Preprint Theskills basedmodelofresilienceJOOP2021

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Introducing the skills‐based model of personal resilience: Drawing on content

and process factors to build resilience in the workplace
Preprint in Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · January 2021

DOI: 10.1111/joop.12340
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Pre-print: Baker, Baker, Burrell (2021) Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology
https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/joop.12340
Introducing the skills-based model of personal resilience:

drawing on content and process factors to build resilience in
the workplace.
Felicity R.L. Baker*1, Kevin L. Baker1,2, Jo Burrell1,3
*Corresponding author: felicity@empsychology.co.uk
1
East Midlands Psychology Ltd, Nottingham, UK
2
St Andrews Healthcare, William Wake House, Northampton, UK
3
Clinical Psychology Unit, University of Sheffield, UK
Employers are being encouraged to find ways to engage with the mental health of their
employees. Providing training in resilience is one way to respond. However, there is a
lack of consistency and poor use of psychological theory which prevents comparison and
evaluation between resilience training programmes. We describe a skills-based model of
personal resilience which is drawn from psychological research in resilience, positive
psychology, and general psychology which responds to these criticisms. Firstly, we
describe the psychological theory that provides the background to the skills-based
resilience model and research that contributes to the content of the model. Secondly,
we focus on the application of the model to training, exploring the psychological
processes that are needed to maximise the potential for individuals to develop and
maintain resilience skills over the longer term.
Practitioner points
 Successful resilience training in the workplace requires the use of a comprehensive theoretically
based model of both the skills needed for improved resilience and also the way the training is
delivered.
 Trainers who themselves use resilience skills, such as emotion regulation and pro-social
behaviours, to create trust and safety for participants are more likely to engage and motivate
participants to make lasting changes.
 Linking participants’ motivation to change, values and goals to resilience outcomes enhances
engagement and the lasting impact of resilience training.
 Offering opportunity to reflect on successes and challenges during the development of new
resilience skills strengthens the skills and builds confidence to continue to use them in the future.
In an independent review of thriving at work commissioned by the UK government, Farmer

and Stevenson (2017) highlighted the need for employers to actively engage with the mental
health of their employees by providing more supportive workplaces. The review reported
strong evidence that when people are supported to manage pressures and demands in the
workplace this produces benefits on multiple levels both at work and at home, as well as
How to cite: Baker, F.R.L., Baker, K.L. and Burrell, J. (2021), Introducing the skills‐based model of personal resilience: Drawing on
content and process factors to build resilience in the workplace. J Occup Organ Psychol. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12340
benefits for the organisation itself. In the UK, research by the Health and Safety Executive
(2019) has shown that just over 0.6 million workers suffered from work-related stress,
anxiety and depression in 2018/19, contributing to 12.8 million lost working days. These high
rates of stress were associated with tight deadlines, pressure to meet targets, lack of control
over workload, lack of support, organisational changes and role uncertainty.
Providing resilience training in the workplace is one response employers can make. A
recent Cochrane review (Helmreich et al., 2017) identified that the primary benefits of
resilience training are not simply restricted to resilience in itself, but also show improvements
in mental health and well-being, with secondary benefits associated with enhanced social
support, optimism, self-efficacy, active coping, self-esteem and positive emotions. These
outcomes have been linked with better adaptation to pressures and demands in the workplace
but also extend beyond, providing benefits to individuals across all areas of their lives.
However, in their review of resilience training, Robertson et al. (2015) highlighted that a
lack of a consistent definition of resilience both in the literature and across training
approaches has led to variations in both content and delivery that makes comparison and
evaluation difficult. Training approaches have also been criticised for having a weak basis in
theoretical models with consequent incoherence in their conceptualisation (Fletcher & Sarkar,
2012). Fletcher and Sarkar (2012) identified the need for intervention studies to be ‘…
grounded in systematic resilience research programs rather than piecemeal and incomplete
strategies based on, for example, the mental toughness, hardiness or coping literatures.’
In this paper we describe a theoretically-derived, skills-based model of personal resilience
that draws on the research base along with evidence from academic and clinical psychology.
The model makes a novel contribution to the resilience literature by focusing not only on the
skills needed for resilience but also the processes required to motivate and support positive
behaviour change through the adoption and maintenance of new resilience skills.
Resilience is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as being “able to withstand or
recover quickly from difficult conditions” (Soanes & Stevenson, 2005). In the field of
psychology, this definition has been elaborated in many different ways reflecting its multi-
faceted and multi-dimensional nature. It has been defined variously as: a personality trait or
characteristic (Connor & Davidson, 2003); a process of successfully negotiating, adapting to
or managing significant sources of stress or trauma (Windle, 2011); a protective factor
inoculating against the detrimental effect of future challenge (Rutter, 1987); a promotive
factor moderating the effect of exposure to risk (Rutter, 1987) and an enhancing capacity for
coping with adversity (Lee & Cranford, 2008); an outcome of successful coping with threat
(Masten, 2001); or as a dynamic process of positive adaptation in the context of adversity
(Luthar et al., 2000).
These various definitions share a focus on adversity and positive adaptation, but make
sense of these in different ways. In considering what is a useful definition of resilience to
apply in the provision of resilience training it is useful to clarify the distinctions between
these differing conceptualisations about resilience.
There has been much debate about whether resilience should be viewed as a personality
trait (Block & Block, 2006) or a process resulting from the combination of both personality
and contextual factors (Garcia-Dia et al., 2013). Conceiving resilience as a trait highlights the
role of an individual’s developmental history and stable personality factors in resilience, in
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particular the capacity for greater psychological and emotional flexibility (Waugh et al.,
2011). However, this conceptualisation ignores the impact of contextual factors on both the
individual’s capacity for resilience and their ability to respond resiliently in-the-moment. In
the context of providing training to develop resilience, the role of context-specific appraisals
of one’s own ability to cope with and recover from adversity is of real importance. For this
reason, our skills-based model recognises the contributions of both trait and contextual
factors and encourages facilitators of the training to attend to individual differences in both.
This helps to support individuals to develop their capacity for resilience in the long term and
to make accurate appraisals of their ability to utilise these skills in the different contexts that
are currently relevant.
The concept of resilience has often been used interchangeably with coping and recovery.
Coping refers to the strategies utilised following appraisal of an event as stressful and may
vary in its effectiveness to resolve a stressor, resulting in either positive, maladaptive or
negative outcomes (Thompson et al, 2010). Resilience is more than coping and recovery,
influencing how an event is appraised, as well as appraisal of one’s own capacity to deal with
that event. It is associated with successful adaptation and recovery as well as psychological
growth through adversity to thrive and flourish (O’Leary & Ickovics, 1995; Major et al.,
1998; Joseph, 2011).
Our skills-based model of resilience draws on Fletcher and Sarkar’s (2013) definition of
resilience as ‘the role of mental processes and behaviour in promoting personal assets and
protecting an individual from the potential negative effect of stressors’ (Fletcher & Sarkar,
2012, p.675; 2013, p. 16). This definition eschews the conceptualisation of resilience as
synonymous with coping and recovery and describes resilience as a process that draws on
underlying strengths and mental processes to protect against the potential impact of threat and
adversity and promote future adaptation. It locates resilience in the person but also reflects its
multi-dimensional nature, portraying it as both a characteristic of the person and a process
resulting from interaction with stressors (Robertson & Cooper, 2015). As a characteristic,
resilience can be described as a set of personal protective and compensatory factors that
enable an individual to adapt to the circumstances they encounter (Garmezy, et al., 1984). As
a process, much like Meichenbaum’s (1985) conceptualisation of stress, resilience can be
considered a transaction between the person and the environment, in which both exert
influence over each other through the individual’s appraisal of the stressors and their attempts
to regulate their responses to them. Consequently, resilience is understood as a dynamic
capacity that can be developed over time through person-environment interactions (Egeland
et al., 1993; Rutter, 1987; Seery, 2011).
The influence of person-environment interactions often operate at multiple socio-
ecological levels (Bronfenbrenner, 1977; Grych et al., 2015), involving both complex higher
order knowledge and individual skills as well as wider contextual, interpersonal and
environmental factors (Liu et al., 2017). Whilst acknowledging these factors can help in
making recommendations for employers, changes to the work environment are not sufficient
in themselves to help people develop and maintain their skills in dealing with stress (Farmer
& Stevenson, 2017). Challenge and change continue to exist for individuals both in and
outside the workplace that affect their ability to respond to stress with resilience. In addition,
low resilience in high stress environments is related to negative mental health outcomes
3
(Rees et al., 2015). It is important, therefore, to consider how individuals can be supported to
manage in the face of adversity and to thrive in both the workplace and at home.
In summary, we have responded to the criticisms of past approaches to resilience training
by ensuring clarity of definition and grounding our conceptualisation firmly in theory and
research. We propose that our skills-based model of personal resilience satisfies Fletcher and
Sarkar’s (2012) assertion that such programmes ‘should be underpinned by the conceptual
and theoretical advances already made in this area in general psychology, will provide the
most rigorous and robust platform from which to develop resilience training’. Our skills-
based model can be applied in any setting because the content is presented by facilitators who
are aware of individual differences evident in learning skills for improved resilience.
Below, we first describe the psychological research that provides the background to the
content we consider necessary in any teaching or training of skills to develop resilience. We
then go on to describe this content and the skills that help people successfully adapt to
environmental stressors. Following this we discuss the psychological processes involved in
training and developing these skills. These processes, based in established models of
psychological therapy and behaviour change, maximise the potential for individuals to make
positive psychological and behavioural changes and facilitate their development and
maintenance over the longer term.
Background to the skills-based model

Traditionally psychological research and interventions for stress have used vulnerability and
deficit models of functioning with a focus on developing stress management skills (Beck,
1976, Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Meichenbaum, 1977). Psychologists in clinical practice are
often familiar with these models, applying them to formulate understandings of, and
interventions for, a person’s psychological distress. The factors involved in managing stress
can also inform some of the content necessary for skills-based resilience training.
Negative emotions are associated with sympathetic nervous system (SNS) arousal, in
particular the release of adrenaline and cortisol into the body in order to prepare for fight or
flight. In the context of a true threat this is an adaptive and self-protective response. However,
a person’s subjective experience of this response depends on how they appraise the stressful
events (primary appraisal) and also how they appraise their own ability to cope with the event
(secondary appraisal; Lazarus, 1981). The perception of a stressful event as threatening and
of the self as being unable to tolerate or change that event, is likely to lead to more stress and
therefore reduced resilience.
Factors found to be important in the management of stress, and so relevant to enhancing
resilience, include the self-regulation of negative emotions and the ability to tolerate distress
associated with SNS arousal (Miller et al., 1995; Ost, 1987), the management of negative
cognitive appraisals, and strategies aimed at reducing unhelpful coping behaviours and
building more helpful coping behaviours (Beck et al., 1985; Hayes & Smith., 2005; Lazarus
& Folkman, 1984; Meichenbaum, 1985). The skills associated with self-regulation have for
some time been conceptualised in terms of three response systems, typically known as affect,
cognition and behaviour, proposed by some of the original theorists of psychological
therapies (e.g. Beck, 1976; Ellis, 1962; Lang, 1968; Meichenbaum, 1977; Rachman, 1978;
4
Selye 1974). These systems are conceptualised as relatively independent from each other and
are not necessarily expected to change in the same way, the same direction, or even at the
same time as each other (Rachman and Hodgson, 1974), but rather function as a way of
organising symptoms and strategies in a systematic way that allow for intervention effects to
be evaluated and explained. In terms of resilient responses to stress, greater resilience is
associated with effective self-regulation in each of the three systems (King & Rothstein,
2010).
Although understanding that the stress response and the factors involved in managing
stress are important, resilience is more than just managing responses to stressful situations.
The intra- and inter-personal characteristics associated with resilience have been shown to not
only enhance a person's ability to engage with and manage their reactions to threat, but also
to find ways of moving forwards or thriving in the face of adversity (Carver, 1998; Fergus &
Zimmerman, 2005; Garmezy et al.,1984; Grych et al., 2015; O'Leary, 1998). Whereas stress
management has tended to focus on managing stress in the moment, Fletcher and Sarkar
(2012) conceptualised resilience as being able to manage both immediate and potential
stressors.
In their model of thriving O’Leary and Ickovics (1995) suggested that when confronted
with challenge, there are three possible outcomes: survive, recover or thrive. Greater
resilience is associated with a successful transition through these outcomes or phases. In this
model thriving is manifest across three domains, cognitively, behaviourally and emotionally
and is influenced by personality, cognitive and social factors.
The recent turn to positive psychology has shifted the focus of research and theory to
positive responses to stressful events which can inform our understanding of how people
survive, recover and thrive (Fredrickson, et al., 2003; Sheier & Carver, 1992; Seligman,
2006). Resilient people tend to worry less, have more cognitive flexibility and are more likely
to use an optimistic or positive attributional style to explain negative events (Gillham et al.,
2001; Seligman, 2006). Greater resilience has also been associated with a growth mindset
(Yeager & Dweck, 2012), a greater connection with purpose or meaning in life (Winger et
al., 2016), positive beliefs about the self, self-awareness of character strengths and higher
self-efficacy (Kidd & Shahar, 2010; Martínez-Martí & Ruch, 2017; Rutter, 1987). Seligman’s
(2006) self-help book promoted the teaching of more resilient mindsets such as ‘realistic
optimism’ and drew on Ellis’s ABC (adversity-belief-consequence) model, which describes a
person’s beliefs or explanatory style about positive and negative events as impacting on their
emotional and behavioural responses (Ellis, 1962).
Approaches to helping people develop resilience, particularly in the workplace, have
typically focused on teaching particular approaches or combinations of skills as the basis for
instructional training. Often they refer to emotional, behavioural and cognitive response
strategies and skills. However, clinical experience of applying research findings in practice
suggests that the range of responses to stressful events and the individual use of those
responses as skills, can differ widely across individuals and situations. People’s responses
tend to be influenced by both trait and context-specific factors. Therefore, it is not helpful to
view one set of strategies as superior to others as their usefulness will be dependent on the
individual, their capabilities, their experiences and their context (Meichenbaum, 1985). For
example, some people may choose to use distraction to help them cope with a stressful event,
5
while others may choose to try recognising and changing unhelpful thinking patterns. This
has implications for how we can influence the development of skills in resilience, indicating a
need to address variations in individual differences, resources and capabilities.
Our model identifies the individual participant as responsible for bringing about changes
in their own resilience. However, the facilitator shares some of this responsibility by teaching
the skills in a way that all participants can learn, adapting the programme to the individual
needs of participants either individually or within the context of a group environment. For
example, Crosby et al. (2013) showed that the way a program of health promotion is
implemented plays a role in achieving the desired learning outcomes, and that it is not
sufficient for training to solely provide a list of skills and strategies. Further examples are
evident in research on computerised Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) which shows that
solely telling people what to do does not help them to learn how to put the skills or strategies
into practice to make lasting change (So et al., 2013).
Furthermore, research has shown that in order to learn to be more resilient, there is a
requirement to develop self-awareness, to reflect on existing strategies to manage challenges,
and to think about what changes are needed to respond more resiliently (Cowden & Meyer-
Weitz, 2016). As with psychological therapies, doing this can be challenging and take people
out of their comfort zone, and of course varies across individuals in many ways. Theoretical
models of change processes show that when people link their goals for change to their values,
are aware of potential barriers to successful change, and recognise factors that may
undermine their attempts to make change, they are more likely to be motivated to make and
sustain such changes (Hayes & Smith, 2005; Miller & Rollnick, 2012; Prochaska &
DiClemente, 1997). Research also tells us that successful attempts to change or adopt new
behaviours can contribute to greater self-confidence and self-efficacy. This concords with
dynamic models of resilience in which successful engagement with adversity is associated
with greater confidence in the ability to manage future threats and adversity (Rutter, 1987).
In summary, our skills-based model proposes a triadic perspective, that resilience is
manifest in three domains: cognitive, behavioural and emotional. These factors each
contribute to growth at different stages of the resilience cycle, from the initial survival of
adversity, to the ability to recover and resume normal functioning and emotional stability,
and finally to psychological growth and thriving.
The model provides a flexible approach to the teaching of resilience skills, allowing
training programmes to be developed and adapted to the particular needs of the individuals in
their context. It can be used with individuals or with individuals in a group setting and the
content can be tailored to a wide variety of work environments dealing with various
challenges and threats. Psychological models of change inform the delivery of the training in
order to build self-awareness and self-efficacy, to ensure participants understand their own
motivations and goals, and are able to make sustained change in their resilience behaviours.
The model is described below in two sections. First, we describe the necessary content for
resilience training. Second, we describe the process factors that are important for successful
application of the model to training and to effect sustained behaviour change.
6
The skills-based model of personal resilience: content

The skills-based model of personal resilience is essentially a training programme which
provides participants with the necessary knowledge about skills that have been shown to be
important in achieving improved resilience and positive outcomes when faced with adversity.
These are organised into three modules that reflect the triadic perspective and describe the
systems of responses or skill sets needed for resilience: emotional resilience, resilient
thinking, and the behavioural responses of balance and recovery (See Fig.1).
Figure 1. The three modules and key skill sets covered in the Skills-Based Model of Personal Resilience
We have found that the order in which training in these resilience skills is delivered is
important for its effectiveness. The first step, to raise self-awareness and develop skills in
emotion regulation enhances capacity for further skill acquisition in resilient thinking and
behaviour.
Emotional Resilience
Emotional Resilience is the ability to manage the emotional and physiological responses to
stress in order to bounce back from threat and challenge. We describe these responses as
having evolved together to facilitate survival and describe the effective set of skills and
strategies that support emotional resilience. We refer to Gilbert’s (2009) model of affect
7
regulation to show that movement between the three systems of threat-protection, drive and
soothing effect change in both our physiological and emotional states.
Emotional resilience has been found to be influenced by both intra- and inter-personal
skills and strategies. Intra-personally, resilient people have been found to experience the same
initial physiological arousal and negative emotions when faced with challenge or threat as
less resilient people. However, resilient people tend to be able to quickly calm their SNS
arousal and stimulate their parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) to feel calm and relaxed
(Waugh et al. 2008). This ability to recognise, tolerate and modify strong negative emotions
has been associated with greater ability to think clearly and problem solve (Goleman, 1996;
Lazarus, 1993; Masten, 2001; Rutter, 1987), with heightened emotional self-efficacy
(Berking et al. 2008) and with greater resilience (Rees et al., 2015).
Gilbert's (2009) model of affect regulation explains how the different intra- and inter-
personal factors operate to create resilience by moving a person from threat emotions to a
calmer, soothing state of regulation which enables them to think more clearly, be curious,
explore solutions and problem-solve. Greater ability to flexibly change or adapt affective and
physiological responses in response to changing or challenging demands has been found to be
associated with greater resilience (Waugh et al., 2011). Strategies that have been found
helpful to calm the threat response include: mindfulness and other forms of meditation (e.g.
Davidson et al., 2003; Shapiro et al., 2005); acceptance of emotion (Ford et al., 2017; Hayes
& Smith, 2005); arousal reappraisal (Akinola et al., 2016; Beltzer et al. 2014); controlled
breathing (Ma et al., 2017; Welford, 2010); and connecting with others (Ozbay et al., 2007).
Furthermore, the ability to calm and manage a threat response and tolerate negative
emotions, has been found to be associated with the experience of positive emotions
(Fredrickson et al., 2003). In a series of experiments Tugade and Fredrickson (2004) found
that high-resilient participants, when placed in a threatening situation, experienced more
positive emotions, shorter durations of cardiovascular reactivity and appraised the task as less
threatening than low-resilient participants. The authors concluded that experiencing positive
emotions leads to faster recovery from stressful situations, calms sympathetic nervous system
arousal and increases the likelihood of finding positive meaning in stressful situations.
Positive emotions are part of a broader concept of positivity that is associated with the
ability to select behaviours that are likely to lead to benefits in wellbeing (positive emotions
and life satisfaction) and contribute to greater resilience, self-compassion and mindfulness
(Catalino, Algoe & Fredrickson, 2014). The ability to prioritise positivity is important in all
three modules of the skills-based model, contributing to optimistic thinking styles and a
growth mindset, and the selection of resilient behaviours aimed at enhancing recovery and
maintaining good balance.
The Emotional Resilience skills needed to prioritise positivity can be seen in the
following: connecting with positive emotions in the moment (Geschwind et al., 2011);
detached observation and acceptance of negative emotions (Ford et al., 2017; Gratz & Tull,
2010; Kabat-Zinn, ); attending to what is right with the situation (Jain et al., 2007); and
appraisal of the situation as temporary (Seligman, 2006). Other skills such as attending to
positive experiences more generally, savouring good times, drawing on signature strengths,
feeling and expressing gratitude have also been shown to raise the experience of positive
emotions over the longer term (Seligman et al., 2005; Gander et al., 2013).
8
Although emotional resilience is commonly associated with the successful self-regulation

of stress, it is important to acknowledge that resilience is also associated with having a good
balance of positive and ‘negative’ emotions. Negative emotions play a particularly salient
role in our response to perceived threat, preparing us to manage in the face of actual threat
through the fight, flight, freeze response, and to deal with perceived challenges. Physiological
changes associated with the acute stress response, such as improved focus, concentration and
memory, increased energy release and reduced sensitivity to pain can contribute to enhanced
cognitive and athletic performance when faced with moderate challenges (Perkins & Wilson,
2001; Regehr et al., 2008). When combined with an optimistic explanatory style and the
cognitive appraisal of arousal as positive, challenging situations are associated with the
experience of more positive emotions, such as hope or excitement leading to improved
capacity to cope and succeed (Jamieson, Nock, & Mendes, 2012).
Inter-personal factors associated with greater resilience, such as strong social networks
and social support, play a key role in managing threat emotions and accessing the soothing
emotion regulation system (Gilbert, 2009). Research on social relationships supports this,
providing evidence for their role in managing stress and building resilience (Ozbay et al.,
2007; Seery, 2011), stimulating PNS arousal, enhancing emotional calmness and wellbeing
(Cohen & Wills, 1985), and building positive emotions (Fredrickson et al., 2008). The
perception of social relationships as positive has also been shown to mediate the relationship
between positive emotions and physical health (Kok et al., 2013).
Research on resilient people shows that they tend to be good at forming strong social
connections and make good use of social support in the moment to manage new challenges
and their emotional reactions to them (Ozbay et al., 2007; Southwick et al., 2016). In
addition, not just receiving support but also offering help and support to others has been
linked to increases in positive emotions and life expectancy (Brown et al., 2003), suggesting
that strong reciprocal relationships, in which there is trust and emotional safety, are
particularly important for building resilience (e.g. Sorce et al., 1985). Further evidence from
developmental psychology shows that a capacity for resilience can be linked with early
relationship stability. For example, children with greater competence at managing risk of
threat tend to have experienced a more stable family environment, with better parenting
quality (Masten, 1989) and from infancy, have been better able to gain positive attention from
other people (Werner & Smith, 1982).
Making strong reciprocal connections with trusted others, drawing on prosocial
behaviours and spending time with people who we like and who like us can build a resource
that can be drawn on when we are faced with challenges (Biglan et al. 2012). The impact of
such inter-personal resources is not limited to emotional resilience. Social relationships also
provide instrumental support and knowledge that can help us develop our capacity for
resilience by influencing the appraisals we make of the stressful situations we encounter, our
own ability to manage them, and our coping behaviours, leading to more positive outcomes
and stress-related growth (Schroevers et al., 2010; Siegel, Schrimshaw & Pretter, 2005).
Occupational psychology research further highlights the importance of positive human
connections and empathy in promoting occupational wellbeing and mitigating against
perceived work-related stress. This research identifies the key role leaders play in cultivating
9
resilience in employees through the use of trust, reciprocity and clarity, (Soler-Gonzalez et
al., 2017; Kakkar, 2019).
In summary, our Emotional Resilience module teaches people that the following are
important: recognising and managing their threat responses; calming their SNS arousal;
building positive emotions; exploring ways to develop and understand good social
connections; the importance of trust in developing relationships and of reciprocal giving and
receiving of support. This knowledge can be applied to develop skills that help manage
emotional responses to stress, such as: controlled breathing, relaxation and mindfulness
meditation; enhanced awareness of positive emotions; and skills for developing strong and
supportive relationships. These skills influence functioning at different stages of the stress
response, building resilience capacity in-the-moment and over the longer term, leading
initially to survival, then recovery, and finally to thriving.
Resilient Thinking
The Resilient Thinking module follows Emotional Resilience, offering skills to monitor and
manage negative appraisals, and to develop a positive mindset through the use of these skills.
When we appraise a situation as challenging or threatening, the fight or flight response takes
over to protect us and our “thinking brains” may switch off (Goleman, 1996). This process
makes it hard for us to think accurately about, weigh up and problem-solve the challenges we
face. In these cases, we may need to use emotion regulation to calm the threat response first,
in order to be able to manage negative appraisals.
Cognitive reappraisal and optimistic thinking are intra-personal skills that can be used in
relation to inter-personal challenges. They can also be supported and enhanced through
strong inter-personal relationships, which can offer different perspectives and knowledge and
facilitate the development of more adaptive or balanced ways of thinking (Cohen & Wills,
1985). Resilient people tend to appraise potentially stressful events as less threatening,
drawing on resilience traits, such as optimism, self-esteem and perceived control to reduce
the stress response and enhance their perceived ability to manage external demands (Major et
al., 1998).
The cognitive appraisal of events as threatening has long been known to impact
physiological and emotional responses negatively (Ellis, 1962; Beck, 1976; Lazarus &
Folkman, 1984). When an individual perceives a threat, they can sometimes engage in further
self-defeating negative thoughts which undermines their perceived ability to cope and
reinforces their view that there is true threat. Beck (1984) identified the tendency of stress-
prone individuals to make ‘thinking errors’ or ‘cognitive distortions’ in relation to perceived
threat, which tend to personalise or distort the event. These thoughts bias the perception of
the event as ‘all or nothing’ or ‘black and white’, overemphasising the negative aspects and
overgeneralising to all events. This tendency to make extreme negative judgements about
situations often occurs without conscious effort or awareness and impacts mood and
behaviour negatively. Cognitive distortions have the added impact on a person’s ability to
withstand stressful situations by setting up self-perpetuating and self-defeating cycles in
which their assumptions about a situation lead to behaviours that tend to confirm their
negative appraisals and contribute to continued physiological and emotional stress (Snyder,
1981). Often reflecting a person’s early experiences and vulnerabilities, patterns of cognitive
10
appraisals, or ‘schemas’, can act as shortcuts to habitual ways of anticipating the self, others
and world (Beck, 1984).
Cognitive reappraisal has often featured in resilience training programmes, drawing on
therapy models that use these ideas, such as, cognitive-behavioural therapy or rational
emotive behaviour therapy (e.g. Fletcher & Sarkar, 2016; Reivich & Shatté, 2002; Seligman,
2006). In general terms, cognitive flexibility is the ability to adjust our thinking from old
situations to new ones and to overcome habitual ways of thinking in order to adapt to new
situations or challenges (Moore & Malinowski, 2009). Resilient people are often able to
manage their negative appraisals by using cognitive flexibility to reappraise challenging
situations. They have been found to be better able to manage their emotional reactions in
those situations (Genet & Siemer, 2011; Troy, 2012) and to improve their cardiovascular
response (Jamieson et al., 2012). Cognitive reappraisal can also provide protection or
resilience against future stressful encounters (Troy, 2012)
In addition to cognitive reappraisal, the use of positive thinking styles have been found to
play an important role in building resilience. Research shows that optimistic explanations for
negative events are associated with improved coping and well-being (Seligman, 2006;
Fredrickson et al., 2003). Optimism is associated with a tendency to explain negative events
as temporary, specific to the situation, changeable and not personal. These thinking patterns
are the opposite of the cognitive distortions often used by pessimists, who tend to explain
negative events as permanent, pervasive, uncontrollable and personal (Abramson et al.,
1978). This thinking style has been associated with a greater risk of depression and greater
difficulty managing stress and bouncing back (Wise & Rosqvist, 2006). Optimistic
explanations for negative events can act as a buffer against depression, helping people to stay
resilient and to make use of their social networks (Brissette et al., 2002). In addition,
optimism has been linked to the ability to build and maintain the strong social connections
needed for resilience (Neff et al., 2013; Srivastava et al., 2006).
Multiple research studies have shown the positive impact of adopting an optimistic
cognitive style on health-related stressors, leading to more positive health outcomes for
conditions such as coronary heart disease and stroke, and enhancing recovery from coronary
artery bypass surgery and breast cancer treatment (Tindle et al., 2009; Kim et al., 2011;
Tindle et al., 2012; Phillips et al., 2008). Furthermore, research indicates that people using
optimistic thinking styles and adopting a growth mindset tend to be more resilient to set-
backs and are better able to welcome new challenges (Yeager & Dweck, 2012).
It is important to note, that whilst optimism has many positive associations with
resilience, optimistic explanations may also contain inaccuracies such as overgeneralising the
positives or minimising the negatives (Nolen-Hoeksema et al, 1992) and this can lead to
heightened risk-taking and difficulty problem-solving. Resilient thinking is associated with
realistic optimism (Seligman, 2006), in which flexible thinking skills work alongside an
optimistic explanatory style to provide an accurate appraisal of the reality of a situation and
the generation of more balanced alternative ways of seeing negative events.
The skills of both flexible thinking and realistic optimism have their roots in cognitive
therapy and include self-awareness of negative thoughts, the ability to analyse the extent to
which the thoughts are helpful or contributing to further stress/distress, the ability to identify
11
cognitive distortions, and the skills of reappraisal and cognitive restructuring (Beck et al.,
1985; Greenberger & Padesky, 1995; Seligman, 2006).
In summary, the resilient thinking module teaches people to recognise and manage
negative thinking and to develop their skills of using flexible thinking and an optimistic
explanatory style both in the moment when faced with threat and over the longer term, to
make accurate appraisals of difficult situations encountered. In the short term, these skills
contribute to survival through and recovery from those events. Over the longer term, the
repeated application of these skills and the adoption of more balanced thinking styles
promotes thriving through enhanced self-efficacy and confidence (Galli & Vealey, 2008).
Resilient Behaviours: Recovery and Balance

As participants develop skills to recognise and overcome the emotional and cognitive barriers
to change, and learn how these affect their coping choices, they become open to the
possibility of choosing more resilient behaviours aimed at recovery and balance. This third
module, which follows the Resilient Thinking module, draws on skills learned in the previous
two modules to facilitate behavioural change. These behavioural skills, aimed at balancing
demands and achieving recovery from stress, can be applied both in the moment and over the
longer term to develop resilience capacity.
The human body is not designed to be on high alert for long periods. Indeed, our bodies’
physiological responses to stress can have serious consequences for both our physical and
mental health. Over the short term, raised adrenaline and cortisol can help us to focus,
improves memory and immunity, and also reduces our sensitivity to pain. This is adaptive in
a one-off threat situation, like an exam or an interview. However, prolonged high levels of
these hormones have a negative impact on our cognitive functions, making it harder to focus
and problem-solve, and increases susceptibility to illness and burn-out. This further
contributes to physiological and psychological stress, further reducing a person’s ability to
cope and be resilient (Melamed et al., 1999; Sandström, et al., 2005).
High levels of resilience have been linked to managing the balance between different
demands and multiple roles (Winwood et al., 2007). Achieving a good balance between home
and work life can be facilitated by proactive strategies such as job crafting, which alters the
scope and boundaries of work to make it more meaningful (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001)
and can produce benefits in home life (Demerouti et al., 2020). Research suggests that this
ability to manage the balance of demands is linked to an optimistic thinking style. People
who adopt an optimistic cognitive style tend to be better at prioritising tasks, judging where
to place their energy and focusing on the goals that are most important to them. They are also
more likely to persevere in the face of adversity (Carver & Scheier, 2014), setting
incremental goals in relation to tasks and taking personal responsibility for growth (Good &
Dweck, 2006). Research shows that the use of goal adjustment strategies which enable people
to let go of unrealistic goals and set more attainable ones have been associated with better
health adjustment, greater satisfaction and well-being in the face of adversity (Rasmussen et
al., 2006).
Research on resilient people shows that they often use behavioural strategies to facilitate
emotional and physiological recovery, such as taking breaks (Trougakos & Hideg, 2009),
accessing support from others (Cobb, 1976), experiencing psychosocial safety (Garrick et al.,
12
2014) and continuing to engage in recovery-based activities such as relaxation, hobbies and
interests outside of work (Demerouti et al., 2009). Over the longer term, such behavioural
strategies contribute to an increased awareness of and engagement with self-care activities,
and an improved ability to notice and attend to one’s own needs (Alkema et al., 2008;
Grafton et al., 2010).
In summary, the resilient behaviours module teaches people to use resilient behaviours
that facilitate survival and recovery from episodes of stress over the short and long term.
These behaviours include: taking time out, switching tasks, engaging in relaxation and
mindfulness, taking exercise, and maintaining interest in hobbies and interests. In order to
make time for these recovery-focused behaviours, a key application of the skills-based model
is to encourage each participant to reflect on the balance of their demands both at work and at
home. Skills aimed at improving the balance between pressures and demands include
establishing clear boundaries, being assertive, using SMART goals, prioritising, delegating
and letting go of perfectionism. These skills not only improve resilience in the moment but
also contribute to greater resilience capacity over the longer term, leading to thriving.
The skills-based model: process

The extent to which individuals are motivated to develop new skills and perceive that they
have the time and the ability to do so can vary greatly. People respond to challenges
differently according to past experience, capacity for self-awareness, sense of control,
confidence in their ability to make change and motivation to do so. As an applied model, our
skills-based model of resilience addresses these process factors by describing how facilitators
can support individuals from diverse backgrounds and experiences to be able to engage with
the modules and make lasting behaviour change.
The process of behaviour change is complex for many individuals and varies across
individuals. Consequently, we focus on the following four aspects to facilitate individual
change: engagement, motivation, interpersonal process and individual differences.
Engagement: Self-awareness & self-efficacy

Learning new skills often means changing established behaviours or creating new behaviours.
The ability to persevere with learning and put into practice new resilient behaviours is linked
to an individual’s sense of agency or self-efficacy (Joseph, 2011; Lee et al., 2013).
The capacity to take action when faced with challenge or threat often depends on an
individual’s ability to become an observer of oneself, to have objective self-awareness and an
ability to self-reflect (Duval & Wicklund, 1972). Self-awareness is one of the key
components of emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1996), promoting self-reflexive and
introspective attention to one’s own experience (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Wall, 2005) and
facilitating positive self-development (Sutton, 2016).
We apply our skills-based model by paying careful attention to the challenge self-
awareness presents to people attempting to develop their resilience skills. We focus on
building these skills through discussion of signs and symptoms of stress, self-monitoring and
reflection on individual sources of and responses to stressors. Mindfulness skills are also
taught and practiced to further facilitate self-awareness (Brown & Ryan, 2003). This attention
13
to the process aspects of our training enhances self-efficacy through the practice and
accomplishment of new skills, offering opportunities for shared reflection on the positive
impact of those skills, learning from successes and growing through set-backs (Bandura,
1977; Good & Dweck, 2006).
Motivation
Understanding and working with individual differences in motivation to engage in new
resilience promoting behaviours is also key to the successful delivery of the skills-based
model. Processes identified in the transtheoretical model of change (Prochaska et al., 1997)
support the development of individual motivation to try out a new behaviour or change an old
one. Focusing first on their ability to recognise that there is a need for change, participants are
encouraged to reflect on and understand their own barriers to change and anticipate the
factors that may lead to set-backs in the change process. As awareness of the need for change
emerges, motivation is enhanced by linking goals for change with personal or professional
values (Chase et al., 2013). Sustained behaviour change over the longer term is supported by
encouraging individuals to reflect on and overcome any set-backs that prevent them moving
towards or maintaining their resilience goals (Good & Dweck, 2006; Hayes & Smith, 2005;
Miller & Rollnick, 2012).
Inter-personal processes
Following decades of clinical research , it is widely accepted that simply providing
information using didactic methods is not sufficient to support individuals to make lasting
change. Over and above developing any new skills and strategies implicit in psychological
therapy, the feature that accounts for the largest proportion (30%) of variance in therapeutic
change is the interpersonal relationship between therapist and client. This therapeutic
relationship has more effect on outcome than the therapeutic modality used (e.g. CBT,
psychodynamic, etc), which accounts for only 15% of variance (Lambert & Barley, 2001).
We have taken account of this in the skills-based model by training facilitators to pay close
attention to the interpersonal factors evident in group dynamics. The facilitators also apply
the skills-based model to help them manage their own emotions to develop supportive
relationships with the training participants and to implicitly model emotion regulation. This
self-awareness and ability to self-regulate emotions has been found to be an essential
competence of leadership in any context (Goleman et al., 2013). Feeling calm, training
facilitators are able to use prosocial skills such as active listening, empathy, and other ways
of responding positively to others, to create interpersonal connections and feelings of safety
and containment. When the participants feel understood, supported and encouraged, they are
more likely to feel able to try out new ways of thinking, feeling and behaving (Bandura,
1977). Additionally, the cognitive resilience skills used by the facilitators allow for a
recognition of and adaptation to the different ways in which each individual participant may
engage with and develop new skills to survive, recover and thrive in response to stressful
events.
The inter-personal style of the facilitator and the patterns of relating that exist between
group members have been found to play an important role in therapy outcomes (Yalom,
1995). Whitfield (2010) emphasised that the effectiveness of group CBT is not solely due to
14
taught skills, but is significantly impacted by non-specific inter-personal factors, just as it is

in individual CBT. The group context serves to normalise the experience of difficulties and
reduce stigma around them, to positively support behaviour change and offer opportunities
for vicarious learning (Whitfield, 2010).
Individual differences
No two training participants will be the same, and the raising awareness of individual
differences is an important feature of personal development training. Variations in self-
efficacy, self-awareness, motivation and engagement are likely to be underpinned by
personality factors, historical experiences, contextual factors and cultural factors, as well as
differences in existing coping patterns and values systems. By paying attention to the
idiosyncratic nature of resilience and the individual factors that are important for successful
engagement with, and motivation to try, new resilience skills, the skills-based model
encourages facilitators to work relationally with individuals within a group context (Yalom,
1995). Consequently, we make a distinction between the use of the term trainer and
facilitator, where a trainer is someone who teaches skills, whereas a facilitator is someone
who facilitates learning and draws on an awareness of an individuals’ learning needs.
Using much the same processes as in psychological therapy, facilitators support each
individual participant to grow their self-awareness, reflect on their existing difficulties and
coping patterns. This helps to identify their particular resilience needs and provide structure
to the intervention, allowing decisions to be made about which modules should be used at
what time for each person. Consequently, the training is made relevant and accessible to each
individual participant by focusing on their own personal reasons for behaviour change,
exploring any barriers to successful change, and building self-efficacy through successful
engagement with new skills and strategies. This contributes to ensuring each participant
achieves the maximum benefit from their experience in the training.
Conclusion
Our skills-based model of personal resilience draws on the theoretical and research literature
on resilience to provide a useful framework that can be applied to teaching skills that are
known to be effective in developing resilient ways of responding to stressful events. The
model also provides guidance on how to deliver the training by attending to the emotional
and relational factors that arise during training sessions.
Construing resilience as a set of skills that can be learnt, practised and developed using a
set of cognitive, behavioural and emotional responses to stress is drawn from well-established
therapeutic interventions based on widely-used psychological models of distress. This implies
that the model is robust and adaptable for use with a variety of individuals, groups and
organisations in a range of contexts. In addition, the model can itself grow and adapt as future
research reveals new insights into additional factors that may be important for resilience. An
important feature of this approach to resilience training is that the facilitators use the skills-
based model themselves to inform how they engage and support participants in learning new
skills that will endure over the longer term.
15
In comparison with other models of resilience training, the skills-based model makes a
unique contribution to the literature by focusing on both content and process as key to the
successful learning of resilience skills. Other approaches to resilience training have either not
been theoretically derived (e.g. Millear et al., 2008) or have not devoted attention to the
process factors that encourage participant engagement and motivation to make behavioural
change (e.g. King & Rothstein, 2010; Reivich, Seligman & McBride, 2011; Seligman et al.,
2009; Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson, 2005).
Data from a recent feasibility study evaluating the skills-based model with trainee
psychological well-being practitioners has shown significant improvements in resilience
(Nelson, 2019). These data provide preliminary, supportive evidence for the effectiveness of
the skills-based model of personal resilience in workplace training.
As an applied model, the content of training necessarily focuses on the intra- and inter-
personal factors that are involved in promoting an individual’s resilience and which are under
the participant’s control. However, we know that the experience of adversity and individual
coping does not occur in a vacuum (Liu et al., 2017), and strategies that enhance resilience
exist in relation to a person’s context and develop through interaction with environmental
factors (Rutter, 1987). As Farmer and Stevenson (2017) concluded, employers should make
structural changes to encourage thriving at work. The skills-based model not only provides
guidance on how staff training can be delivered effectively, but also gives employers some
direction in creating the conditions necessary to build a resilient culture in their organisation.
This includes promoting the importance of strong and trusting relationships, opportunities for
recovery from stress, and the role of positive emotions, amongst others. There are various
examples in the literature showing how some of these conditions have been applied in
organisations to foster resilience. These include the provision of high levels of support when
people are faced with challenge or change (Daloz, 1986; Sanford, 1967); development of a
culture of trust and emotional safety rather than one of blame and fear (Edmondson, 1996;
Kakkar, 2019; West, 2012,); the impact of emotionally and socially intelligent leaders
(Goleman et al. 2013); and of staff who model and reinforce pro-social behaviour (Biglan et
al., 2012).
In summary, the skills-based model of personal resilience addresses the criticisms made
of existing approaches to resilience training made by Fletcher and Sarkar (2012) and
Robertson et al. (2015). By providing a comprehensive and theoretically-underpinned model
of resilience that incorporates both content and process factors, the development and delivery
of resilience training can become more consistent and effective. Consequently, this will also
provide more opportunities for a rigorous comparison and evaluation of resilience training.
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Introducing the skills‐based model of personal resilience: Drawing on content

Preprint in Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · January 2021

Felicity R. L. Baker Kevin Baker

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Introducing the skills-based model of personal resilience:

In an independent review of thriving at work commissioned by the UK government, Farmer

Background to the skills-based model

The skills-based model of personal resilience: content

Although emotional resilience is commonly associated with the successful self-regulation

Resilient Behaviours: Recovery and Balance

The skills-based model: process

Engagement: Self-awareness & self-efficacy

taught skills, but is significantly impacted by non-specific inter-personal factors, just as it is

depressive state. Behavioural Research and Theory, 48(6), 459-466.

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