1. Jean-Jacques Rousseau is a Swiss Philosopher.

According to him, ethical subjectivism means that

people can never be mistaken about what is morally wrong because there are no objective or
universal moral standards or truths; instead, there are only opinions. Ethical subjectivism does
not question our ability to know moral truths. An opinion expresses what a person believes. It
does not have to be backed up with reasons or facts. (example)
2. Religion is defined as an institutionalized system of beliefs and values about God shared by a
group and grounded in faith and the worship of a supreme transcendent being. Spirituality is
knowing who you really are and connecting with something larger than yourself and typically
involves a search for meaning in life. It develops beliefs around the meaning of life and
connection with others, without any set of spiritual values. Religion influences ethical system
through strengthening and awakening the connection of our spiritual selves to our faith and
beliefs in God. Example of religion is Christianity.
3. Divine command theory is a type of ethical relativism where morality is dependent on or relative
to God. God is perfectly good and just. It is God’s command to a particular people and groups
override moral principles when there is a conflict. However, natural law disagree with the divine
command theory. Instead of an action being right because God commands it, natural law
theorists maintain that God commands an action because it is moral beforehand and
independently of Gods commanding it at that moment.
*God is the creator of morality.
*Natural law is universal and applies at all times.
*Humans can access natural law through the use of reason.
*According to Thomas Aquinas, the basic principle of natural law is “do good and avoid evil”.
*Natural law is also grounded in a specific view of the purpose or goal of the natural order.
These theory affects our ethical system by simply allowing oneself to obey and give respect to
what God restricts us. Because it is just for us to be good and do good. These theory gives
reflections to what is injustice. Ethics in this theory is about being socially and spiritually aware
and awakening, that even there is freedom for everyone, limitations restricts us from doing bad.
Divine command theory and Natural law theory will probably give me many aspects of
reflections, in terms of doing what is right and just, in avoiding what is wrong, and seeking for
spiritual awakening to be able to know myself not just a citizen of the polis but also as a believer
and a follower of God.
4. Ethics is a moral principle that governs a person’s behavior, custom, or habit. Ethics serve as a
guide moral in daily living and helps us judge whether our behavior can be justified. Ethics refers
to society's sense of the right way of living our daily lives. It does this by establishing rules,
principles, and values on which we can base our conduct. Example of ethical values are justice,
honesty, respect, empathy, compassion, and responsibility. The two traditional subdivisions of
ethics are normative and theoretical. Normative tells us “how” we should act, while theoretical
tells us “why” we should act. An example of normative ethics is “murder is wrong” it is based
and abide to the law. Ethics give influence to the humanity in shaping their behavior and
character as an individual. (example)
5. Dilemma is a situation in which we have a conflict between moral values. Experiencing moral
dilemmas help me as a human being in terms of awareness about choosing or identifying
between right and wrong. By doing so, moral dilemma helps me enhance in avoiding what is
immoral rather be morally aware what is correct. It affects me as a human being and in shaping
 my character as a human being. Because I believe doing what is morally correct also affects
other people’s lives. (example)
6. Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory where an action is right or wrong depending on the
consequences of that action. The importance of utilitarianism is that it helps life become better
and worth living for in doing good things. Mo Tzu says that people are naturally sympathetic and
concerned with promoting the happiness of others as well and that he called utilitarianism as
“universal love” – the feeling of unity with our fellow creature. It helps us in our life in
promoting unity, love and harmony with others because if you’re happy, it will surely affect
others. (example)
7. Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory where an action is right or wrong depending on the
consequences of that action. The importance of utilitarianism is that it helps life become better
and worth living for in doing good things. Hume and Epicurus claimed that certain traits are
virtues because of their utility or usefulness. (example)
8. Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory where an action is right or wrong depending on the
consequences of that action. The importance of utilitarianism is that it helps life become better
and worth living for in doing good things. According to Bentham, nature has placed mankind
under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point
out what we ought to do. It helps us in our life in promoting happiness equally in both sides or
predominantly. For examples is that, where choices present themselves between giving an
additional increment to a rich man or to a poor man, more happiness will result from giving it to
the poorer of the two.
9. Ethics is a moral principle that governs a person’s behavior, custom, or habit. Ethics serve as a
guide moral in daily living and helps us judge whether our behavior can be justified. Ethics refers
to society's sense of the right way of living our daily lives. It does this by establishing rules,
principles, and values on which we can base our conduct. Dilemma affects our ethical values in
terms of what may be accountable to our actions. It helps us process and evaluate our decision
making and estimate the consequences. The other sciences that are related to ethics are
biological science that treat man as living organism, anthropology that investigates the origin of
the human body, sociology that studies human and social groups, psychology that studies the
human behavior, and logic deal with correct thinking and reasoning. Ethics give practical
guidance to our lives, where we face choices and consequences that we need to be aware of.
10. Moral dilemma is a situation in which we have a conflict between moral values. The importance
of moral dilemma helps an individual choose between two things that may be beneficial or away
from wrong doings. To resolve a moral dilemma, we should describe the facts, list the relevant
moral principles and concerns, list and evaluate possible courses of action, devise a plan of
action, and carry out the plan of action. Dilemma influence our judgement through what is right
and wrong or what would give us great pleasure and happiness. Judgement is the ability to
make considered decisions or come to sensible conclusions. (example)
11. Thomas Aquinas is an Italian philosopher and theologian. According to him, natural law is also
teleological, this means it is grounded in a specific view of the purpose or goal of the natural
order. He says, moral or natural law is our human way of participating in and actively working
toward that vision. There are 4 hierarchy of laws, eternal law, divine law, natural law, and
human law. (… choose one hierarchy)
12. Mary Wollstonecraft was an avid opponent of ethical subjectivism and disagreed with
Rousseau’s exaltation of feeling and sentiments over reason. According to her, ethical
subjectivism is that morality does not thrive on the free expression of opinions or feelings but
rather sees to flourish when our ideas and worldviews are challenged rather than uncritically
affirmed. She says that our feelings and ideas about what is moral should also be held up to the
light of reason. I will choose Wollstonecraft’s idea because…
13. Ethical subjectivism does not question our ability to know moral truth. There is no right and
wrong but only opinion. Moral truths exist, but are not based on universal standards. Emotivism
is where all moral statements are expression of a person’s feelings. Opinions are neither true
nor false. Ethical skepticism says we cannot know with certainty whether or not objective moral
standards exist. (explain example)
14. Divine command theory is a type of ethical relativism where morality is dependent on or relative
to God. It states that God is perfectly good and just. It is God’s command to a particular people
and groups override moral principles when there is a conflict. (example influence)

*morality is independent of God’s commands.

*there are no criteria for determining whether God actually issued a particular command.

*the theory provides no objective criteria for determining which claim to accept if two particular
groups or individuals present conflicting claims based on divine commands.

*the theory is based on the assumption of the existence of a just, loving, and infallible personal God.

*the existence of perfectly good God who is the source of all morality seems inconsistent with the
presence of much apparently senseless suffering and evil in the world.

15. Civil disobedience involves the refusal to obey certain government laws for the purpose of trying
to bring about a change in legislation or government policy.

*only moral and nonviolent means are used to achieve its goal.

*an effort is first made to bring about a change through legal means.

*the actions are open and public.

*dissidents are willing to accept the consequences of their actions.

(own ideas)

16. Jeremy Bentham was an English philosopher, jurist, and a social reformer regarded as the father
of modern utilitarianism. According to Bentham, nature has placed mankind under the governance
of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure.

*intensity involves the strength of the pain or pleasure.

*duration refers to the length of time that the pleasure or pain lasts.

*certainty refers to the probability that the pleasure or pain will occur.

*propinquity or nearness in time, is related to certainty.

*fecundity means that the pleasure is productive of more pleasure, rather like a stone thrown in the
water and producing ripples.

*purity entails pleasure that does not cause pain at the same time.

*extent refers to the number of sentient beings affect by the action.

17. John Stuart Mill was a British philosopher. He states that actions are right in portion as they
promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. For him, happiness is
to respect the dignity and personal autonomy of others. (discuss relation)

18. Ethical egoism identifies happiness with the pursuit of ration self-interest. Ayn Rand was a
Russian writer and philosopher. She stated that egoism is where the achievement of one’s own
happiness is man’s highest moral purpose. (discussions)

19. Ethics is a moral principle that governs a person’s behavior, custom, or habit. Ethics serve as a
guide moral in daily living and helps us judge whether our behavior can be justified. Ethics refers to
society's sense of the right way of living our daily lives.

*moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant benefits.

* ought to be preferred to other values.

*not established by authority figures.

*have traits of universalizability.

*are based on impartial considerations.

*are associated with special emotions and vocabulary.

20. Freedom is the right to do what we want to do, live where we want, eat where we want, and
etc. Moral dilemma is a situation in which we have a conflict between moral values. The importance
of moral dilemma helps an individual choose between two things that may be beneficial or away
from wrong doings. To resolve a moral dilemma, we should describe the facts, list the relevant
moral principles and concerns, list and evaluate possible courses of action, devise a plan of action,
and carry out the plan of action. (discussion)

21. Cultural relativism is the idea that a person’s beliefs, values, and practices should not be
understood based on that person’s own culture, rather than being judged against the criteria of
another. Example of cultural norms is where in US, it is okay for them to roam around the city
wearing only bras. (discussion)

22. Cultural relativism is the idea that a person’s beliefs, values, and practices should not be
understood based on that person’s own culture, rather than being judged against the criteria of
another. Example of cultural norms is where in US, it is okay for them to roam around the city
wearing only bras. (discussion) According to Ruth Benedict, there is no objective morality because
morality varies from culture to culture.

23. Cultural relativism is the idea that a person’s beliefs, values, and practices should not be
understood based on that person’s own culture, rather than being judged against the criteria of
another. Example of cultural norms is where in US, it is okay for them to roam around the city
wearing only bras. (discussion) The holocaust was the World War II the genocide of the European
Jews where two thirds of them were murdered and was victims of Nazi prosecution between
Germany. (discussion)

24. Cultural relativism is what I like the most because…

25. According to Thomas Aquinas, Human law is at the bottom of the hierarchy of laws, it is law such
as legislation or cultural norms that is derived by humans from natural law. the right of equality and
freedom from discrimination, right of private property, right of personal security, right to live, and
the freedom of speech. These laws related to natural law in terms of the preference to what is
lawfully and naturally right. These laws can be applied not just for the people in the Philippines but
also all around the world, because I believe these laws are also practiced by other countries.