
the spreading rates on conjugate flanks throughout
55–15 Ma (Figure 8) based on magnetic data (Mosar et al.
2002). A third possibility is that the asymmetric anomalies
 INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 577

of the VP are related to the transition from orthogonal
spreading to oblique spreading at ~33 Ma. The oblique
spreading itself does not seem to lead to asymmetric RB
and RMBA, such as observed at the Southwest Indian Ridge
(SWIR) 9°-16°E region (Dick et al. 2003). The transition from
orthogonal to oblique spreading could be associated with
an asymmetric spreading rate (Menard 1984), which may
further lead to asymmetric crustal structures. Again, this is
not the case since there is no systematic asymmetric
spreading rate on the two flanks of the Mohns Ridge
(Mosar et al. 2002). Therefore, the VP is most likely related
to off-axis magmatism or in situ mantle anomalies rather
than on-ridge processes.
Multiple tomographic models reveal a low shear-
wave seismic velocity anomaly at mantle depths of up
to 300 km (Pilidou et al. 2005; Marquart et al. 2007; Auer
et al. 2014), extending northward from the Kolbeinsey
Ridge and passing under the VP (Figures 6, 9, and 10).
Along the flowlines (Figure 6), the low-velocity anomaly
is in general accord with the low RMBA in the VP. Along
profile TT’ (Figure 9), the anomalous RB and RMBA of
the VP are consistent with a zone of ~3% lower S-wave
velocity relative to the PREM model at depths of
approximately ~100–150 km (Pilidou et al. 2005; Auer
et al. 2014). The lower S-wave velocity may indicate
higher mantle temperatures because S-wave velocities
are particularly sensitive to mantle temperature.
Regional P-wave and global S-wave tomography mod-
els also reveal a shallow (100–400 km deep) and pro-
nounced temperature anomaly under the Kolbeinsey
and the southern Mohns Ridges (Marquart et al. 2007).
Both mantle and crustal density effects may account
for observed higher RB and lower RMBA in the VP. We
scale the shear-wave velocity perturbation provided by
the S40RTS model (Ritsema et al. 2011) into density
anomaly using a constant scale factor between velocity
and density (δlnρ=δlnVS ¼ 0:15). The gravity anomaly
produced by the mantle density perturbation model for

Figure 9. Geophysical anomalies along profile TT’. The location of TT’ is shown in Figure 1(a). (a) Bathymetry and residual mantle
Bouguer gravity anomaly (RMBA). (b) Cross-section of S-wave velocity perturbation in percentages (Pilidou et al. 2005) and mantle
flow velocity (Conrad et al. 2007; Conrad and Behn 2010). Shown is the S-wave velocity that is −3% lower than the PREM is
contoured (Pilidou et al. 2005). (c) Cross-section of S-wave velocity perturbation in percentages based on the anisotropic whole-
mantle model ‘Savani’ (Auer et al. 2014).
578 T. ZHANG ET AL.

the uppermost 100 km is calculated in spherical coor-
dinates through integrating the gravity effects of 10
layers of 10 km-thick spherical shells (Figure 10(c)).
The gravity anomaly calculated from the shear-wave
anomaly is ~10 mGal more negative at the southern
part of the VP than the eastern conjugate and only
accounts for ~10% of the asymmetric RMBA (Figure 10
(c)). Therefore, most of the negative asymmetric RMBA
on the western flank is attributed to thicker crust asso-
ciated with the VP.
The geometric coincidence between the VP and the
extensive magmatism south of the VP, together with
systematic variations in RB, RMBA and S-wave velocity,
lead us to suggest that the VP anomaly may be induced
by the northward extension of deep hot mantle. This
anomalous mantle may be related to the prominent

Figure 10. Horizontal sections of the tomography model ‘Savani’ (Auer et al. 2014) at (a) 135 km and (b) 63 km. Notice that the
Vesteris Plateau (VP) is consistent with the low S-wave velocity anomaly linked to the Iceland-Jan Mayen (JM) system. (c) Calculated
gravity effect of the upper mantle by converting the shear-wave velocity perturbation (Ritsema et al. 2011) to density anomaly with
a constant parameter of velocity to density scaling of 0.15.

magmatic province associated with the Iceland and Jan
Mayen hotspots, and the Eggvin Bank. Thus, the VP may
represent the northern-most reach of the Iceland-Jan
Mayen magmatic province.
The presence of the VP implies that the effects of
the Iceland and Jan Mayen hotspots could extend off-
axis through deep mantle as far north as that along
the Mohns Ridge axis (Figure 9). An active hotspot is
often associated with a topographic swell and
a geoid anomaly of hundreds of kilometers in dia-
meter (Sleep 1990; Phipps Morgan et al. 1995), which
is comparable to the distance of hotspot influence
along ridge axis (Ito et al. 2003). For hotspots on
slowly moving (i.e. <20 mm/yr) plates, the hot mantle
of hotspots may have more time to penetrate the
lithosphere and result in high topography and thick
crust (Sleep 1990). For example, the Cape Verde Rise
in the North Atlantic Ocean is a pseudo-circular
region of thick crust with a diameter of 700–800 km
(Sleep 1990; Wang et al. 2011). Similarly, the Marion-
Crozet region in the southwest Indian ocean is asso-
ciated with prominent topographic, gravity, and
geoid anomalies with a diameter of ~1,000 km
(Cannat et al. 2008; Zhang et al. 2013). The slow
movement between the Iceland hotspot and the
Mohns Ridge region (Lawver and Müller 1994) may
facilitate the volcanism under the VP (Figure 1). In
addition, the trend of the Kolbeinsey Ridge seems to
guide the northward direction of the mantle flow and
volcanism, although the specific mechanism remains
unclear. Further direct measurements, such as mantle
seismic, heat flow, and electromagnetic investiga-
tions, should help to reveal the mechanism by pro-
viding more information about temperature, melts,
and flow pattern of the mantle.
5.2 Type II asymmetry: tectonism on the western
flank at 6-0 ma
5.2.1 Focused tectonism on the western flank
From crustal ages of 6 Ma to the present, the western
flank is associated with more positive RMBA and
higher RB compared with the eastern flank, indicating
that (1) the western flank has thinner crust and/or
lower mantle temperatures, and (2) the higher topo-
graphy on the western flank is supported by litho-
spheric stresses. This is similar to models of large
normal faults or detachment faults, as commonly
observed at the inside corners of slow-spreading
ridges (Tucholke and Lin 1994; Tucholke et al. 1998;
Smith et al. 2006; Wang et al. 2015). The footwall of
a large normal fault or a detachment fault is expected
to be uplifted when the crust is tectonically extended
INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 579
and thinned (Buck 1988; Cannat et al. 2003, 2006;
Searle and Bralee 2007). In contrast, the hanging wall
of a large normal fault or a detachment fault is
expected to be associated with normal crustal thick-
ness and thus more negative RMBA and relatively
lower RB (Escartín and Lin 1995).
This model of tectonism-induced asymmetry can
be verified in two areas using high-resolution multi-
beam data (Boxes A and B, Figure 11). In Box B, large
normal faults are concentrated on the western flank
(Dauteuil and Brun 1996), and they are associated
with higher topography and more positive RMBA.
The eastern conjugate areas are associated with
smoother topography, more negative RMBA, and
fewer and smaller faults.
Box A is at the bend of the Mohns and Knipovich
Ridges (Figure 1), where large normal faults and lower
crustal and mantle lithologies are observed only on
the western flank (Pedersen et al. 2010). Multichannel
seismic profiles in this area revealed that most of
faulting occurred on the western flank (Bruvoll et al.
2009). The identified large normal faults and mega-
mullions on the western flank are associated with
shallower topography and relatively positive RMBA
(Figure 11). The latest electromagnetic and magneto-
telluric data (Johansen et al. 2019) indicate thinner
‘electronic crust’ on the western flank than that on
the eastern conjugate throughout 4–0 Ma and shal-
lower isotherms under the western flank near ridge
axis in Box A (Figure 12). The elevated isothermal
and associated thinner lithosphere may lead to
focused faulting on the western flanks rather than
the eastern conjugate.
5.2.2. Intensive tectonism at the northern-most
Mohns Ridge
The asymmetric component of the RB on the western
flank is ~1.0 km higher in Box A than in Box B (Figure 3).
The decreasing RB and increasing RMBA from south to
north along isochrons indicate that the magma supply
in Box A is less than that in other parts of the Mohns
Ridge axis. This northward decreasing in magma supply
has been ascribed to the diminishing influence of the
Iceland and Jan Mayen hotspots along the Mohns Ridge
(Vogt et al. 1982; Neumann and Schilling 1984; Schilling
et al. 1999). Large normal faults or detachment faults
may preferably develop in such conditions of relatively
low magma supply, as a reduction in magma supply
would require increased tectonic extension to accom-
modate plate separation (Tucholke et al. 2008; Wang
et al. 2015).
Furthermore, the western flank of Box A may
also be uplifted through a mechanism similar to the
580 T. ZHANG ET AL.

Figure 11. Bathymetry and residual mantle Bouguer gravity anomaly (RMBA) in Boxes A and B of Figure 1. (a) Bathymetry in Box
A. Dashed white lines indicate the location of oceanic core complex (OCC) features based on Pedersen et al. (2010). Solid white lines
indicate large faults based on Bruvoll et al. (2009). (b) RMBA in Box A. (c) Bathymetry in Box B. Ship tracks of the single-beam
bathymetry data are shown in Figure S2. Solid white lines indicate faults with vertical throws greater than 500 m, as suggested by
Dauteuil and Brun (1996). (d) RMBA in Box B. RMBA in this map is calculated using ship-measured FAA data, which are also
downloaded from the NGDC. Dashed black lines indicate the position of the Mohns Ridge axis. Notice that most large faults develop
on the western flank with high topography and positive RMBA.

effect of an inside corner in a ridge-transform fault
system. North of Box A, the spreading direction of the
Knipovich Ridge is highly oblique (~49°) with respect
to the ridge trend (Okino et al. 2002). The trend of the
ridge axis rotates from 55° at 73.2°N to ~345° at 74.3°
N, forming an angle of up to 70° between the axes of
the Mohns Ridge and the Knipovich Ridge. As a result,
the western flank in Box A is located on the ‘inside
corner’ of this unique tectonic structure and thus is
adjacent to the two weak plate boundaries of the
Mohns Ridge and the Knipovich Ridge (Figure 12).
These plate boundaries may act as decoupling zones
(Kuo et al. 1984). Consequently, tectonic uplift may
focus on the western flank in Box A. In contrast, the
eastern flank in Box A may be ‘welded’ to old litho-
sphere in the northeast. Uplift is subdued due to
resistances imparted by significant flexural rigidity of
that plate (Kuo et al. 1984; Severinghaus and
Macdonald 1988). The asymmetric RB in Box
A (1.0–1.5 km) is comparable to the relief of rift valley
(1.3 ± 0.2 km) along the Mohns Ridge (Figures 7(f)
and 12). This is also similar to the observations near
some ridge-transform fault systems, where the mag-
nitude of the rift valley relief is often similar to the
magnitude of asymmetric topography at the inside
corner high. Severinghaus and Macdonald (1988) pro-
posed that the same force might be responsible for
controlling the rift valley relief and asymmetric topo-
graphy of an inside corner high, although the specific
mechanism controlling the rift valley relief remains
a subject of debate (e.g. Sleep 1969; Tapponnier and
Francheteau 1978; Chen and Morgan 1990).
 INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGY REVIEW 581

Figure 12. Schematic tectonic configuration in the vicinity of Box A. (a) The areas with bathymetry shallower than 1500 m are
shaded. The uplifted topography and large normal faults occur primarily on the western flank of the intersection of the Mohns and
Knipovich Ridges. Green and yellow areas indicate 1/4 and 3/4 of the plate, as suggested by Kuo et al. (1984). The oceanic core
complex (OCC) and the large normal faults are from Pedersen et al. (2010) and Bruvoll et al. (2009), respectively. (b) Profile AA’ in
Figure 11(a). The area of OCC is marked. The ‘electronic Moho’ and isotherms are from an electromagnetic and magnetotelluric
profile near AA’ (Johansen et al. 2019). Notice that most large normal faults are concentrated on the western flank of the Mohns
Ridge along the AA’ profile. (c) Profile BB’ in Figure 11(a).
582 T. ZHANG ET AL.
6. Conclusions
Two types of asymmetric crustal and mantle structure are
observed between conjugate flanks of the Mohns Ridge.
(1) In Type I asymmetry, the Vesteris Plateau on the
western flank is associated with elevated RB and
negative RMBA, reflecting off-axis magmatism. The
VP has a surface area of ~1.12 × 105 km2 and excess
crustal volume of ~2.33 × 105 km3 from gravity
modelling, comparable to major anomalies such as
the Bermuda Rise.
(2) The VP lies on top of the northern end of a shear-
wave velocity anomaly associated with the Iceland-
Jan Mayan hotspot magmatism system. The direct
gravity contribution from the mantle density anom-
aly is calculated to be less than 10% of the observed
RMBA model, indicating that most of the observed
asymmetric RMBA on the western flank is attributa-
ble to thicker crust associated with the VP.
(3) In Type II asymmetry, the uplifted RB is associated
with positive RMBA on the western flank at crustal
age of 6 Ma to the present and is attributed to
more intensive tectonism by normal faulting
extension on the western flank. The tectonism-
related asymmetric crustal structure is verified in
two high-resolution bathymetric surveys.
(4) The tectonic asymmetry is more intense in
a northern survey area at the junction of the
Mohns and Knipovich Ridges, and may be associated
with lower magma supply. In this northern area, the
RB may also be further elevated by an effect similar
to the ‘inside corner’ of a ridge-transform fault sys-
tem, where the Mohns and Knipovich Ridges act as
a relatively weak plate boundary.
Acknowledgments
Most figures in this paper were prepared using the GMT software
(Wessel and Smith 1998). We thank Zhiyuan Zhou for calculating
the gravity effect from shear-wave tomography models and Fan
Zhang and Zhongyan Shen for stimulating discussion. We are
grateful to Daniel Curewitz and an anonymous reviewer, whose
thorough reviews have greatly improved the manuscript.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Funding
This work was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China [Grants 41376069, 41890813, 91628301,
U1606401], Scientific Research Fund of the Second Institute of
Oceanography, SOA [QNYC201503], Chinese Polar
Environment Comprehensive Investigation and Assessment
Programmes CHINARE [Grants 03-03 and 04-03], Chinese
Academy of Sciences [Grants Y4SL021001, QYZDY-SSW-DQC
005, 133244KYSB20180029], and National Key R&D Program of
China [2018YFC0309800, 2018YFC0310100].
ORCID
Tao Zhang http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1205-989X
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