EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY, WEEK 7: NOTES, Part 2

Forming Hypothesis Inductively

The inductive hypothesis formulation model is the process of reasoning from specific cases to
more general principles (Myers & Hansen, 2012, p. 170). Inductive reasoning uses specific facts
to form a general conclusion or principle.

Through induction, researchers construct theories by taking bits of empirical data and forming
general explanatory schemes to accommodate those facts.

Forming Hypothesis Deductively

Deductive reasoning is the process of reasoning from general principles to making predictions
about specific instances. The deductive model is most useful when researchers have a
well-developed theory with clearly stated basic premises.

Then it is possible to deduce predictions about what should happen in new situations in which
the theory would apply. Testing such predictions tests the theory's value (Myers & Hansen, 2012,
p. 172).

Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis

An experiment normally has at least one null hypothesis and one alternative hypothesis.

A null hypothesis - represented by the symbol Ho - is a hypothesis that is directly examined by a

statistical test.

The alternative hypothesis - represented by the symbol H1 - is a hypothesis that is contrary to the
null hypothesis. An experiment aims to find statistical evidence to refute or nullify the null
hypothesis to support the alternative hypothesis (Rosenthal & Rosnow, 2008).

Example: Ho: Sleep deprivation does not influence word recall; H1: Sleep deprivation
influences word recall.

The alternative hypothesis and the null hypothesis should be mutually exclusive. If the null
hypothesis is true, the alternative hypothesis must be false, and vice versa.

The experiment's goal is to test the null hypothesis against the alternative hypothesis and decide
which one should be accepted and which should be rejected. The results of any significance test
tell us whether it is reasonable to reject the null hypothesis and the likelihood of being wrong if
rejecting the null hypothesis.

There is no limit to the number of hypotheses that can be investigated in one experiment.
However, it is generally recommended that researchers should not attempt to study too many
hypotheses in a single experiment.

Normally, the more hypotheses to be tested, the more factors that need to be controlled and the
more variables that need to be measured. This results in very complicated experiments, subject to
a higher risk of design flaws (Lazar, Feng, & Hochheiser, 2017).

The Basics of Experimentation

Once the researchers have formulated a hypothesis, the next step is to design a procedure to test
it. Much of the research currently done in the field of psychology is experimental. Hence,
understanding the principles of experimentation strengthens any researcher's potential for
success.

Researchers move from the general idea expressed in a hypothesis to the specific actions
required to experiment. The experimenter must clearly define what is being studied and how so
that the research can be evaluated and replicated.

INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES

A Variable is any factor or attribute that can assume two or more values. A measurable element
can vary or take on different values along some dimensions. An experimental hypothesis states a
potential relationship between two variables in the simplest experiments.

An independent variable (IV) is the presumed causal factor in a cause-effect relationship between
two variables; in an experiment, it is a factor that the researcher manipulates or systematically
varies. The variable is "independent" in the sense that the experimenter creates its values and is
not affected by anything else that happens in the experiment.

Independent variables are sometimes aspects of the physical environment that can be bought
under the experimenter's direct control - e.g., lightning (dim or bright), noise levels (loud or
soft), task level (difficult or easy), meaningfulness (nonsense syllables versus real words), etc.
Some experimenters manipulate experimental conditions so that subjects experience different
psychological states: anxious vs. nonanxious, happy vs. sad - that can be independent variables
(Myers & Hansen, 2017).
A dependent variable (DV) is the presumed effect in a cause-effect relationship between two
variables; in an experiment, it is the behavior or outcome that the researcher measures to
determine whether the independent variable has produced an effect.

Researchers expect to change the particular behavior because of the experimental treatment. It is
the outcome that researchers are trying to explain. If the hypothesis is correct, different values of
the IV should produce changes in the DV.

The dependent values are dependent in the sense that their values are assumed to depend on the
values of the independent variables (Myers & Hansen, 2017).

In an experiment, researchers create a different level or conditions of the independent variable

and then expose participants to those conditions.

The key aspect of participants' behavior - the dependent variable - is then measured in each of
the conditions and compared to determine whether the independent variable influenced the
participants' behavior (Passer, 2017). Hence, selecting appropriate independent and dependent
variables is integral to designing every experiment.

Figure 3. Terms Used to Describe IVs and DVs Source: Myers & Hansen, 2012, p. 196

Other TERMS Used to Describe IVs and DVs

Independent variables are also referred as:

● Treatments
● Manipulations
● Interventions
● Conditions

Dependent variables are also referred as:

● Measures
● Effects
● Outcomes
● Results

Constructs
Many concepts behavioral scientists are interested in-motivation, aptitude, memory, stress,
personality, intelligence, self-esteem, happiness, depression, mental imagery, and so on-represent
psychological states or processes that are hypothesized to exist but cannot be directly observed.

Rather, researchers observe measurable responses that are presumed to reflect these
psychological attributes. Such concepts are called constructs - underlying, hypothetical
characteristics or processes that are not directly observed but instead are inferred from
measurable behaviors or outcomes (Passer, 2017).

Mediator and Moderator Variables

A mediator variable is a variable that provides a causal link in the sequence between an
independent variable and a dependent variable (Baron &Kenny, 1986; MacKinnon & Fairchild,
2009).

As a mediator, a variable helps explain why an independent variable influences a dependent

variable. A moderator variable informs us about when and for whom an independent variable
produces a particular effect.

More formally, a moderator variable is a factor that alters the strength or direction of the
relationship between an independent and dependent variable (Passer, 2017).

OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS

Like anyone else, scientists may disagree about defining certain concepts or variables. Hence, in
addition to giving conceptual, everyday labels to variables, scientists need to specify what they
mean in the context of each experiment.

Scientists naturally want to be sure that observers will understand what they have done when
they run an experiment. Also, scientists want to be sure that their procedures are stated clearly
enough to enable others scientists or researchers to replicate their findings.

Suppose the research is an experiment and thus involves manipulating a variable to create
different conditions to which participants will be exposed. In that case, the researchers must also
decide on the procedures to create those conditions. The researchers can view the procedures the
operations that scientists use to measure and manipulate variables as a concrete, nuts-and-bolts
way of defining those variables.
The term operational definition refers to defining a variable in terms of the procedures used to
measure or manipulate it. In the case of constructs, operational definitions translate abstract
concepts that cannot be directly observed into tangible, measurable variables (Passer, 2017).

Defining the IV: Experimental Operational Definitions Experimental operational definitions

explain the precise meaning of the independent variables.

These definitions describe exactly what was done to create the various treatment conditions of
the experiment. An experimental operational definition includes all the steps followed to set up
each value of the independent variable.

Defining the DV: Measured Operational Definitions Dependent variables are defined by measure
operational definitions, which describe what the researchers do to measure the variable.

Measured operational definitions of the dependent variable describe exactly what procedures the
researchers follow to assess the impact of different treatment
conditions. These definitions include exact descriptions of the specific behaviors or responses
recorded and explain how those responses are scored.

Defining Constructs Operationally

Although a construct itself cannot be directly observed or measured, it is possible to observe and
measure the external factors and behaviors that are associated with the construct.

Researchers often formulate different definitions for the same construct variable when it is used
in different experiments.

Observable dimensions must define operational definitions for constructs before researchers can
deal with them scientifically.

The most familiar example is probably the IQ test, which is intended to measure intelligence.
Intelligence is a hypothetical construct, an internal attribute that cannot be observed directly.

However, intelligence is assumed to influence external behaviors that can be observed and
measured.

An IQ test actually measures external behavior consisting of responses to questions. The test
includes both elements of an operational definition: There are specific procedures for
administering and scoring the test, and the resulting scores are used as a definition and a
measurement of intelligence.
Thus, an IQ score is actually a measure of intelligent behavior, but we use it both to define
intelligence and measure it (Gravetter & Forzano, 2018).