Escape velocity

Escape velocity: The minimum velocity with which a body should be

projected upwards so that it escapes out of gravitational force, is known
as escape velocity from surface of earth.

Escape velocity in Rocket propulsion: In Rocket Propulsion, escape

velocity refers to the initial speed required for a rocket to overcome
Earth’s gravitational pull and reach space. Rocket’s aim to achieve this
velocity to enter orbit or escape Earth’s atmosphere. The concept
involves optimizing fuel efficiency and minimizing gravitational
resistance to propel the spacecraft beyond the influence of Earth’s
gravity.

Escape Velocity Formula

Escape velocity refers to the minimum velocity which is needed to leave
a planet or moon. For instance, for any rocket or some other object to
leave a planet, it has to overcome the pull of gravity.
The formula for escape velocity comprises of a constant, G, which we
refer to as the universal gravitational constant. The value of it is = 6.673
× 10-11 N . m2 / kg2. The unit for escape velocity is meters per second
(m/s).
Escape velocity = 2(gravitationalconstant)
(massoftheplanetofmoon)radiusoftheplanetormoon−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
−−−−−−−−−−−−√
v escape = 2GMR−−−−√
Over here:
v escape refers to the escape velocity (m/s)
G is the universal gravitational constant (6.673 × 10-11 N . m2 / kg2)
M refers to the mass of the planet or moon (kg)
R is the radius of the planet or moon (m)

Overview:
The existence of escape velocity is a consequence of conservation of
energy and an energy field of finite depth. For an object with a given
total energy, which is moving subject to conservative forces (such as a
static gravity field) it is only possible for the object to reach
combinations of locations and speeds which have that total energy;
places which have a higher potential energy than this cannot be reached
at all. By adding speed (kinetic energy) to the object it expands the
region of locations that can be reached, until, with enough energy,
everywhere to infinity becomes accessible.
Imagine that a spaceship of mass m is initially at a distance r from the
center of mass of the planet, whose mass is M, and its initial speed is
equal to its escape velocity, . At its final state, it will be an infinite
distance away from the planet, and its speed will be negligibly
small. Kinetic energy K and gravitational potential energy Ug are the
only types of energy that we will deal with (we will ignore the drag of
the atmosphere), so by the conservation of energy,
We can set Kfinal = 0 because final velocity is arbitrarily small, and Ug final =
0 because final gravitational potential energy is defined to be zero a
long distance away from a planet, so
 Principal of Rockets
The principle of rocket propulsion depends on the following two
laws :-
1:- Newton’s third law of motion
2:- Law of Conservation of Momentum

Newton’s Third Law of Motion

Force is a push or pull acting on an object resulting in its interaction with another object.
Force is a result of an interaction. Force can be classified into two categories: contact force
such as frictional force and non-contact force such as gravitational force. According to
Newton, when two bodies interact, they exert force on each other, and these forces are
known as action and reaction pairs, which is explained in Newton’s third law of motion.
Newton’s third law of motion states that
“When one body exerts a force on the other body, the first body experiences a force
which is equal in magnitude in the opposite direction of the force which is exerted”.
The above statement means that in every interaction, there is a pair of forces acting on the
interacting objects. The magnitude of the forces are equal and the direction of the force on
the first object is opposite to the direction of the force on the second object .

Law of conservation of Momentum

➱ The total quantity of motion possessed by a moving body is known as
the Momentum of the body. It has both magnitude and direction and
hence a vector quantity. It is denoted by P.

➱Magnitude of P=MV

 Where M is mass of the body

 V is velocity of the body
In the absence of external forces, the total momentum of the body is
conserved.
  The motion of an rocket is an interesting application of
Newton’s third law of motion and momentum principle.

 The rocket expels a jet of hot gases from its tail. This is
say, an action force. The jet of hot gases exerts a on the
rocket, propelling it forward; this is reaction force.

 Propulsion principle from the momentum point of view,

the hot gases acquire momentum in the backword
direction and the rocket acquires an equal amount of
momentum in forward direction.

Operation of Rocket

Rocket thrust is caused by pressures acting in combustion

chambers and nozzle. From Newton’s third law equal and
opposite pressure act on exhaust, and this accelerates it to
high speeds.

 Rocket engines produce thrust by the explosion of a high

speed fluid exhaust.
 This fluid is nearly always a gas which is created by high
pressure(10-200bar) combustion of solid or liquid
propellants, consisting of fuel and oxidiser components,
within a combustion chamber.
 The fluid exhaust is then passed through a supersonic
propelling nozzle which uses heat energy of the gas to
accelerate the exhaust to very high speed, and the
reaction to this pushes the engine in the opposite
direction.
 As the rocket gains speed, keeping the direction of
motion closely aligned with the direction of thrust is
critical. Gradual adjustments are needed to steer the
rocket towards an orbital trajectory, but a severe
misalignment can send the rocket whirling out of control.
Most rockets, including the Falcon and Titan series and
the Saturn V moon rocket, steer using gimballed engines,
mounted so that the entire rocket motor can pivot and
vary the direction of its thrust from moment to moment.
APPLICATION OF ROCKETS

Rocket can be classified into six primary categories

according to their intended use:
 1.Fireworks
2.Scientific Research
3.Safety Mechanisms
4.Military Weapons
5.Orbital Launch Vehicles
6.JATO / RATO
Although they serve different purposes, all five rocket types
work on the same principle of rocket propulsion. To better
understand the intended use of each type of rocket, one
needs to examine each category in more detail:

1) Fireworks
Rockets used for entertainment during fireworks displays
date back as far as the Sung Dynasty in China, around 960 –
1279 AD. It is also the earliest form of rocket propulsion in
recorded history.
It was a basic solid-fueled rocket that typically consisted of a
container containing gunpowder (black powder) mounted on
a thin bamboo splint, which helped to stabilize the vehicle. A
small fuse was used to ignite the “fuel,” which launched the
rocket into the air.
Modern fireworks still use the same principles as their early
counterparts, and modern skyrockets used during these
displays are also mounted on a thin stick with a solid
propellant and fuse.
The nose cones (or payload) of modern skyrockets contain
the special effects one sees during a fireworks display, which
may take the form of multicolored flashes, whistling sounds,
or crackles. Compounds are sometimes mixed with the
propellant for visual effects.
Due to their danger, rockets for fireworks displays are now
banned in many countries, including Canada and Norway, and
strictly regulated in others.

2) Scientific Research

Rockets also perform a crucial role in scientific research and

meteorology through the use of sounding rockets. Monitoring
upper atmospheric conditions is crucial for establishing
climate patterns and making weather forecasts.
Unfortunately, satellites orbit the planet at a minimum
altitude of approximately 200 km (124 miles), while weather
balloons can only reach a maximum altitude of roughly 40 km
(25 miles). The region of the atmosphere between these
heights is difficult to monitor.
And this is where sounding rockets come into play. It can
carry a payload up to an altitude of approximately 45 – 150
km (30 – 93 miles) above the planet’s surface, from where it
can conduct dedicated experiments or take atmospheric
measurements.
(Some advanced sounding rockets are multi-stage rockets
that can reach altitudes that far exceed the height at which
most satellites orbit the Earth. For example, NASA’s Black
Brant XII is a four-stage rocket that can reach an altitude of
1 500 kilometers or 932 miles).
Sounding rockets are used for several different purposes,
from testing instruments and materials that will be used in
satellites or other spacecraft, gathering astronomical data, to
taking atmospheric measurements.

3) Safety Mechanisms

Although they weren’t initially intended for this purpose,

rockets also play a role in providing safety mechanisms for
the aviation and space industry.
The ejection seats used in fighter aircraft and the Launch
Escape System used in crewed space launch systems are the
best two examples of these mechanisms in practice. In both
cases, rockets are used to lift the vehicles’ occupants to
safety in case of an emergency.
In fighter aircraft, an ejection seat is used to lift a pilot to
safety once an aircraft becomes unrecoverable or severely
crippled. A solid rocket booster is situated under the pilot’s
seat.
During an emergency, the pilot pulls the lever activating the
ejection mechanism, which jettisons the aircraft’s canopy
away while activating the rocket underneath the seat. The
seat is trusted away from the vehicle in milliseconds, after
which a drogue parachute deploys.
(Depending on the aircraft’s height during ejection, the
drogue parachute deploys the main parachute immediately
or at a safe altitude after ejection. At the same time, the
seat falls away, allowing the pilot to perform a safe
landing.)
An orbital rocket uses a Launch Scape System (LES) to lift the
crew away from the rest of the vehicle during a catastrophic
failure. The Saturn V rocket used small rockets situated
inside a tower on top of the rocket, which could rapidly lift
the astronauts to safety.
The Russian Soyuz rocket uses a similar system, while
SpaceX uses rocket boosters integrated into the Crew
Dragon Capsule to perform the same function.)

4) Military Weapons

During the start of the Space Race between the United States
and the Soviet Union, the majority of launch vehicles used
during the early years were converted Intercontinental
Ballistic Missiles.
Like many significant advances in engineering and
technology, the biggest progress made in rocket engineering
directly resulted from competition between warring nations.
The advanced missile systems of the time were a direct result
of the Cold War.
For example, the Delta and Atlas families of orbital launch
vehicles started off as Thor and SM-65 Atlas ballistic missiles,
respectively, during the 1950s and 1960s. Similarly, the
Soviet Sputnik rocket family was derived from the R-7
Semyorka Intercontinental Ballistic Missile.
Today, rocket-powered missile systems form the backbone of
any sovereign nation. From Nuclear Intercontinental Ballistic
Missile Systems to Air-To-Ground, Surface-To-Air, and even
shoulder-mounted grenade launchers, all rely on rocket
power to function.

5) Orbital Launch Vehicles

Orbital launch vehicles, or rockets that can reach Low Earth

Orbit and beyond, are still the most widely publicized and
well-known type of rocket. With the advent of the internet,
most launches are now live-streamed and gaining an ever-
increasing following.
The vast majority of rockets are used to put a type of
satellite into orbit. The satellites vary from scientific craft
monitoring conditions in the Earth’s atmosphere and on its
surface to reconnaissance satellites, communications
satellites, and Global Positioning Systems.
Some launch vehicles are also human-rated, meaning they
are certified to carry humans to space. Rockets routinely
carry astronauts to the International Space Station, and more
recently, also started transporting civilians into orbit as part
of commercial space programs.
NASA is also looking to return humans to the Moon with its
Artemis Program, while SpaceX is even more ambitious with
its Starship launch vehicle, striving to carry the first human
to the surface of Mars.
Rockets are also used to launch spacecraft which explore our
solar system and Space beyond it. Earlier examples include
the Voyager 1 & 2 spacecraft launched in the 1970s and,
more recently, the Cassini spacecraft, which orbited and
studied Saturn in detail.

6) JATO / RATO

Often, solid rocket boosters are added to a rocket to increase

its payload capacity by adding more thrust to the launch
vehicle, allowing it to carry heavier loads or reach higher
orbits.
A similar principle is sometimes applied to assist aircraft
during takeoff. Adding multiple small solid rocket boosters to
the wings or rear fuselage of an otherwise overloaded aircraft
will allow the plane to get airborne in time successfully.
The system used during this maneuver is called JATO (Jet-
Assisted Take-Off) or RATO (Rocket-Assisted Take-Off) and
was experimented with as early as the 1920s when Germany
used solid rockets to boost gliders into the air.
It was also used during the early years of jet-propelled
aircraft to assist underperforming jet engines during take-off.
The system could also be utilized when take-off on a very
short airfield requires aircraft to become airborne in a very
short amount of time.
Improvement in aircraft technology with more powerful
engines being produced reduced the need for JATO systems,
and it is currently only used for special operations and mostly
fitted to military aircraft.

ROCKET ENGINES

A rocket engine uses stored rocket propellants as

the reaction mass for forming a high-speed
propulsive jet of fluid, usually high-temperature
gas. Rocket engines are reaction engines, producing
thrust by ejecting mass rearward, in accordance
with Newton's third law. Most rocket engines use
the combustion of reactive chemicals to supply the
necessary energy, but non-combusting forms such
as cold gas thrusters and nuclear thermal rockets also
exist. Vehicles propelled by rocket engines are
commonly used by ballistic missiles (they normally
use solid fuel) and rockets. Rocket vehicles carry their
own oxidiser, unlike most combustion engines, so
rocket engines can be used in a vacuum to
propel spacecraft and ballistic missiles.
Compared to other types of jet engine, rocket engines
are the lightest and have the highest thrust, but are
the least propellant-efficient (they have the
lowest specific impulse). The ideal exhaust
is hydrogen, the lightest of all elements, but chemical
rockets produce a mix of heavier species, reducing the
exhaust velocity.
Rocket engines become more efficient at high speeds,
due to the Oberth effect.

Principle of operation

Rocket engines produce thrust by the expulsion of an

exhaust fluid that has been accelerated to high speed
through a propelling nozzle. The fluid is usually a gas
created by high pressure (150-to-4,350-pound-per-
square-inch (10 to 300 bar)) combustion of solid or
liquid propellants, consisting
of fuel and oxidiser components, within a combustion
chamber. As the gases expand through the nozzle, they
are accelerated to very high (supersonic) speed, and
the reaction to this pushes the engine in the opposite
direction. Combustion is most frequently used for
practical rockets, as the laws
of thermodynamics (specifically Carnot's theorem)
dictate that high temperatures and pressures are
desirable for the best thermal efficiency. Nuclear
thermal rockets are capable of higher efficiencies, but
currently have environmental problems which preclude
their routine use in the Earth's atmosphere
and cislunar space.
For model rocketry, an available alternative to
combustion is the water rocket pressurized by
compressed air, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, or any other
readily available, inert gas
 Rockets can operate in the vacuum of space
 Fuel and oxidiser are sprayed into the combustion
chamber where they burn creating a high pressure
high- temperature mixture of combustion products.
 The mixture velocity is essentially zero
  The exit velocity is even more for jet engines.
 Rocket engines produce higher thrust but
efficiencies are lower.
 The comparative effiecieny of different rocket
engines can be obtained from specific impulse isp.
 Specific impulse is defined as the thrust per unit
weight flow at sea level.
 Necessary conditions to have a high impulse is:
A) Combustion temperature should be high.
B) Molecular weight of fuel M should be less.

ROCKET PROPELLANTS

The fuel and the oxidiser together are called

propellants.
2 classification of propellants:-
 Liquid propellant
 Solid propellant

Liquid propellant:-

A liquid-propellant rocket or liquid rocket utilizes

a rocket engine that uses liquid propellants.
Gaseous propellants may also be used but are not
common because of their low density and difficulty
with common pumping methods. Liquids are
desirable because they have a reasonably high
density and high specific impulse (Isp). This allows
the volume of the propellant tanks to be relatively
low. The rocket propellants are usually pumped
into the combustion chamber with a lightweight
centrifugal turbopump, although some aerospace
companies have found ways to use electric pumps
with batteries, allowing the propellants to be kept
under low pressure. This permits the use of low-
mass propellant tanks that do not need to resist the
high pressures needed to store significant amounts
of gasses, resulting in a low mass ratio for the
rocket.
An inert gas stored in a tank at a high pressure is
sometimes used instead of pumps in simpler small
engines to force the propellants into the
combustion chamber. These engines may have a
 higher mass ratio, but are usually more reliable,
and are therefore used widely in satellites for orbit
maintenance.
Liquid rockets can be monopropellant rockets using
a single type of propellant, or bipropellant rockets
using two types of propellant. Tripropellant
rockets using three types of propellant are rare.
Most designs of liquid engines are throttleable for
variable thrust operation and some may be
restarted after a previous in-space shutdown.
Liquid oxidizer propellants are also used in hybrid
rockets, with some of the advantages of a solid
rocket.

The propellants are fed at extremely high pressures

around 440 ATM.
 There are two approaches:-
1) Pump- fed system
2) Pressure-fed system

Cryogenic propellants
 In a cryogenic propellant the fuel and the
oxidizer are in the form of very cold ,liquified
gases.
 These liquified gases are referred to as very
cooled as they stay in liquid form even tho
 they are at a temperature lower than the
freezing point.
 Thus we can say that super cooled gases used
as liquid fuels are called cryogenic fuels.
 These propellants are gases at normal
atmospheric conditions. But to store these
propellants abroad a rocket is a very difficult
task as they have very low densities. Hence
extremely huge tanks will be required to store
the propellants.
 Thus by cooling and compressing them into
liquids, we can vastly increase their density
and make it possible to store them in large
quantities in smaller tanks.
 Normally the propellant combination used is
that of liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen,
liquid oxygen being oxidizer and liquid
hydrogen being the fuel.

DRAWBACKS
 Since these propellants are in extremely low
temperature conditions they are very hard to
 handle. They must be protected from heat so
as to prevent boiling of gasses.
 When liquid propellants are stored at
temperatures above their boiling point they
vapourize. If these vapours are contained in a
tank. Then the pressure increases with the
temperature.
 Cryogens are highly concentrated gasses and
have a very high reactivity.
 Liquid oxygen, which is used as an oxidizer,
combines with most of the organic materials to
form explosive compounds. So lots of care
must be taken to ensure safety.

HYPERGOLIC PROPELLANTS

 A hypergolic propellant is composed of a fuel

and oxidizer that ignite when they come into
contact with each other.
 There is no need of ignition mechanism in
order to bring about combustion.
Solid Propellant:-
A solid-propellant rocket or solid rocket is
a rocket with a rocket engine that uses solid
propellants (fuel/oxidizer). The earliest rockets were
solid-fuel rockets powered by gunpowder; they were
used in warfare by
the Chinese, Indians, Mongols and Persians as early as
the 13th century.[1]
All rockets used some form of solid or
powdered propellant up until the 20th century,
when liquid-propellant rockets offered more
efficient and controllable alternatives. Solid
rockets are still used today in military armaments
worldwide, model rockets, solid rocket
boosters and on larger applications for their
simplicity and reliability.
Since solid-fuel rockets can remain in storage for
an extended period without much propellant
degradation and because they almost always launch
reliably, they have been frequently used in military
applications such as missiles. The lower
performance of solid propellants (as compared to
liquids) does not favor their use as primary
propulsion in modern medium-to-large launch
vehicles customarily used to orbit commercial
satellites and launch major space probes. Solids
are, however, frequently used as strap-on boosters
to increase payload capacity or as spin-stabilized
add-on upper stages when higher-than-normal
velocities are required. Solid rockets are used as
light launch vehicles for low Earth orbit (LEO)
payloads under 2 tons or escape payloads up to 500
kilograms (1,100 lb). A simple solid rocket
motor consists of a casing, nozzle, grain (propellant
charge), and igniter.
The solid grain mass burns in a predictable fashion
to produce exhaust gases, the flow of which is
described by Taylor–Culick flow.
The nozzle dimensions are calculated to maintain a
design chamber pressure, while
producing thrust from the exhaust gases.
Once ignited, a simple solid rocket motor cannot be
shut off, because it contains all the ingredients
necessary for combustion within the chamber in
which they are burned. More advanced solid rocket
motors can be throttled, and also be extinguished,
[4]
and then re-ignited by control of the nozzle
geometry, or through the use of vent ports.
Further, pulsed rocket motors that burn in
segments, and that can be ignited upon command
are available.
 Modern designs may also include a steerable nozzle
for guidance, avionics, recovery hardware
(parachutes), self-destruct mechanisms, APUs,
controllable tactical motors, controllable divert
and attitude control motors, and thermal
management materials.

Advantages:-
 They are stable and easily storable
 They do not require turbo pumps or complex
compellent feeding devices.

Disadvantages:-
 The solid propellant motor cannot be shut down.
The fuel once ignited burns till the end.
 The propellant temperature is sensitive.