QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

In contrast, a Quasi-experiment or Natural experiment lacks some of the key elements of

experimental control, such as manipulation of antecedents or random assignment to treatment
conditions.

Despite this, quasi-experiments still explore the effects of treatments on existing groups of
subjects or investigate naturally occurring events and behaviors.

Participants are exposed to a treatment or stimulus, and their dependent variables are measured.

● It is important to note that "treatment" refers to the event, intervention, task, or stimulus
to which participants are exposed.

These are the Main ways in which quasi-experiments may lack the level of control found in true
experiments:

● Independent variables: The experimenter may not have control over the content or
design of the treatment, when it happens, or who it affects.

These factors may be determined by others or by natural forces.

● Dependent variables: The experimenter may not have control over the choice of
dependent variables, or how, when, and for whom they are measured.

● Extraneous environmental variables: Experimenters typically have little or no control

over extraneous environmental events during the study.

● Participant characteristics: In quasi-experiments, treatment and control groups cannot

be assumed to be equivalent at the beginning of the study because random assignment
may not be used or may be inadequate.

FIGURE 4. Differences Between RCT and Quasi-Experimental Design

NON-EXPERIMENTAL QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL EXPERIMENTAL/RCT

 ○ Measure ○ Measure outcomes ○ Randomized
outcomes before for program Control Trial
and after participants and (RCT)
program for non-participants ○ Randomize
participants only without random participants to
assignment treatment or
● control group

○ "Control" for bias

○ No comparison ○ Comparison group ○ Measure

group outcomes for
both groups
○ Explicit
comparison
group

● In some Quasi-experiments, there is only a treatment group, and participants' behavior

is measured before and after the treatment (Passer, 2014, p. 327).

● Correlational studies aim to investigate the associations or links between variables;

Whereas Quasi- experiments compare different subject groups to detect differences or
changes over time that may have occurred within the same group of subjects.

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES of Quasi-Experiments

● Quasi-experiments are commonly employed to assess the effectiveness of social

programs, which are intended to enhance social conditions and improve people's
well-being.

● Quasi-experimental designs offer a feasible alternative when randomized experiments are

not feasible (Passer, 2017).

● However, this experimental method is more prone to internal validity issues than true
experiments.

● The degree to which quasi-experimental designs are able to eliminate threats to internal
validity varies considerably.
 ● By using the best possible designs, convincing causal inferences can be made when
specific data patterns emerge.

● In the absence of such designs, unequivocal causal conclusions cannot be reached.

RESEARCH DESIGNS

1. EX POST FACTO STUDIES. An ex post facto study is a research approach in which

researchers examine the effects of subject characteristics, also known as Subject
variables, without manipulating them.

● Instead, treatment groups are formed based on preexisting differences, and researchers
capitalize on changes in antecedent conditions that occurred before the study as Ex post
facto means "after the fact."

● While this approach can appear similar to an experiment, the lack of manipulation means
it cannot be classified as a true experiment.

● Ex post facto studies allow researchers to systematically explore dimensions that may
not be feasible to study experimentally: particularly in relation to individual differences
in psychological functioning and personality processes.

● However, the results are low in internal validity due to the possibility of other factors
causing the effects observed.

● Despite these limitations, ex post facto studies are valuable in demonstrating predictable
relationships and providing insights into complex real-life behaviors with greater
external validity. (Myers & Hansen, 2012, p. 148-152).

1) NONEQUIVALENT GROUPS DESIGN. A nonequivalent groups design involves

comparing the effects of different treatments on preexisting groups of participants.

● This design is similar to the ex post facto study and is also characterized by low internal
validity. However, researchers can use techniques to increase the internal validity of this
design.

● One approach is to measure the subjects on any attributes that could threaten internal
validity. By doing so, researchers can demonstrate statistically that nonrandom groups did
not differ in any important way.
● If the researchers can show that the groups were "equivalent" on other plausible
alternative causes for the results, the study's internal validity will be greatly improved,
and it will be closer to a true experiment (Shadish et al., 2001).

2) PRETEST/POSTTEST DESIGN. To evaluate if an event impacts the behavior of a

person, researchers employ a pretest/posttest design.

● This design involves measuring the behavior of individuals before and after the
occurrence of the event and then comparing the results.

● It can be used to evaluate the effects of natural events when it's not feasible to conduct a
true experiment. However, the design has some limitations that can affect its internal
validity.

3) One Group Posttest-Only Design. This design involves administering a treatment and
then measuring the dependent variable once.

● It is commonly used in studies where participants undergo a special training program,

try a new product or procedure, and provide feedback on the perceived benefits.
(Kushner, Kessler, & McGaghie, 2011).

4) One Group Pretest-Posttest Design. This design involves measuring the dependent
variable before and after treatment.

● Adding a pretest to the previous design (one-group posttest-only) enables researchers

to evaluate the extent of change in the dependent variable.

5) Simple Interrupted Time Series Design. This design involves repeatedly measuring the
dependent variable before and after treatment at regular intervals.
● Sufficient observations are required for researchers to establish trends in the dependent
variable before and after treatment.

6) Posttest-Only Design with a Nonequivalent Control Group. In this design,

participants in one group are subjected to a treatment, while a non-equivalent group does
not receive the treatment.

● Scores are then collected from both groups after the treatment is completed.

7) Pretest-Posttest Design with a Nonequivalent Control Group. This design involves

obtaining pre- and post-treatment scores for both a treatment group and a non-equivalent
control group.

● Adding a pretest to the previous posttest- only design has several benefits, according to
Shadish et al. (2002).

● Firstly, it provides information on how different the treatment and control groups were on
the dependent variable prior to treatment.

● Secondly, the pretest allows researchers to determine how much the dependent variable
changed during the study for each group.

● Finally, pretest scores can indicate potential threats to internal validity, particularly
statistical regression and attrition, according to Passer (2017).

8) Simple Interrupted Time-Series Design with a Nonequivalent Control Group. In this

design, researchers obtain a sequence of pre- and post- treatment scores for a treatment
group and a non-equivalent control group.

● This design permits the researchers to analyze the degree of nonequivalence between the
two groups on the dependent and other selected variables (such as demographic factors
and personality traits) before the intervention.

9) Switching Replication Design. This design involves administering a treatment to one

group while another nonequivalent group initially does not receive it, but later on, is
exposed to it (i.e., switched).

● In a typical design, the initial treatment group receives the treatment consistently
throughout the study.
 ● Switching replications can be employed with both pretest-posttest and time-series
designs.

● Pretest-Posttest Design with Switching Replication. The switching replication aspect

of this design serves two objectives:

Firstly, if the outcomes for the delayed treatment group resemble those of the
initial treatment group, it offers preliminary evidence for the repeatability of the
results.

Secondly, it offers more insights into potential challenges to internal validity.

● Switching Replication with Treatment Removal. To conduct a switching replication

design, the initial treatment group is usually given the treatment continuously while the
control group receives their treatment after a delay.

However, in some cases, the initial treatment group may stop receiving the
treatment after the control group is switched.

Answers to the Guide Questions

Correlational Designs

1. To conclude that variable X influences variable Y, researchers need to satisfy only two
criteria, covariation and temporal order. (FALSE)
2. If X and Y are correlated and researchers eliminate the bidirectionality problem, then the
researchers can clearly conclude that X has caused Y. (FALSE)
3. In a correlational study that examines variables X and Y, X is manipulated and Y is
measured. (FALSE)

Benefits of Correlational Research

Correlational research

1. Is often used to establish the reliability and validity of psychological tests. (TRUE)
2. Provides a basis for actuarial prediction in everyday life. (TRUE)
3. Is often used to test theories and hypotheses. (TRUE)

Quasi-Experimental Design
1. The (EX POST FACTO) approach enables the researchers to explore many dimensions
that others could not or would not choose to study experimentally.
2. (QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS) are frequently used to examine the effects of
social programs.
3. Most of the quasi-experimental designs are said to have low or reduced (INTERNAL
VALIDITY).