Building Services

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 INDEX

Content Pages

Unit – I.................................................................................................................. 3
Lesson – 1: Water Supply ..................................................................................... 4
Lesson – 2: Drainage........................................................................................... 15

Unit – II .............................................................................................................. 29
Lesson – 3: Thermal Insulation.......................................................................... 30
Lesson – 4: Acoustics and Sound Insulation ..................................................... 43

Unit –III.............................................................................................................. 54
Lesson –5: Air-conditioning .............................................................................. 55

Unit - IV ............................................................................................................. 90
Lesson – 6: Fire Protection ................................................................................ 91

Unit - V ............................................................................................................. 105

Lesson – 7: Lifts and Elevators ......................................................................... 106
Lesson – 8: Escalators ...................................................................................... 114

Suggested Reading .......................................................................................... 121

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 Unit – I
Water Supply and Drainage

Lesson-1: Water Supply

Lesson-2: Drainage

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 Lesson – 1: Water Supply

Objective:
 To look into the importance of building services and why it is imperative for a
designer to have a very good understanding of the various services provided in a
building.
 To study in detail the principles of sanitation and plumbing in building construction.
Structure:
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Technical Terms
1.3 Water Distribution System
1.4 Types of Pipes
1.5 Taps, Valves and Cocks
1.6 Service Connection
1.7 Storage Tanks in Buildings

1.1 Introduction
The origin of all sources of water is rainfall. As it rains water can be collected from
roof before it falls on ground or as it flows on surface it gets collected in the form of ponds,
lakes, streams, river or sea. Water that percolates or seeps into the ground gets stored as
ground water which can be tapped in the form of springs, shallow wells, deep wells, artesian
wells, etc. Adequate supply of potable water is essential for the occupants of buildings.

The municipal corporations or the municipalities are responsible for providing public
water supply system which includes collection of water from the source of supply, giving
necessary treatment to the water to make it hygienically safe and potable and finally
distribution of water through a network of piping work (trunk mains, street mains etc). Water
from the street main is supplied to the individual buildings through a service connection.
Within the building, water" is distributed to different fixtures through pipes which may run
on the surface or be concealed in walls or below flooring. Water thus supplied may be used
for bathing, cooking, flushing of W.C., washing clothes/utensils/floors etc. In this manner the
potable water gets converted into wastewater which is drained out into a sewer or other
suitable disposal system like septic tank etc.

Plumbing is a general term which broadly includes the system, materials, fittings and
fixtures used in a building in connection with supply of water, removal of used water with
other liquid and water borne wastes including connected ventilation system as well as
drainage of storm water. The various types of fittings and fixtures used In plumbing are
termed as plumbing fixtures.

1.2 Technical Terms

Some of the technical terms used in connection with drainage system are as under

Soil Pipe: A pipe which carries discharge from W.C., urinal, or any other soil
appliances

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Waste Appliance: This includes washbasins, sinks, bath tubs washing trough,
drinking water fountain etc.

Waste Pipe: A pipe which carries waste water from kitchen, bathroom, floor traps,
nahani trap or by other waste appliance.

Rain Water Pipe: This is a pipe provided to carry rainwater.

Ventilation Pipe: Also known as vent pipe is a pipe which ventilates drainage system.
This pipe is open at the top and it is connected to a soil pipe or waste pipe at its
bottom. This pipe is extended above the roof of the building to permit exit of foul
gases into the atmosphere. This pipe only ventilates the system and does not carry any
discharge from soil, waste or rainwater pipe.

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 WASTE PIPE AND VENT PIPEs

Stack: It is a term used for any vertical pipeline of a drainage system.

Drain: Also known as house drain, is a system of underground horizontal pipes used
for drainage of discharge from soil pipes waste pipes etc. , of a single property. Since
the drain is laid within the private boundary, the responsibility of Its maintenance
rests with the owner of the property

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 Sewage: It is a combination of discharge from soil pipe, waste pipes, vent pipes,
sewers, septic tanks etc (iii) ire system of storm water including collection and
carrying of rain water (from roofs, paved areas and ground surface) to a public storm
water drain or to a pond or river etc

1.3 Water Distribution System

There are two distinct systems of supply of water to a building from the mains. Direct
system and Indirect system.

Direct system. In direct system also known as upward distribution system, the supply
of water is given to various floors in a building directly from the mains which has sufficient
pressure to feed all the floors and water fittings at the highest part of the building. Indirect
system, In indirect system also known as down take supply or downfall distribution system,
the water supply from the mains may be drawn either by Feeding water directly into the
overhead storage tank provided at the roof of the building from where the water is supplied to
different floors by gravity or Feeding the water into an underground water storage tank. The
water from the underground tank is pumped to an overhead storage from where the water is
supplied by gravity.

1.4 Types of Pipes

Following types of pipes are commonly used in water supply system.

(1) Cast Iron Pipes: Cast iron (C.I) pipes are extensively used in water
distribution mains because they are comparatively cheaper in cost, highly
resistant to corrosion and have very long life.

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 CAST IRON PIPES CAST IRON FITTINGS

(2) Steel Pipes: Steel pipes are recommended for use in water mains in situations
where the pipe is subjected to very high pressure (i.e. above 7 kg/cm2) and the
diameter of pipe required in large in cement mortar or cement concrete are
called Hume Steel Pipes

(3) Galvanised Iron Pipes: Galvanised Iron (G.I.) pipes are wrought steel pipes
provided with zinc coating. G.I pipes are most commonly used for water
supply work inside the buildings. They are also invariably used in service
connections. Mostly screw and socket joints are used for G.I. pipe
connections.

(4) Copper Pipes: Copper pipes are used in hot water supply installations. They
have high tensile strength and can therefore have thin walls and they can be
bent easily. To enhance their appearance copper pipes are sometimes
chromium plated to match with the chromium plated water supply fittings.

STEEL PIPES, GALVANISED IRON PIPES AND COPPER PIPES

(5) Polythene Pipes: Polythene and P.V.C. pipes are being used increasingly
these days for supply of cold water in external and internal plumbing work.
They are light in weight, non-corrosive, lower in cost and do not require any
threading for connections.

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 Asbestos cement (A.C.) pipes, Reinforced Concrete (R.C.C) Pipes. Prestressed
reinforced concrete (P.S.C.) pipes are among the other commonly used pipes for supply
work. The choice of the type of pipe to be used for any work is made keeping in view the
requirement of design, availability of material, cost and other similar factors

1.5 Taps, Valves and Cocks

The term taps, valves and cocks are used to name different types of fittings required to
control the flow of water either along or at the end of a pipeline.

Valves: Valve is a fitting commonly used to control the flow of water along a
pipeline. With the introduction of valve it is possible to isolate any section of pipeline for the
purposes of inspection, repair of a leak, of addition/alteration to the already functioning water
supply system. Following types of valves are commonly used in domestic water supply
system.

Globe Valve: This is the most commonly used type of valve for manually controlling or
completely closing the flow of water in domestic water installation. This type of valve is
normally made of brass. Globe valve as such, or in some modified form is used to control
flow of water to wash basins, shower, kitchen sink etc. In its simplest form it consists of a
disc which is forced down by a screw against a circular seat. The disc and screw form a
single moving part which is operated by a wheel head. This type of valve is normally
used for high pressure system where it may be necessary to shut off the water supply
completely.

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Gate Valve: This type of valve is used to control flow of water or for completely
stopping the flow of water in pipe line. This type is normally used in low-pressure
system and it offers much less resistance to flow of water as compared with Globe
valve. Gate valve is used for controlling the discharge to the outlet from a storage
tank.

Float Valve Or A Ball Valve: Float valve is used to supply water to storage tank or
flushing cistern and to automatically shut off supply when the pre-determined level is
reached. The valve is operated by a float which allows the valve to be fully open
when it is in lower position. As the water level rises, the float also rises which
gradually closes the valve and shuts off the supply of water as soon as the water
reaches the full supply level mark.

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 GATE VALVE AND BALL VALVE

Taps and Stop Cock. Taps are used at the end of a pipeline for draw off purposes. Taps
are also called Bibcock or Bib tap. A stopcock is a valve used in pipeline for controlling
or completely stopping the flow of water to o fixture. Taps and stop cocks are two most
extensively used type of fittings in domestic water supply system. They are normally of
screw down type and open in anti-clockwise direction.

STOPCOCK AND BIBCOCK

1.6 Service Connection

Service connection is a water connection given by the local body (municipal
corporation or municipality etc.) from city water distribution mains to a consumer. The

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consumer may be the owner of a single house, a multi-storeyed apartment, a planned block
development or a water district buying water wholesale. A domestic service connection
comprise of the following components:

1. Brass or Bronze Ferrule: Ferrule is a special type of appliance made UP of brass

or bronze. It has a vertical inlet for screwing on to the water main and a horizontal
outlet to be connected to service pipe The water main which is usually under
pressure is drilled and tapped and the ferrule is screwed in without shutting own
the mains, The normal size of the ferrule to be used is usually half the size of the
service pipe.

2. Goose Neck: This is a 40 to 50 cm long flexible curved pipe made up of brass,

copper or lead inserted between the ferrule and the service pipe. The goose-neck is
provided to accommodate the possible movement I displacement or settlement
that may take place between the water main and the service pipe due to water
pressure and prevent damage to the connection.

3. Stop Cock: This is provided before the water meter in a chamber with a cover to
cut off the supply of water from the street main to the building for repairs to the
plumbing system within the building.

4. Water Meter: Water meter is installed in a chamber provided with a cover for the
purpose of measuring the quantity of water used by the consumer. The local body
raises water bill to the consumer based on consumption recorded by the water
meter.

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1.7 Storage Tanks in Buildings

Water supply to a building from city mains could be either continuous on intermittent.
Normally due to continuously increasing demand and shortage of water the local authority
plan distribution of water in different city zones in two or three shifts (i.e., morning, evening
and sometimes in afternoon) Even in areas where continuous supply of water is available the
pressure of water in the mains may not be adequate to raise the water to upper floors. Thus
provision of storage tank is made in a building to ensure availability of water during non-
supply hours or when the municipal supply is stopped. In case of multi-storeyed buildings,
besides meeting demand of water for domestic consumption, it is mandatory to make
provision of adequate overhead storage of water for fire fighting requirements. As explained
earlier in case the pressure in the mains is not sufficient to feed all floors directly, it becomes
necessary to feed from mains to an underground storage tank. There after the water from the
underground tank is pumped to overhead tank for distribution to various floors by gravity.
The storage tanks can be made from brick or stone masonry, G.I sheets, pressed M.S. plates,
P.V.C. or R.C.C. Normally underground tanks are made from masonry or R.C.C. Overhead
flushing tanks or tanks of small capacities ore made of G sheets, pressed steel plates or
P.V.C. Overheads tanks of large capacities are always made of R.C.C. The various
accessories connected with water storage tanks are given below. The figure below shows
arrangement of various accessories in an overhead water storage tank

Ball valve with float -This is provided at the inlet to the tank to control the flow of water
in the tank and to automatically shut off the supply when correct level has been reached

Inlet pipe -The pipe supplying water to the tank is termed as inlet pipe

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 Outlet pipe -This pipe is installed at 3 to 5 cm above the floor of the tank. The pipe is
always provided with a stop valve to stop supply of water to down take pipes

Over flow pipe -This pipe is provided a little above the inlet pipe to allow the incoming
water to overflow in case the ball valve assembly does not function properly and it is not
able to shut of the incoming supply of water. This pipe is provided with mosquito proof
netting to prevent entry of mosquitoes, flies etc. into the tank,

Scour pipe -Also known as drain pipe, it is provided at the floor of the tank for cleaning
the tank.

Cover -The manhole cover on the roof of the tank should be of tight fitting type to
prevent entry of dust mosquitoes etc. in the tank.

Assignment:
 Students to study the importance of services in a building like water supply and
drainage, electrical supply, HCAV (heating, cooling and ventilation) security and
communication systems etc.

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 Lesson – 2: Drainage
Objective:
 To study in detail the drainage system of a building and it‟s various components.
 To understand the use of traps.
 To look into the various types of sanitary fittings used in a building and their function.
Structure:
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Drainage below the ground
2.3 Drainage above the ground
2.4 Traps
2.4.1 Essentials of a good trap
2.4.2 Causes of loss or breaking of water seal
2.5 Type of Traps
2.6 Sanitary Fittings
2.6.1 Wash Basin
2.6.2 Sink
2.6.3 Bath Tub
2.6.4 Urinals
2.6.5 Water Closets
2.6.6 Flushing Cistern

2.1 Introduction
As explained earlier, potable water supplied to a building is distributed to various
areas like kitchen, both, W.C. etc. through a network of pipes provided with plumbing or
sanitary fittings at their terminal ends. Adequate arrangements are required to be made for
quick collection, conveyance and disposal of used water from the fittings without any risk to
the health of the occupants. It is also essential that the rain or storm water from the roof
paved areas of building and the ground surface is suitably collected and discharged without
flooding the area. The term drainage or sewerage includes the system of removal of sullage or
waste water (from floor traps, kitchen, bath, and wash basin), soil water (from W.C. and
urinals) and storm water from buildings and conveying the same upto its ultimate point of
treatment and disposal. The system of drainage can be broadly divided in two parts.

2.2 Drainage below the ground:

This comprises of a system of under ground house drain, inspection chamber, main drain or
sewer, manholes, ventilation shafts etc. provided for conveying the sanitary sewage (soil
water and waste water) and storm water for final treatment or disposal. Underground drainage
can be divided into the following three systems:

i. Combined system.

ii. Separate system.

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 iii. Partially
combine
d
system.

i. Combined system:
In this system the
storm water is
completely mixed
with the sanitary
sewage and conveyed
through a single drain
or sewer.

ii. Separate system: In

this system the storm
water is not allowed to get mixed with sanitary sewage. Two separate drains are
provided. One for sanitary sewage and other for drainage of storm water.

iii. Partially combined system: In this system a part of storm water (usually run off
from roofs, paved yards and streets etc is mixed with sanitary sewage and
conveyed through sewer and the remaining storm water is conveyed through
separate surface drains.

2.3 Drainage above the ground:

This consists of a system of vertical stacks, horizontal branches, floor traps etc provided for
conveying sanitary sewage (soil water and waste water) storm water (rain water) etc. to the
underground drainage system for final disposal. This system is also known as house or
building drainage system.

2.4 Traps
A trap is providing a fitting in a drainage system to prevent entry of foul air or gases
from the sewer or drain into the building. The barrier to the passage of foul air is provided by
the seal in the trap. In its simplest form a trap is merely a double bend or loop in the sanitary
fitting, the depth of water seal being the distance between the top 01 the first bend and the
bottom of the second. The deeper the seal the more efficient is the trap. Depending upon the
design of the trap, the depth of the water seal vary from 40mm to 75mm. The trap should
always be fitted close to the waste or soil fitting unless the trap form an integrated part of the
fitting as in case of the European W.C. (siphon type).

2.4.1 Essentials of a good trap:

A good trap should have the following characteristics:

i. It should maintain an efficient water seal under all conditions of flow; both
during the water flow as well as in absence of water flow.

ii. It should be self-cleansing.

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 iii. It should not have any internal
projections, angles or contractions so as
to permit unobstructed flow through it.

iv. It should have a smooth inner surface so

that each part is automatically scoured
by flow of water and there is the
possibility of dust, dirt etc. getting
struck to it.

v. It should be provided with suitable

means of access for cleaning purposes.

2.4.2 Causes of loss or breaking of water seal:

The primary object of providing a trap is lost, in case it is not possible to retain water
seal. The water seal in a trap may break due to the following causes:

1. Evaporation of water in the trap caused on account of not using the appliance for a
long time.

2. Use of defective trap, defective installation of trap or development of crack in trap

after installation.

3. Creation of partial vacuum caused due to discharge of another fitting connected to

the same stack leading to emptying of the water of the seal by induced siphonage.

4. Pressure on seal of trap due to sudden discharge of water in large quantity into the
fitting (bucket full of water into a W.C.) forcing the seal to beak due to self
siphonage.

5. Build up of backpressure of sewer gas in the drain forcing up the water of the trap
seal.

6. Due to capillary action caused by piece of some porous material getting struck at
the outlet of the trap in such a manner that one end of the piece remains in water
of the seal and the other end of the piece remain hanging over the outlet

2.5 Type of Traps:

Traps can be made in different shapes and they are normally named after the shape of
the letter they resemble. Out of the different shapes, the trap resembling the letter, P (or P-
Trap), Q (Q-Trap) and S (S-Trap) are more common. The traps are normally made of cast
iron glazed stoneware. Depending upon the use and location, the various types of traps can be
broadly summarised as under:

1. Floor Trap Or Nahani Trap: Trap provided in floors to collect used water
from floors of bathroom, kitchen or washing floor etc, are known as floor or
Nahani traps, This type is made of iron and it is provided with a removable
grating on top. The grating intercepts dust or other solid matter and prevents

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 blockage of trap. The depth of water seal of floor trap should not be less than
40mm.

2. Gully Trap: Gully trap is a deep seal trap which is provided on the external
face of wall for disconnecting the waste water flowing from kitchen, bath,
wash basin & floors from the main drainage system. The deep water seal
forms a barrier for preventing the passage of foul air from house drain to the
inside of the building, It is made of cast iron or glazed stoneware. The
Stoneware Gully trap has a top square in plan where as the top of cast iron trap
is normally circular, it is fitted in a small masonry enclosure to meet the
requirements of invent levels of waste pipes discharging into the gully trap.
Grating is provided on top of the trap to intercept and retain all solid matter
and prevent it from flowing into the drain. The bars of the grating should not
be more than 10 mm apart.

FLOOR TRAP, GULLY TRAP AND INTERCEPTING TRAP

3. Intercepting Trap: This trap is provided at the junction of house drain

(inspection chamber) and street sewer to prevent entry of foul gases from
sewer into the house drain. The intercepting trap is thus provided to disconnect
the house drain from the street sewer. The trap is made of glazed stoneware
and has a opening at top (known as clearing eye), The opening is kept closed
with a tight fitting plug which Is taken out only during cleaning of the trap. It
has a deeper seal than normal traps (not less than 100 mm).

4. Grease Trap: Grease traps are provided in large hotels, restaurants or other
industries producing large quantity of greasy waste with the primary aim of
removing the grease content of waste water before discharging the same into
drain If the greasy or oily matter is not removed, being sticky in nature, it will
induce deposition of solids in the drain which can cause obstruction to the
flow of water in the drain and may finally result in blockage of drain. Grease
trap is a small masonry or cast chamber with a T or bent pipe to serve as the
outlet. The velocity of wastewater flow gets reduced on entering the grease
trap (because of sudden increase in area of holding of waste water) and this
results in separation of oily or greasy matter from the waste water. The greasy
matter appears as floating (in the trap), which is removed periodically with the
help of a mild steel tray.

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 5. Silt Trap: Silt traps are provided only in situations where the wastewater
carries large amount of silt, sand, coarse particles etc. It is a masonry chamber
which functions like grit chamber where the silt, sand etc. settle down before
the waste water Is discharged into the drainage system.

SILT TRAP

2.6 Sanitary Fittings

The fittings or appliance used for collection and discharge of soil or waste matter is
termed as sanitary fittings. Different types of sanitary fittings are required in building
to perform different type of functions. Sanitary fittings are glazed chinaware. The
fittings are so designed and shaped that they have non-absorbent surface which can be
cleaned easily. The different type of sanitary fittings normally used in buildings are as
under:

2.6.1 Wash Basin:

A washbasin is used for washing
hands, face etc made of porcelain vitreous
enamelled steel, or plastic and it is available in
various patterns and sizes. The type of wash
basin normally used in a house has an oval
shaped bowl with an overflow slot at top. The
wash basin has a flat back and has provision
for making holes for installing one, two or
even three taps. Normally two pillar taps are
provided one for cold water and the other for
hot water. It has a circular waste hole for
draining out wastewater from the basin. A
metallic strainer is provided in the waste hole
which is connected to a waste pipe either
directly or through a bottle trap for discharge of waste water into the floor trap. The
basin is normally mounted on 2 angle irons fixed in the wall. The top of the
washbasin should be kept at a height of about 75 to 80 cm from the floor.

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2.6.2 Sink.
Sink is commonly used in kitchen,
hospitals and laboratories Sink is
made of glazed fire clay, stainless
steel, plastic, marble and R.C.C
(finished with terrazzo finishing).
Sink may be made with or without
overflow arrangement. In hospitals
and laboratories only vitreous sinks
are preferred. It has a circular waste
hole for fixing the metallic strainer to
which the waste pipe is attached for
conveying the discharge from sink to
the floor trap. The kitchen sink is
invariably provided with a drain hole

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2.6.3 Bath Tub:
A shower is considered to be a more efficient and hygienic means of taking bath and
as such is widely used in bathrooms by most of the people. However, some people
prefer to use bathtub as they find it to be more comfortable and relaxing. Use of
bathtub is restricted to certain class of hotels and private residences. Bath tubs are
made of enamelled steel gel coated fibre glass, reinforced enamelled porcelain,
reinforced concrete
finished with terracotta
or marble finishes etc.
Bathtubs are provided
with holes for fixing hot
and cold-water
connections and have
provision for over flow
and waste water pipes.
The length of bath tubs
varies from 75 m to 85 m
width varies between 0.7
m to 0.75 m and its depth
near the waste pipe
varies between 0.43 to
0.45 m

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2.6.4 Urinals:
Urinals fall under the category of soil appliance and as such the discharge
from urinals is connected to soil pipe either directly or through a trap provided with
gun-metal or bass domed shaped removable grating. From hygienic consideration it is
desirable to provide glazed tiles on walls of urinal preferable upto door height.
Following types of urinals are commonly used

i. Bowl Type. This is a one piece construction with integral flushing box rim
having 12 hole suitably distributed for proper flushing. The urinal has an
outlet horn at bottom for connecting. to the trap and an outlet pipe. In another
pattern of bowl type urinal, the appliance has a porcelain trap inbuilt with the
pan as a single piece. In case number of urinals are required to be installed in a
row, it is necessary to provide vertical partition between two urinals from
consideration of privacy.

ii. Slab Or Stall Type: The type of urinal is manufactured either as single unit or
as a range of two or more units. In case of single unit the width of stall should
not be less than 75 cm. The flushing of urine is normally carried out through
automatic flushing cistern which operates at regular intervals of 10 to 15
minutes. The discharge from the series of stalls in a row is usually carried
through a glazed semi circular drain which has a sharp fall towards the trap
from where it is discharged into the soil pipe

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2.6.5 Water Closets (W.C.):
Water closet is a sanitary appliance provided for collection and discharge of
human excreta into the soil pipe through a trap. The W.C. is connected to a flushing
cistern to flush the excreta from the pan. W.C. is made of glazed earthen ware, fire
clay or white vitreous china ware. The types of W.Cs commonly used are as under:

1. Indian Or Squatting Type W.C: This

type of W.C. Is used in squatting position
The W.C consists of two pieces, i.e.
Porcelain pan and a P or S trap. The W.C,
pan along with the trap is fixed flush with
the floor. Two footrests are provided on
either side of the pan. The pan has an
inbuilt flushing rim having a number of
holes through which the flushing water
from the cistern is discharged. The
flushing cistern is normally kept 1.8 to 2 m
above the floor level. The contents of the
pan are removed by the gravity flush of
water. When the pan and footrests are
made as integral single piece, the appliance is termed as Orissa Pattern. In this type
while using the W.C. the excreta does not fall directly into the trap and in case the
flushing is not proper, the matter remains struck to the pan which is considered
unhygienic. Special care is to be taken to maintain cleanliness of the pan.

2. European Type W.C: This type of W.C. is used in sitting position over a plastic seat
hinged to the appliance. This is a pedestal type of appliance with the pan and trap in a
single piece. The pan is shaped in the form of a short inverted cone with an almost
vertical back and providing minimum fouling area. The main advantage of this type of
W.C. is that by virtue of the design/shape of pan, the excreta falls almost directly in
the water in the trap and chances of the same getting struck to the sides of the pan are
less. The flushing rim of the pan is attached to the cistern which may be of high level
type (installed at a height of 1 .8 to 2 m from floor) or low level type (30 cm above
the top of W.C. seat or resting just at the level of W.C. seat) for getting flushing
water. Following two types of European type W.C. are used:

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 a. Wash-down type of European W.C: This is the most commonly used pattern in
which the content of the pan are removed by the gravity flush of water
discharged into the pan through the flushing rim of the pan. For ground floor,
normally the W.C. having S-trap (with outlet pointing vertically down) is used
whereas for installation on upper floors W.C. ending up with a P-trap is
preferred

b. Siphonic type: In this type, the contents of the pan are removed by siphonic
action when the cistern is flushed and water passes through the pan. The
special type of trap inbuilt with the pan is so shaped as to set up siphonic
action when the flushed water passes over the pan. Due to siphonic action the
entire water along with the content get emptied from the pan into the soil pipe.
The W.C. has small after-flush chamber inbuilt in the appliance, water from
which re-seals the trap. Siphonic type W.C. may have a single trap (single-trap
type siphonic W.C) or two trap (Double trap type siphonic W.C.) The two trap
type W.C. has larger area of water seal and is more efficient and silent as
compared with. single trap siphonic or wash down type of European W.C.

3. Anglo-Indian type: This type of W.C can be used both in squatting position as well
as in sitting position and hence it is named as Anglo-Indian Type W.C. It is a pedestal
type appliance with inbuilt trap. The top of the W.C. pan is flared out to provide for
footrest to permit it to be used in squatting position. When it is desired to use the
appliance as European type W.C the plastic seat hinged to the closet is turned on the
top of the pan to use it in sitting position. In this the design is such that the fouling
area of pan is less and the excreta falls in the water of trap and it is flushed out in
manner similar to European type W.C.

2.6.6 Flushing Cistern:

A flushing cistern is used for storage and discharge of water for flushing of
contents from a W.C. or urinal. Cistern is made of cast iron vitreous china or pressed
steel plates or plastic the capacity of flushing cistern varies from 10 to 15 litres. When
the cistern is fixed at a height of 1.8 to 2 m from floor level it is termed as high-level
cistern made of cost iron. The European type W.C is normally provided with low
level cistern made up of porcelain. The low level operates at a height not more than
30 cm between top of pan and under side of cistern. Flushing cisterns are of three
types:

i. Valveless siphonic type or Bell type

ii. Valve fitted type or piston type

iii. Automatic flushing type

The valveless type of bell type of flushing cistern is used only as high level
cistern whereas the piston type can be used both as high level as well as low level
cistern. The components of a bell type cistern which is most widely used for Indian
type W.C. are as under:

i. A cast iron box having a storage capacity of 10 to 5 litres.

BS/SCM/ 24
 ii. A central outlet stand pipe covered by a bell or dome shaped cast iron
vessel.

iii. A lever arrangement attached with a long chain.

iv. A float valve with a float.

v. Inlet, outlet and overflow pipes.

In this case the bell shaped vessel is connected to a chain through a level
arrangement. The float valve provided with a ball float closes the water supply to the
cistern as soon as the pre-fixed level is reached. For flushing the cistern, when the
chain is pulled due to lever arrangement the heavy bell 15 thrown over the top of the
inner tube (Central outlet stand pipe) resulting In setting up the siphonic action which
causes the entire stored water to get discharge into the flush pipe attached below.

Working of Flushing cistern

BS/SCM/ 25
Assignment:
 Students to know the function of drainage and its various systems.
 Discuss the various types of traps used in a drainage system.

BS/SCM/ 26
Summary:
It is very important for a designer to have a very good understanding of the various services
provided in a building and to study in detail the principles of sanitation and plumbing in
building construction.
Entire system of water supply and distribution pipes and entire system of drainage are
important aspects to be considered in plumbing. Also , the entire system of storm water – its
collection and disposal to a public storm water or drain is also a part of plumbing.

Revision Points:
 Water Distribution System
 Types of Pipes
 Taps, Valves and Cocks
 Traps
 Sanitary fittings

Key Words:
 Plumbing
 Stack
 Vent pipe
 Valve
 Traps

In Text Questions:
1. Explain the two systems of water distribution.
2. What is drainage? Explain in detail the various systems of drainage.

Terminal Exercises:
1. What are valves? Explain in detail the various types of valves used.
2. Explain with the help of sketches the various components of a domestic service
connection.
3. What is the need of a water storage tank in a building? Explain with the help of a sketch
the various parts of a water tank.
4. What are the essentials of a good trap? Explain in detail the causes of breakage in water
seals.
5. Explain with the help of sketches the various types of traps.
6. What are sanitary fittings? Explain in detail any five types of sanitary fittings used in a
house.

BS/SCM/ 27
Suggested Reading:
1. Building Construction by S.K Sharma
2. Building Construction by Sushil Kumar
3. Time Savers Standards For Buildings Types

BS/SCM/ 28
 Unit – II

Lesson-3: Thermal Insulation

Lesson-4: Acoustic and Sound Insulation

BS/SCM/ 29
 Lesson – 3: Thermal Insulation
Objective:
 To understand various ways in which heat transfer takes place.
 To know about various types and requirements of good heat insulating materials.
 To understand general methods of thermal insulation.
 To study means by which thermal insulation of roofs, walls, exposed doors and
windows can be done.
Structure:
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Heat Transfer: Basic Definitions
3.3 Heat insulating Materials
3.4 Requirements of Heat Insulating Materials
3.5 Classification and description of Heat Insulating Materials
3.5.1 Cork
3.5.2 Glass Wool
3.5.3 Rock Wool
3.5.4 Slag Wool
3.5.5 Asbestos
3.5.6 Thermocole
3.5.7 Reflecting Paper
3.5.8 Reflecting Paper
3.5.9 Aluminium foils
3.10 General Methods of Thermal Insulation
3.10.1 Thermal Insulation of Roofs
3.10.2 Thermal Insulation of Exposed Walls
Thermal Insulation of Exposed Doors and Windows

3.1 Introduction
When there is difference in temperature of inside of a building and outside
atmosphere, heat transfer takes place from areas of higher temperature to those of lower
temperature. In colder regions, when the buildings are internally heated where outside
atmosphere is very cool, it is necessary to check this heat loss from the building. Similarly, in
very hot regions, when the buildings are internally cooled and the outside atmosphere is
unbearably warm, it is essential to check the entry of heat from outside into the building. The
term thermal insulation is used to indicate the construction or provisions by way of which
transmission of heat from or in the room is retarded. The aim of thermal insulation is to
minimise the transfer of heat between outside and inside of the building. Advantages or
thermal insulation
The following advantages derived from thermal insulation:

1. Comfort: Thermal insulation keeps the room cool in summer and hot in
winter. This results in comfortable living.

2. Fuel saving: Since heat transfer is minimised due to thermal insulation, less
fuel is required to maintain the desired temperature in the room.

BS/SCM/ 30
 3. Prevention of condensation: Use of thermal insulating materials inside a
room results in prevention of condensation (or moisture deposition) on interior
walls and ceilings etc.

4. Use of thermal insulating materials prevents the freezing of water taps in

extreme winter, and heat loss in case of hot water system.

3.2 Heat Transfer: Basic Definitions

Heat transfer can take place by the following ways:

1. Conduction: Conduction is the direct

transmission of heat through a material. The
amount of heat transfer by conduction depends
upon

i. Temperature difference,
ii. Thickness of solid medium,
iii. Area of exposed surface,
iv. Time for which heat flow takes
place,
v. Conductivity of the medium, and
vi. Density of the medium.
2. Convection: Heat is transmitted by convection in fluids and gases, as a result of
circulation. Air movement causes the heat insulator; it is preferable to ensure that
excessive air change is avoided.

3. Radiation: Heat is transferred by radiation through space in the form of radiant

energy. When the radiation strikes an object, some of the energy is absorbed and
transformed into heat. One of the ways of reducing heat absorption from radiation
is to introduce a suitable reflecting surface.

BS/SCM/ 31
3.3 Heat insulating Materials
General Aspects

The function of a thermal or heat insulator is to resist the flow of heat through its
body.

The heat insulating materials are required to grant protection against heat and cold. It
may also be employed to prevent either the flow of heat from a heat furnace to the
surrounding atmosphere, or the ingress of heat from the environment to the plant
operating at lower temperature.

These materials are generally porous and their properties are governed not only by
their porosity but also by nature of pores, their distribution, size and whether they are
open or closed. The materials with a great number of fine, closed and air-filled pores
are the best heat insulating materials.

The bulk density of heat insulating materials is usually below 7000 N/m and their
coefficient of thermal conductivity does not exceed 0.75 kJ per in hr0C.

The heat insulating materials should be protected against moisture (since the
coefficient of thermal conductivity of water is about 25 times higher than that of air)

BS/SCM/ 32
3.4 Requirements of Heat Insulating Materials
The main requirements of good heat insulating materials are:

1. Thermal stability
2. Chemical Stability
3. Physical stability
4. Low thermal conductivity
5. Resistance to moisture
6. Low specific heat
7. Low specific gravity
8. Odourless
9. Resistance to vibration and shock
10. Non in flammability
11. Porous and fibrous texture
12. Economical in its initial cost

3.5 Classification and description of Heat Insulating Materials

The heat insulating materials may be classified as follows:

Organic Insulators are enumerated below:

a. Wool
b. Cattle Hair
c. Eelgrass
d. Cotton Wool
e. Corkboard
f. Silk
g. Wood pulp
h. Sugarcane fibre
i. Saw dust
j. Cardboard (corrugated)
k. Paper etc.

Inorganic insulators include

1. Air (steel)
2. Slag wool
3. Mineral Wool
4. Glass wool
5. Aluminium Foil

BS/SCM/ 33
 6. Diatomaceous earth (powder)
7. Charcoal
8. Wood ashes
9. Gypsum (powder)
10. Slag
11. Asbestos etc.
Some important heat insulating materials are described below:

3.5.1 Cork:
It is derived from the bark of oak trees. It is ground, sized and baked in moulds. When
ground and baked, the natural resin in the cork binds the materials into homogeneous mass
which can be pressed into flexible sheets or boards etc. It is available in the form of
granulated cork, slab cork, and regranulated baked cork.

The structure of cork consists of an aggregation of minute air vessel, provided with
thin, strong wall, so that if material is compressed it behaves more like a gas than an elastic
solid; unlike the behaviour of spring, which exerts a pressure proportionate to the linear
amount of compression. Cork, when compressed, exerts a pressure which increases in a more
rapid manner and varies, approximately, inversely as the volume.

Properties: Following are the properties of cork:

a. Light in colour
b. Porous in structure
c. Specific gravity is about 0.24
d. Not affected by moisture
e. Thermal conductivity is low
f. Can be easily compressed
g. Resilient and reasonably elastic when dry
Uses: Following are the uses of cork:

a. Cork sheets and boards are used for insulating walls and ceilings, both against
heat and cold and also as a sound insulator.
b. Used as a non-conducting covering for pipes carrying steam or hot water.
c. Used as non-conducting material for scientific apparatuses.

BS/SCM/ 34
 d. Used in refrigeration and cold storage insulation
e. Also used for bottle stoppers, vibration pads and floats for rafts and fishnets.
3.5.2 Glass Wool

Glass wool is produced by blowing high-pressure jets of steam or air on molten

streams of glass at a high temperature. Molten glass is violently scattered in all directions, to
give this product.

Glass wool is a form of fibrous glass with short and fine fibres, scattered in various
directions. It is available in the form of loose fibres, mats, rigid quilts, or semi-rigid slabs or
blocks etc.

Properties:

a. Fibrous in structure
b. Light in weight
c. Has good tensile and dielectric strength
d. Low thermal conductivity
e. Quite durable
f. Acts as an excellent insulating material
because of the presence of large pockets
of air in it.
g. Not affected by low temperatures and has been used successfully at
temperatures as low as 212C
Characteristics: Glass fibres have the following characteristics:

a. Does not catch fire

b. Not easily affected by heat
c. Not spoiled by insects and moisture
Uses:

a. Mostly used for insulation of pipes, bends, valves etc.

b. Used for panel insulation for all types of industrial equipment
c. Can be used for thermal and sound insulation of aircrafts.
d. Glass wool blocks can be used the construction of partition walls for thermal
insulation purposes.
e. Used in boilers, ovens, cylinder or pipe insulation

BS/SCM/ 35
3.5.3 Rock Wool:
It is produced form flint rock containing some calcareous matter. In the absence of
such a natural rock, flint and lime are mixed in the requisite proportions and melted in a
furnace at temperature of about 1700C. This molten material is then formed into small
globules by means of steam jet. These globules are then drawn into very fine fibres by
hurling them in a large container. These fibres of wool are then formed into boards or
blankets (to be used as insulators). It can also be pressed, rolled and secured between fabric
of wire-netting of brass or copper.

It is available in the form of loose fibres, mattresses, mats, boards or felts, rigid or
semi-rigid slabs, quilts.

Properties

a. Soft and flexible

b. Resilient and woody consistency
c. Heat and sound proof (due to the presence of millions of minute dead air
cells)
d. Specific gravity is about 0.48
Uses:

a. Employed for heat and sound insulation purposes.

b. Also used as an electric insulator

3.5.4 Slag Wool:

a. It is an aggregate of fine filaments of slag produced by blowing air
through a stream of blast furnace slag.

b. It is available in the form of loose fibres.

Uses: It is used for heat insulation in high temperature furnaces.

BS/SCM/ 36
3.5.5 Asbestos:
Asbestos is a mineral fibre composed of hydrous silicate of magnesia with a small
amount of iron oxide and alumina.

Asbestos sheets or boards consist of natural asbestos fibres mixed with a binding
agent (usually cement) and then rolled in the form of sheets or boards. There are available in
the market under the trade name „Salamander‟.

Properties:

a. White, grey or brown in colour

b. Flexible and can resist high temperature
c. Fire-proof
d. Unaffected by acids and fumes
e. Resistant to corrosion and vermin effect
f. Excellently resists heat and electricity
Uses: Employed for heat and sound insulation of buildings. Also used for insulation
of furnaces.

3.5.6 Thermocole:

Thermocole is one of the trade names of polystrene. This product was developed (in
USA) during Second World War. It was made by direct extrusion of the foam form raw
materials.

Properties:

a. It has a very attractive, natural, snow white colour

b. Very light in weight (density: 150 to 3000 N/m) the form is very light
because it contains over 9% (by volume) air, trapped in 3 to 6 millions
closed cells per litre.
c. Compressive strength = 0.07 to 0.1 MN/m cross breaking strength = 0.14 to
0.18 MN.
d. Very low value of thermal conductivity
e. Highly resistant to moisture
f. Odourless, chemically stable and assistant to fungus attack.

BS/SCM/ 37
 ASBESTOS SHEETS AND THERMOCOLE ICE BOXES
g. Fully resistant to water, salt, soaps, bleaching agents and HCI (35%), HNO3
(upto 50%), H2SO4 (upto 95%) caustic soda, caustic potash, strong
ammonia, alcohols and silicon oil.
h. Not resistant to organic solvents like benzene, paint thinners and saturated
aliphatic hydrocarbons like petroleum and gasoline.
i. Very good shock-protecting properties.
j. Ability of being moulded into well fitting contoured cases.
Uses:

a. Thermocole (with operational range of 200C to 80C) is an excellent material

for cold insulation in refrigerators, cold storages, air conditioning, chilled
pipelines and chemical processes.

b. It is used for industrial insulation and insulation for buildings, against

extremes of Climate.

c. In the form of specially made flexible sheets, thermocole can be used on

intermediate concrete floors in multi-storey buildings, to reduce impact sound
transmission.

d. It is used for packing electronic goods like transistor, radios, tape recorders
and calculating machines, clock, medicine bottles, cameras etc.

e. It is also used for airdropped packaging, decorative and gifts packaging and
edge protecting packaging.

3.5.7 Reflecting Paper

Reflecting paper (also known as building paper) is a strong tough paper which is lined
with aluminium or copper foil on the exposed side, which reflects back heat waves coming
from a source and this keeps the walls and the enclosed rooms cool.

Something, reflecting coatings of varnishes, paraffins, gums or synthetic resins and

applied to various grades of paper of fibrous materials.

BS/SCM/ 38
 Properties:

a. Strong and tough in nature

b. Heat resistant
c. Possesses adequate dielectric strength.
a. Uses: Used for heat insulation purposes.

3.5.8 Gypsum:
It is hydrated sulphate of calcium (CaSO4 2H2HO) occurring in monoclisnic crystals.
It seldom occurs in nature in pure state; contains impurities such as alumina, calcium
carbonate, magnesium carbonate and silica upto 6 percent.

When it is burnt in kilns, „Plaster of Paris‟ is obtained. After mixing with asphalt and
casting into slabs, it burnt in a kiln to form very strong sheets which possess very good
insulating properties.

Properties:

a. Crystalline and fibrous in structure

b. Controls the setting time of cement

c. Gypsum boards are good insulators of heat.

Uses: Employed for heat insulation purposes. Ceiling panels made of gypsum are
used for suspended ceilings.

3.5.9 Aluminium foils:

These are very thin foils or sheets of aluminium and are also known as „Alfoils‟.
These are available in the form of paper backed foils, separated layers of foils and some rigid
materials faced with foils.

BS/SCM/ 39
 Properties

a. Light in weight
b. Low thermal conductivity
c. Posses smooth and shining surface
d. Low emissivity (which decreases the radiation losses)
e. Resistant to ordinary atmospheric gases.
Uses: Used as heat insulator in refrigerators.

3.10 General Methods of Thermal Insulation

Apart from providing thermal insulating materials on walls, roofs, doors etc., thermal
insulation can also be achieved by the following methods:

1. Heat Insulation by Orientation: the orientation of a building with respect to

the sun has a very important bearing on its thermal behaviour. For optimum
orientation, there are usually conflicting requirements. Minimum transfer of
solar heat is desired during the day in summer, while maximum heating of
rooms by solar heat is required during winter.

2. Heat insulation by shading: While shading of roof brings down the surface
temperature, it is very difficult to achieve this effect in practice, especially
when the altitude angle of the sun is quite high during the period of peak heat
gain in afternoons, between 1100 h and 1500 h. Raising the parapet walls can
help only when the altitude angle of the sun is low, but the cost may not be
commensurate with the effect obtained.

3. Heat insulation by proper height or ceiling: While the surface temperature

of the ceiling does not vary with its height, the intensity of long wave
radiation, emitted by the ceiling decreases as it travels downwards. The effect
of vertical gradient of radiation intensity is not significant beyond 1 to 1.3 m.
Hence it should be adequate to provide ceiling at a height of about 1 to 1.3 m
above the occupant.

3.10.1 Thermal Insulation of Roofs

Adopting the following methods may reduce heat gain through roofs:

1. Application of heat insulating materials. Heat insulating materials may be

applied externally or internally to the roofs. In case of external application,
heat-insulating material may be laid over the roof but below a waterproof
course. In case of internal application, heat-insulating material may be fixed
by adhesive or otherwise on the underside of roofs from within the rooms.
False ceiling of insulating material may be provided below the roof wit air
gaps in between

2. For flat roofs, external insulation may also be done b~ arranging asbestos
cement sheets or corrugated galvanised iron sheets on bricks.

BS/SCM/ 40
 3. Shining and reflecting materials may be fixed on the top of the roof.

4. Roofs may be flooded with water in the form of sprays or otherwise. Loss due
to evaporation may be compensated by make up arrangements.

5. Roofs may be whitewashed before on-set of each summer.

6. Top exposed surface of roof may be covered by 2.5 cm thick layer of coconut
pitch cement concrete. Such a concrete is prepared by mixing coconut pitch
with cement and water. After laying, it is covered with an impermeable layer
and then allowed to dry for 20 to 30 days.

3.10.2 Thermal Insulation of Exposed Walls

Heat insulation of exposed walls may be achieved by the following ways:

1. The thickness of wall may be increased.

2. Cavity wall construction may be adopted for external walls.

3. The wall may be constructed out of suitable hear insulating material provided
structural requirements are met.

4. Heat insulating materials may be fixed on the inside or outside of the exposed
wall, in such a way that the value of overall thermal transmittance is brought
within a desired limits. In the case of external application, overall
waterproofing is essential.

BS/SCM/ 41
 5. Light-coloured white-wash or distemper may be applied on the exposed side of
the wall.

3.10.3 Thermal Insulation of Exposed Doors and Windows

In dealing with heat insulation of exposed windows and doors, suitable methods
should be adopted to reduce:

a. Reduction of incidence of solar heat. This may be achieved by anyone of the

following means:

i. External shading, such as louvered shutters, sun breakers chhajjas,

and

ii. Internal shading, such a curtains and venetian blinds.

b. Reduction of heat transmission. Where glazed windows and doors are

provided, reduction of heat transmission may be achieved by providing
insulating glass or double glass with air space or by any other suitable means.

Assignment:
 Students to be familiar with the different heat insulating materials available in the
market and their respective cost.

BS/SCM/ 42
 Lesson – 4: Acoustics and Sound Insulation
Objective:
 To understand the meaning of acoustics.
 To study characteristics of audible sound.
 To know the behaviour of sound in enclosed spaces.
 To understand various types of sound absorbents.
 To study common sound defects found in buildings.
Structure:
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Characteristics of Audible Sound
4.3 Behaviour of Sound in Enclosures
4.4 Reflection of Sound
4.5 Defects due to reflected sound
4.5.1 Echoes
4.5.2 Reverberation
4.6 Absorption
4.7 Absorbents
4.8 Common Acoustical Defects

4.1 Introduction
'Acoustics' is the science of sound, which deals with origin, propagation and auditory
sensation of sound, and also with design and construction of different building units to set
optimum conditions for producing and listening speech, music, etc. The knowledge of this
science is necessary for the proper functional design of theatres, cinema halls, auditoriums,
conference balls, hospitals, etc. so that unwanted sound is excluded or insulated.
Sound is generated in the air when a surface is vibrated. The vibrating surface sets up
waves of compression and rarefaction in the air and these set the ear drum vibrating. The
movements of the eardrum are translated by the brain into sound sensation. When the sound
waves are periodic, regular and long continued, they produce a pleasing effect; such a sound
is known as musical sound. On the contrary, when the sound wave is non-periodic, irregular
and of very short duration, it produces displeasing effect; such sound is known as noise. A
noise is an abrupt sound of complex character with an irregular period and amplitude
originating from a source of non-periodic motion.

BS/SCM/ 43
4.2 Characteristics of Audible Sound
Sound is transmitted in the form of waves which are a series of compressions and
rarifications created in the medium through which it travels. The sound waves are
longitudinal waves and hence each particle of the medium through which sound wave is
proceeding, moves backwards and forwards along a line in the direction in which sound is
travelling. The velocity of sound depends upon the nature and temperature of the medium
through which it travels. It travels much faster in solids and liquids than in air. The velocity
of sound in air depends upon moisture in air and temperature of air. The velocity of sound in
atmospheric air at 200C is 343 m/sec. The velocity of sound in pure water is 1450 m/sec
while that in bricks and concrete is 4300 and 4000 m/sec respectively. Sound cannot travel in
vacuum. For the sound to be audible, the sound source and ear must be connected by an
uninterrupted series of portions of elastic matter.

There are three characteristics of sound:

1. Intensity and loudness of sound

Intensity of sound is defined as the amount or flow of wave energy crossing per unit
time through a unit area taken perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Mathematically,
the energy of a wave and hence the intensity at a point is proportional to the square of the
amplitude of vibration of the point. But the distinction between the physical quantity called
intensity and the meaning to be understood by the term loudness must be clearly noted.
Loudness of a sound corresponds to the degree of sensation depending on the intensity of
sound and the sensitivity of ear drums, and does not increase proportionally with intensity but
more nearly to its logarithm. It is know as Weber and Fechner's law which states that the

BS/SCM/ 44
magnitude of any sensation is proportional to the logarithm of the physical stimulus that
produces it. Thus, intensity of sound is purely a physical quantity which can be accurately
measured, and which is independent of ear of listener. Loudness, on the other hand, is the
degree of sensation which is nm wholly physical but partly subjective and does depend upon
the ear and the listener. It may also happen that the same listener might give different
judgements about the loudness of sounds of the same intensity but of different frequencies as
the response of the ear is found to vary with the frequency of vibration.

2. Frequency and pitch of sound

Frequency or Pitch is defined as the number of cycles which a sounding body makes
in each unit of time. It is a measure of the quality of a sound. It is that characteristic by which
a shrill sound can be distinguished from a grave one, even though the two sounds may be of
the same intensity. The sensation of pitch depends upon the frequency with which the
vibrations succeed one another at the ear, the greater the frequency the higher the pitch and
the lesser the frequency the lower the pitch. The frequency scale covers a wide range varying
from 20 cycles per second to 1500 cycles per second.

3. Quality or Timbre

The quality of a sound is that characteristic which enables us to distinguish between

two notes of the same pitch and loudness played on two different instruments or produced by
two different voices. A study of vibration curves of various musical instruments has shown
that the notes emitted by them are seldom pure. They contain some fundamental tones of
frequency n and additional tones of (of frequencies 2n, n, 4n, etc.) called overtones. The
quality of a note is determined by its complex structure and depends upon the presence or
absence of a certain number of overtones, on their relative strengths and pitches. It is to be
noted that it is the memory of this tonal quality which enables us to recognise a large number
of different sounds. Among these are the voices of friends and acquaintances, the various
sounds employed in speech and familiar musical instruments and the cries of animals.

4.3 Behaviour of Sound in Enclosures

When sound is generated in a room, the distance between the source and the walls is
so small that there is little or no reduction due to distance. When the sound waves strike the
surfaces of a room, three things happen:

i. Some of the sound is reflected back in the room.

ii. Some of the sound energy is absorbed by the surfaces and listeners.

iii. Some of the sound waves set on the walls, floors and ceiling vibrating and are
thus transmitted outside the room.

The amount of sound reflected or absorbed depends upon the surfaces, while the
sound transmitted outside the room depends upon sound insulation properties of the surfaces.

BS/SCM/ 45
4.4 Reflection of Sound
Sound waves get reflected from a large uniform plane surface in the same manner as
that of light waves, the angle of incidence being equal to angle of reflection, as shown in Fig.
28.1. The reflection of sound has certain virtues in acoustics such as the enhancement of
loudness and enrichment of total quality
of sound. The following characteristics of
reflection of sound waves are
noteworthy:

1. Reflection of sound waves

follow practically the
same laws as reflection of
light. However, this may
not be true in some
exceptional cases, hence
great caution should be exercised while applying these laws.

2. The reflected wave fronts from a flat surface are also spherical and their centre
of curvature is the image of source of sound Fig. 28.2 (a).

3. Sound waves reflected at a convex surface are magnified and are considerably
bigger Fig. 28.2 (b). They are attenuated and are therefore weaker. Convex
surfaces may be used with advantage to spread the sound waves throughout
the room.

4. The sound waves reflected at a concave surface are considerably smaller Fig.
28.2 (c). The waves are most condensed and therefore amplified. The concave
surfaces may be provided for the concentration of reflected waves at certain
points.

BS/SCM/ 46
4.5 Defects due to reflected sound
The behaviour of reflected sound plays very important role in the acoustical design of
an enclosed space. The following are two main defects that may be caused due to reflection
of sound waves:

(a) Echoes

(b) Reverberation

4.5.1 Echoes
An echo is produced when the reflected sound wave reaches the ear just when the original
sound from the same source has been already heard. Thus, there is repetition of the sound.
The sensation of sound persists for 1/10th of a second after the source has ceased. Hence in
order that an echo may be distinguished as separate, it must reach the ear 1/10th of a second

BS/SCM/ 47
after the direct sound. Taking the velocity of sound as 340 m/sec, it means that sound must
come after traversing a distance of 34 m, i.e., the minimum distance of the obstacle from the
source must be half of this, i.e., 17 m. If, however, the distance of the reflecting surface is
less than this, the sound will appear to be draw out. Near echoes, sufficient to cause blurring,
occur when the distance of the reflecting surface is between 8 and 17 m. Multiple echoes may
be heard when a sound is reflected from a number of reflecting surfaces suitably placed, such
as two parallel cliffs. The rumbling and rolling of a thunder is due to successive reflections of
a peel of thunder from a number of reflecting surfaces such as clouds, mountains, rocks and
surfaces of separation between atmospheric currents and various strata of air.

4.5.2 Reverberation
It has been generally noticed that in public halls and auditoriums, the sound persists

even after the source of sound has ceased. This persistence of sound is called reverberation. It
is due to multiple reflections in an enclosed spare. Reverberation is a familiar phenomenon in
Cathedrals and new halls/rooms without furniture, where, even after sound source stops the
reverberation is heard even upto 10 seconds. A certain amount of reverberation is desirable,
specially for giving richness to music, but too much reverberation is undesirable.

The time during which the sound persists is called the reverberation time of sound in
the hall. It is the lime taken by the reverberant sound to decay to its one-millionth of the
sound intensity level existing al the time the source of sound slopped. In other words, it is the
period of time in seconds, which is required for sound energy to decay or diminish by 60 dB
after the sound source has stopped.

BS/SCM/ 48
4.6 Absorption
When a sound wave strikes a surface, a part of its energy is absorbed by friction. The
sound generated in an auditorium or hall is absorbed in four ways:

a. In the air

b. By the audience

c. In the furniture and furnishings

d. At the boundary surfaces such as floors, ceilings, walls etc.

Absorption in Air
The absorption of sound in the air is mainly due to the friction between the oscillating
molecules when sound wave travels through it. However, this absorption is extremely small.

Absorption by the audience

Sound energy absorbed by the clothing of the audience. Room acoustics change
perceptibly by the number of audience present. Also, absorption is more in winter, than in
summer, because of heavy clothing.

Absorption in furniture and furnishings

Furniture, curtains, carpets, etc. also absorb sound energy to a fair extent.

Absorption by boundary surface

When sound waves strike the boundary surfaces such as walls, floors, ceilings (treated
or otherwise), absorption takes place due to the following factors: (a) Penetration of sound
into porous materials, causing resonance within air pockets in the pores until energy is
dissipated; (b) Resonant vibration of panel materials; (c) Molecular damping in soft
absorbing materials; and (d) Transmission through structures.

4.7 Absorbents
Special materials used on boundary surfaces to increase absorption are known as
absorbents. Ceiling is generally more exposed to direct sound waves than are other surfaces,
and is usually the largest single area available for treatment. Absorbents can be broadly
classified as following:

a. Porous materials
Absorption in porous materials is mainly due to the frictional losses which occur
when the sound waves cause to and fro movement of the air contained in the material.
However, these materials absorb sound mainly in the higher frequencies. Their efficiency
depends upon porosity, the resistance to air flow through the materials and the thickness.
Examples of absorbents under this category are rock wool, glass silk, wood wool, curtains
and other soft furnishings, drilled fibre boards and acoustic plasters.

BS/SCM/ 49
 b. Resonant panels
These panels absorb the sound by damping the. sympathetic vibrations in the panels,
caused by sound pressure waves bf appropriate: frequency, by means of air space behind the
panel. These panels absorb sound only at lower frequencies, over a comparatively narrow
frequency band ranging from 50 to 200 cycles. The frequencies at which panels vibrate
depend upon their weight and depth of air spaces behind them.

c. Cavity resonators
A cavity resonator is virtually a container with a small opening, and it functions by
the resonance of air in it. They can be designed to absorb sound of any frequency.

d. Composite absorbers
These are a comparatively recent development, combining the functions of all the
above three absorbents. It consists of a perforated panel fixed over an air space containing
porous absorbent. The perforations in the panel should form at least 10 percent of the total
area to allow the porous materials to absorb sound at higher frequencies.

4.8 Common Acoustical Defects

Perfect acoustical conditions in a big room, hall or auditorium etc. are achieved when
there is clarity of sound in every part of the occupied space. For this, the sound should rise to
suitable intensity everywhere with no echoes or near echoes or distortion of the original
sound; with correct reverberation time. Following are the common defects which are
encountered and which require special attention of the designer for proper treatment:

1. Reverberation.
We have already seen that reverberation is the persistence of sound in the enclosed
space, after the source of sound has stopped. Reverberant sound is the reflected sound, as a
result of improper absorption. Excessive reverberation is one of the most common defects,
with the result that sound once created prolongs for a longer duration resulting in confusion
with the sound created next. However, some reverberation is essential for improving quality
of sound. Thus, optimum clarity depends upon correct reverberation time which can be
controlled by suitably installing the absorbent materials.

BS/SCM/ 50
 2. Formation of echoes
Echoes are also formed due to reflection of sound when the reflecting surfaces are
situated at a distance greater than about 17 m and when the shape of the hall
/auditorium/room is curved with smooth character. This defect can be removed by selecting
proper shape of the hall and by providing rough and porous interior surfaces to disperse
energy of echoes.

3. Sound foci
As indicated in Fig. 28.2 (c), reflecting concave surfaces cause concentration of
reflected sound waves at certain spots, creating a sound of large intensity. These spots are
called sound foci. Geometrical designed shapes of the interior faces, including ceilings, and
providing highly absorbent materials on focussing areas, can remove this defect.

4. Dead spots
This defect is an outcome of the formation of sound foci. Because of high
concentration of reflected sound at sound foci, there is deficiency of reflected sound at some
other points. These points are known as dead spots where sound intensity is so low that it is
insufficient for hearing. This defect can be removed by installation of suitable diffuser so that
there is even distribution of sound in the hall.

5. Insufficient loudness.

This defect is caused due to lack of sound reflecting flat surface near the sound source
and excessive sound absorption treatment in the hall. The defect can be removed by
providing hard reflecting surface near the source, and by adjusting the absorption of the hall
so as to get optimum time of reverberation. When the length of the hall is more, it may be
desirable to install loud speakers at proper places.

6. External noise.

External noise from vehicles, traffic engines, factories, cooling plants etc. may enter
the hall either through the openings (such as doors, windows, ventilators etc.) or through even
walls and other structural elements having improper sound insulation. This defect can be
removed by proper planning of the hall with respect to its surroundings and by proper sound
insulation of exterior walls.

Assignment:
Students to visit an auditorium or a theatre and study its acoustical design.

BS/SCM/ 51
Summary:
Due to difference in temperature inside and outside the built environment , it becomes
necessary .a comfortable living inside. By using thermal insulating materials, we can resist
the flow of heat outside and maintain comfortable living conditions inside.

Noise causes annoyance, interference with speech and results in efficiency of work
performance. Good planning and constructional measures have to be adopted for noise
control, sound insulation and to eliminate common defects due to sound reflection such as
echo and reverberation.

Revision points:
1. Methods of Heat transfer
2. Classification of heat insulating materials
3. Characteristics of audible sound.
4. Behaviour of sound in enclosed spaces.
5. Common acoustical defects.

Key words:
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation
4. Acoustics
5. Echo
6. Reverberation

In text questions:
1. What is thermal insulation? What are the advantages derived from thermal insulation?

2. What is acoustics? Explain in detail the characteristics of audible sound.

3. What are the requirements of a good heat insulating material?

Terminal exercises:
1. Explain in detail the various ways in which heat transfer takes place.
2. Explain in detail any seven types of heat insulating materials.
3. Explain in detail the general methods of thermal insulation.
4. How will you provide thermal insulation for the following structural components:
Roofs
Walls

BS/SCM/ 52
 Doors and windows
5. How does sound behave in enclosed spaces? Explain in detail.
6. Explain in detail the various types of sound absorbents.
7. Discuss in detail the common sound defects found in buildings.

Suggested reading:
1. Building Construction by Sushil Kumar
2. Building Construction by Dr. B.C. Punmia

BS/SCM/ 53
 Unit –III

Lesson-5: Air - Conditioning

BS/SCM/ 54
 Lesson –5: Air-conditioning

Objective:
 To understand the basic concept of air conditioning.
 To understand parts of an air conditioner.
 To study various types of air conditioning.
 To study the air distribution system.
Structure:
5.1 Introduction
5.2 How Is Cooling Made Possible?
5.3 Equipment Used To Produce Cooling
5.3.1 The Compressor
5.3.2 The Condenser
5.3.3 The Evaporator
5.4 Airconditioning Capacity -The 'Ton'
5.5 Heat Load Estimation
5.6 Types of Airconditioning Systems
5.7 Non-Ducted Products
5.7.1 Room Airconditioners
5.7.2 Split Airconditioners
5.7.3 Types of Split Airconditions
5.8 Drainage of Condensate Water
5.9 Packaged Airconditioning Systems
5.9.1 Air-Cooled Ductable Splits
5.9.2 Floor Standing Packaged Units
5.10 Types of Compressors Used In Window Split and Packaged Airconditioners
5.10.1 Sealed Reciprocating Compressors
5.10.2 Sealed Scroll Compressors
5.10.3 Sealed Rotary Compressors
5.11 Mounting of Outdoor Units
5.12 Mounting, Safety and Serviceability
5.13 Coastal Installations
5.14 Installation Practices for Air-Cooled Units
5.15 Length of Interconnecting Piping
5.16 Refrigerant Pipe Insulation
5.17 Direct Expansion and Chilled Water Systems
5.18 Compressors Used In Vapour Compression Central Plants
5.19 Packaged Chillers
5.20 Packaged Chillers Installation Tips
5.21 Air Cooled Chillers
5.22 Water Cooled Chillers
5.23 Introducing the Condenser
5.23.1 How the Condenser Is Cooled
5.23.2 How the Air Cooled Condenser Is Cooled
5.23.3 How the Water Cooled Condenser Is Cooled

BS/SCM/ 55
5.24 Cooling Towers
5.25 Air Handling Units
5.26 Fan Coil Units
5.27 Ducts, Grilles & Diffusers
5.28 Co-Ordination between Designer and Airconditioning Engineer
5.29 Modern Trends in Design and Fabrication of Ducts
5.30 Fresh Air
5.31 Sick Building Syndrome
5.32 Changes in Fresh Air Requirement over the Years
5.33 Filtration and Filters
5.34 Pleated Panel Type Filter
5.35 Noise & Noise Control in Airconditioning
5.36 Saving Energy on Airconditioning
5.37 Building Design
5.38 Energy Efficient Airconditioning Equipment
5.39 Effective Maintenance and Utility Management

5.1 Introduction
Airconditioning is defined as a process, which cools (or heats), cleans, circulates,
freshens air and controls its moisture content simultaneously. Most often airconditioning is
about removing heat. Now that we have defined airconditioning let us get to know the nature
of 'Heat'. There are two types of 'Heat': "Sensible Heat" and "Latent Heat" 'Sensible heat' is
any heat that raises the temperature but not the moisture content of the substance. This is our
regular and familiar every day heat. Because it raises the temperature it can be detected by
the senses and this in fact is why it is called Sensible Heat.

'Latent Heat' is the tricky one. When we talk of Latent Heat we mean 'Latent Heat of
Vaporisation. It is that heat required to transform a liquid to vapour. Take water for example.
Water can be heated to its boiling point of 100°C. If more heat is added at this point the
temperature of the water does not increase. The water continues to boil and becomes steam.
So where does all the heat go? Well, the heat goes into changing the water into steam. The
latent heat of vaporisation in this instance is the heat required to change water from liquid at
100°C to vapour at the same temperature.

BS/SCM/ 56
 Latent heat plays an important part in
Refrigeration and Airconditioning. It A refrigerant is a gas with special
explains the principle of refrigeration and characteristic that make it suitable for
also is a component of Heat Load. Human Refrigeration. It is possible to liquefy it
beings generate Latent Heat by way of even ambient temperatures when the
moisture (perspiration) on their skin. This pressure is raised R-22 is the most
perspiration requires to be dried; therefore, a commonly used refrigerant in air-
change of its state from liquid to vapour is conditioning. Recent studies indicate that
required. Fresh air which is added into the air Refrigerants when leaked into the
system, very often brings in plenty of atmosphere cause damage to the ozone
moisture with it. Removal of this additional layer. By international consensus today‟s
moisture also involves latent heat removal. A refrigerants may be replaced by new
portion of the airconditioning heat load is ozone friendly refrigerants over the next
therefore in the form of latent heat, for three or four decades.
example in an office 10% of the
airconditioning heat load could be in the form of Latent Heat. This goes up to around 25% in
a restaurant and around 33% in a movie theatre.

5.2 How Is Cooling Made Possible?

Now that we have discussed 'Heat let us talk about the principle at work in
airconditioning, the core concept to understand is Evaporation. Remember how cold your
skin felt when dabbed by liquid spirit at a doctor's clinic before an injection? It felt cold
because the spirit evaporated (changed from liquid state to the vapour state) very rapidly.
And when it evaporated it needed heat to change its state. Where did this heat come from? It
came from the liquid itself and your skin with which it was in contact.

In the refrigeration cycle this principle is put to work by causing a liquid Refrigerant
to evaporate in a cooling coil (evaporator), This refrigerant is a specially chosen substance
which has the property of evaporation at very low temperatures. (For example, the commonly
used refrigerant, R-22, would start evaporating at -40°C even under normal atmospheric
pressure). The cooling coil, in which the refrigerant evaporates, is in contact with the air (or
water in chilled water systems) surrounding it, thereby cooling that as well. Once cooled, this
air (or water) is then directed to the spaces which require cooling.

BS/SCM/ 57
5.3 Equipment Used To Produce Cooling:
Now that we have seen the process by which cooling takes place, and examined the
nature of heat and humidity, let us briefly look at the main equipment used to produce the
effect we require.

5.3.1 The Compressor:

Under atmospheric temperature and pressure the refrigerant is in gaseous form. We
learnt that the cooling takes place when liquids evaporate to become gas. Therefore we must
first transform the refrigerant gas into the liquid form. Most gasses can be made into the
liquid form by raising its pressure (and cooling it, which is handled by the condenser). The
equipment that increases the pressure of the gas by compressing it, is called the Compressor.

5.3.2 The Condenser:

During compression however the refrigerant becomes hot. This is because of two
reasons:

a) Because of the work done on it (remember how warm the hand pump became when
pumping air into your bicycle tires?) and

b) Because the refrigerant is converted from gas to liquid releasing its latent heat.

This heat has to be removed to enable the gas to condense into a liquid easily. The
equipment that removes the heat is called the Condenser.

BS/SCM/ 58
5.3.3 The Evaporator ('Cooling Coil'):

From the condenser we now have the liquid refrigerant ready to go to work. This
refrigerant can remove heat when it starts evaporating. The liquid refrigerant from the
condenser is injected through a metering device called the capillary or expansion valve into
the cooling coil which is a bundle of tubes.

Inside the cooling coil the pressure is low, because of the metering/ throttling device
on one side and the compressor suction on the other side. In the low pressure, the liquid
refrigerant starts evaporating rapidly. While evaporating it needs sensible heat to transform
itself from the liquid to the gas state. So it soaks up heat from the surrounding tubes, and
from the air, with which the tubes are in contact. This is what causes the cooling.

BS/SCM/ 59
 End of Cycle and Beginning of the Next One:
Having done this the refrigerant is back into the gaseous form. It is sucked into the
compressor where it will be compressed again for the next refrigeration cycle.

5.4 Airconditioning Capacity -The 'Ton'

Most of us have heard about the Ton' In connection with heat Load or capacity of
airconditioning equipment. The Ton (TR)- in Refrigeration & Airconditioning is a unit
indicating a certain Quantity of heat. This "Quantity of Heat" is different from temperatures
which only says how hot the substance is but not how much heat it contains.

The two most common units for stating the heat quantity are the British thermal unit
(Btu) and the Calorie (cal). The Btu is the quantity of heat needed to raise the temperature of
1 Ib of water by 1 Fahrenheit. The Calorie is the metric unit of heat quantity. It is the heat
needed to raise the temperature of a gram of water by 1 Celsius. Since a calorie is a very
small measurement, It is practical to use thousand calories as the unit for airconditioning and
it is expressed as Kilo Calorie (K Cal), 1 Ton Refrigeration = 12000 Btu or 3000 K Cal

5.5 Heat Load Estimation

In warm countries the primary aim of airconditioning is to bring the temperature
down within the conditioned space.

We know temperatures can be brought down by removing heat airconditioning

systems are employed to pump out this heat from within the space.

It is important to select the right airconditioning equipment to do the job. A system

that is too large for the requirement would not only cost more, but also be a waste of capacity.
On the other hand, a system with low capacity would not be able to satisfy the comfort needs
of the occupants. Further, being of low capacity, the system would have to run for a longer
time thereby being prone to abnormal wear and tear

It stands to reason therefore, that in order to select the equipment of the right capacity,
one must know the quantity of heat that is to be removed from the conditioned space. This
'quantity of heat' is calculated using certain formulas and this process is referred to as Heat
Load Estimation

The heat within the space comes from various sources both external and Internal. The
sun brings in external heat into the space through the walls, roof and glazing. Fresh air
brought into the conditioned space from outside, contribute substantially to the heat load. The
Internal heat comes from electrical equipment, machinery lighting and from the occupants
themselves Humans dissipate heat into the space and their perspiration adds to the humidity
and therefore to the Latent heat. The quantum of heat added by the occupants depends on
their level of activity. People at rest will contribute less heat load than those doing more
physical activity.

Calculating heat loads has evolved over the years to become very precise. An
airconditioning engineer relies on certain checklist-like form or special computer software to
estimate the heat load

BS/SCM/ 60
5.6 Types of Airconditioning Systems
Over the years, Airconditioning Systems have evolved to suit different needs. The
emergence of new technologies, environment conditions and the availability of space have all
played a part in shaping the airconditioning system of today. Though many types of
airconditioning systems are available it is convenient to first classify them broadly as follows:

Basic Branches of Airconditioning

The basic branches of airconditioning are Non-Ducted products and Ductable System.
Ductable System can then be divided into Packaged Airconditioners and Central Plants.
Further subdivisions appear in subsequent pages.

Non-Ducted Products and Ductable Systems

By Non-Ducted Products we mean those airconditioners that do not use any air
ducting to cool the conditioned space. Window mounted 'Room Airconditioners' and the
'Non-Ducted Split Airconditioners' fall into this category. These products are suitable where
air throw is limited to around 4 metres (13 feet) and small spaces are involved. Where large
spaces are involved, multiple units are used to distribute the air. Alternatively in order to
distribute the air uniformly using fewer units, ductable systems are preferred.

Ductable systems can be further subdivided into Packaged airconditioners and Central
plants. The term 'Ductable' implies any airconditioning system suitable for ducting. The
design engineer may prefer not to use ducting by employing Fan coil Units instead.

5.7 Non-Ducted Products

The basic branches of airconditioning can be divided into Non-Ducted Products and
Ducted Systems. Let us first explore the branches under Non-Ducted products:

BS/SCM/ 61
5.7.1 Room Airconditioners
Room Airconditioners are familiar to most of us. These ubiquitous machines can be
seen mounted in windows and therefore, also referred to as 'Window Airconditioners'. In
Window Airconditioners the compressor, condenser-fan, condenser and evaporator are all
enclosed in a single cabinet. The unit is to be installed in a wooden frame either in a window
or in a hole in the wall. The air being blown through the condenser must pass freely through
without restriction. We must therefore, make sure that the condenser is not obstructed (for
example by a neighbouring wall).

These air conditioners come in cooling capacities of 0.5,0.75, 1, 1.5 and 2 tons,
adequate for a room between 5 and 20 square metres in size. Larger spaces may be handled
by using multiple units of this type. While Window Airconditioners are economical and most
convenient to install they could be noisy for some applications.

BS/SCM/ 62
5.7.2 Split Airconditioners
As the name implies, the Split Airconditioner is split into two basic components, the
Indoor unit and the Outdoor unit. These two units are connected by refrigeration tubing and
electrical wires that can pass through a hole in the wall barely 10cms in diameter. Because
the relatively g noisy components, such as the compressor and condenser fan, are in the
outdoor unit, the conditioned space tends to be quite. There are situations where it is not
possible to mount a window airconditioner because of obstructions from neighbouring walls
or non availability "of a suitable window. In such cases the Spilt Airconditioner is used
because the outdoor unit can be mounted on the roof or on a ledge some distance away from
the room to be airconditioned. Though Split Airconditioners are more expensive than the
Window Mounted type they are preferred for their low noise levels.

The outdoor unit houses the compressor, condenser and the condenser fan. The indoor
unit consists of the evaporator Cooling coil: and the evaporator blower. Since the noisier
components are outside the building the conditioned space is much quieter.

5.7.3 Types of Split Airconditions

Indoor Units:
While the outdoor units of split airconditioners are all similar the indoor units are
available in different types to suit the needs of the airconditioned space. The types of indoor
units are:

Floor Mounted: The indoor unit of this Airconditioner is typically kept on the floor
against the wall of the space to be air-conditioned. This type is ideal for living rooms or
office rooms where adequate floor space is available. Since the air throw is from the top, the
space above the indoor unit must be free from obstructions.

BS/SCM/ 63
 High Wall Mounted: This unit is fixed to the wall at height of about 2.5 metres
usually below the false ceiling. The controls are generally operated either by a corded or
cordless remote control unit, because it is mounted on the wall it is preferred for rooms
having less floor space. This model is widely used for domestic and commercial applications.

Ceiling Mounted: Split airconditioners are equipment designed to be suspended from

the main ceiling. They are available in three models:

a) Ceiling Mounted (Exposed): These units are fixed directly to the ceiling and are
visible. The unit is similar to the Floor mounted (exposed) type. They are easy to
mount and are preferred in commercial areas or offices that do not have a false
ceiling.

b) Ceiling Mounted (Hide-Way): These units are also mounted at the ceiling but are
designed for being hidden. They are generally concealed by a panelled box or
false ceiling. These units are suitable for commercial areas where the interior
design requires the airconditioning equipment to be concealed so as not to
interfere with the aesthetics. You will find such units working in restaurants and
offices.

CEILING MOUNTED AND HIGH WALL MOUNTED

BS/SCM/ 64
 c) Cassette Type: Cassette type indoor units are mounted above the false ceiling in
such a way that the outlet grill of the units is flush with the bottom of the false
ceiling. While the other types of indoor units provide for condensate draining by
gravity the same is not possible for the cassette type. To overcome this problem a
small-motorised pump is employed to drain out the condensate.

5.8 Drainage of Condensate Water

When the air around the evaporator is cooled, the moisture in the air accumulates as
water under the evaporator. This happens because the cold air cannot hold as much water
vapour as it held when it was warmer. You experience the same phenomenon when a small
puddle of water accumulates under a chilled glass of water.

This water referred to as 'condensate' is collected in a pan under the evaporator and
must be removed from the conditioned space. Therefore, wherever indoor units are mounted,
there must be a gently sloping drain tube to carry this condensate water away from the room.
If the water is not drained out properly it may collect in the drain pan until it overflows and
drips into the room.

5.9 Packaged Airconditioning Systems

Packaged Airconditioning systems can be broadly classified as:

Air-cooled Ductable Splits and

Floor standing packaged Airconditioners

5.9.1 Air-Cooled Ductable Splits:

The indoor portion of these units are located above the false ceiling and connected to
the ducting. Consequently they do not occupy floor space. Currently in India they are
available in 3.5 and 7.5 ton capacities. Since the indoor units is located above the false ceiling
the space available limits the capacity to 7.5 tons per unit.

However, great care must be taken to select the location of the indoor units. Ideally,
they must be located in corridors, above lofts, etc. where accessibility is not a problem. If the
units are located in the conditioned area, attending to the machines can cause disturbance to
the working area. False ceilings in the decorated interior areas may also get shabby due to
maintenance handling by mechanics

BS/SCM/ 65
5.9.2 Floor Standing Packaged Units
These are shaped like cupboards and are typically placed in a small enclosure adjacent
to the conditioned area. Inside this 'cupboard' like enclosure is housed the Compressor,
Evaporator and the Evaporator blower. Though these units are typically used with ducting
they can also be placed directly in the room to be conditioned whereby the cooled air is
thrown directly into the rooms without ducting. Currently in India these units come in
capacities of 5, 7.5, 10 and 15 tons machines. Higher capacities (20 tons and above) can be
expected in the coming years.

These floor standing packaged airconditioners come in both the Air- cooled and the
Water-cooled models

Water-Cooled Units require water. This water is used to cool the refrigerant in the condenser.
Water is pumped through the shell and tube condenser, which is a part of the packaged unit.
This water is then sent into a „cooling tower' outside the air-conditioned room where the heat
is dissipated to the atmosphere. Water cooled units give higher capacity and are more power
efficient due to lower operating pressure.

Air-Cooled Models are especially suitable for places where water is space or of 'hard'
quality, or where there is no space for installing a cooling tower. The heat is removed by way
of an air-cooled condenser with a fan blowing through it. This condensing Unit is mounted
outside the building on a sunshade or a terrace Air-cooled.

Though they require a small plant room, floor mounted packaged units offer some
clear advantages.

They are service friendly because of easy accessibility.

They can handle longer ducts by virtue of having more powerful fans.

BS/SCM/ 66
 Large tonnages can be handled with fewer units by using 10 TR OR 15 TR units.

Interiors are clean and undisturbed since the machines are located in a separate
plant room

5.10 Types of Compressors Used In

Window

Split and Packaged Airconditioners

As mentioned earlier the outdoor unit
encloses the compressor and the condenser. The
compressors used in Window, Split and Packaged
Air-conditioning are typically Hermetically Sealed
compressors. A Hermetically sealed compressor is
a gas tight steel shell within which is housed an
electrical motor and the compressor unit. These
compressors may be of the Reciprocating type, the
Scroll type or the Rotary type. Let us take a brief
look at these compressors and how they work.

5.10.1 Sealed Reciprocating

Compressors
These compressors typically have one or
two pistons mounted on the crankshaft extension of
the motor. As the motor turns the crankshaft, the
piston moves up and down in the cylinder. On the
top of the cylinder is mounted a valve plate
assembly with a suction and discharge valve. Each
time the piston moves down, the suction valve
opens and the gas is sucked into the cylinder. When
the piston moves up the gas is pushed against the
discharge valve which opens to let the compressed
gas out. These compressors are available from very
small fractional ton capacities up to 10-ton units.

5.10.2 Sealed Scroll Compressors:

Scroll compressors are a recent innovation in use since the mid eighties. These
compressors are very efficient and are gaining acceptance among several leading
manufacturers as an option to the reciprocating compressors. Scroll compressors use two
interlocked spiral-shaped members which enclose the refrigerant gas in pockets between
them. One of the spiral-shaped members is fixed and the other rotates causing the refrigerant
to be squeezed into ever decreasing pockets until it reaches the centre from where it is

BS/SCM/ 67
discharged. These compressors are currently available in small capacities of upto 10 tons.
The advantages include high reliability, low maintenance, low noise & vibration and high
efficiency.

5.10.3 Sealed Rotary Compressors:

This type of compressor has a turning rotor eccentric to
the cylinder housing, and blades which slide to form a
continuous seal for the refrigerant gas. At the beginning of the
stroke a volume of refrigerant gas enters the chamber. As the
stroke progresses the nature of eccentricity squeezes the gas
thereby compressing it. Rotary compressors are considered
unsuitable for areas with high ambient temperatures and limited
to use in window airconditioners and small split airconditioners.
These compressors are not repairable and are generally replaced
when they become defective

5.11 Mounting Of Outdoor Units

All types of split units are connected to a box like cabinet placed outside the
conditioned space. This 'box' is the 'Outdoor Unit' (ODU) through which the heat from the
conditioned space is dissipated into the atmosphere. If we look inside the outdoor unit, we
will find a Compressor, a Finned- Coil Condenser and a Fan Motor with a fan blade used for
blowing or sucking air through the finned coil. We would also find some electrical
components and cables. The outdoor unit is typically mounted on an external wall, the roof,
and sunshade or skirting around the building. The airconditioning engineer is careful about
how and where the outdoor unit is mounted. Let us take a brief look at some of the key
points.

5.12 Mounting, Safety and Serviceability

When the unit is wall mounted, we must ensure that the wall to which the ODU
support framework is grouted, is structurally sound and is capable of supporting
the load of the ODU. This applies to any other structure on which the ODU is
mounted.

We should also make sure that the ODU support framework is properly designed,
with a catwalk to permit servicing and

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 A Safety Railing Must Be Provided Around The Structure.

5.13 Coastal Installations

Special care must be taken while installing ODUs on the seacoast. We must ensure
that

The condenser fan outlet is not facing the sea wind. This is done to reduce the risk
of the fan not running at all or losing speed while working against the wind

The ODUs are not located near ground level, close to the beach since sand can
clog the condenser coils

Care is taken to give the supporting framework a good quality anti corrosive paint
treatment (epoxy or chlorinated rubber paint) and

The isolator switch and electrical components are properly protected from
moisture.

BS/SCM/ 69
5.14 Installation Practices for Air-Cooled Units
Copper Standards for Piping

We know that the Indoor Unit (IDU) of any Split airconditioner is connected with the
Outdoor unit through refrigerant piping. Most often imported copper pipe is used for this
purpose.

Soft Drawn Copper Tubing is used for single phase Non Ducted split
airconditioners

Hard Drawn, L-Grade Copper Tubing is used for 3 Phase Ducted Splits/Packaged
units

5.15 Length of Interconnecting Piping

We must always ensure that the right distance is
maintained between the IDU and ODU. There are limits to the
distance between them imposed by the equipment design. As
the distance between the units increases the following happens:

The refrigerant pressure drops, resulting in decreased

cooling capacity.

The lubricating oil does not return to compressor

damage (it is a good idea to the compressor provide an
oil trap every 3 meters or so on the suction line. This
helps to return the lubricant to the compressor along
with the return gas easily, leading to and

The extra refrigerant required by long tubing can lead

to un-evaporated liquid refrigerant flowing into the
compressor thereby damaging it.

5.16 Refrigerant Pipe Insulation

Refrigerant Piping carrying gas from evaporator (cooling coil) to the compressor is
known as Suction line, and the piping carrying liquid refrigerant from the condenser to the
evaporator is known as Liquid line. The insulation requirement will depend on where the
metering device, usually a capillary or a expansion valve, is located.

If the metering device is located in the ODU the Suction and liquid lines must be
separately insulated and gap maintained between the two lines.

If however the device is located in the IDU, the Suction and discharge lines must be
insulated together.

BS/SCM/ 70
CENTRAL PLANTS

BS/SCM/ 71
5.17 Direct Expansion and Chilled Water Systems
Central Plants are usually large airconditioning plants assembled at the site. These
plants are used for big buildings such as hotels, theatres, hospitals, large office complexes
and factories. They are designed for accurate control of all the parameters of comfort. As the
name implies the Central Plant is housed in a central location usually in a plant room. This
plant room could be in a basement or adjacent to the building to be airconditioned

Though the Central Plant can look quite complex with large compressors pumps,
gauges, miles of piping, ducts and cables, the basic components are the same as smaller
plants. Central plants comprise of Compressors, condensers, Air-Handling Units, Water
Chillers and cooling Towers.

As we see in the tree diagram for Central Plants, the main divisions are those that use
Direct Expansion (DX) and those that use Chilled Water.

Direct Expansion (DX) System: In this system air is cooled and conditioned in the
plant room. This treated air is then pumped to various parts of the building. The air returning
from the airconditioned area is sucked through a coil-fin arrangement by a fan. Refrigerant
inside the coil picks up heat from this air and evaporates. The cold air is then pumped back to
the airconditioned space. In DX plants the place where this heat exchange takes place is
called an Air Handling Unit (AHU). This type of system typically uses ducting passing
through the structure to various parts of the building to be conditioned.

BS/SCM/ 72
 Chilled Water System: Where Refrigerant and water interaction takes place the
system is called a -Chilled Water System. The refrigerant in the shell (or tube, depending on
the design) of a shell & tube heat exchanger evaporates by picking up the heat from the water
which is in the other portion of the heat exchanger. This chilled water, is then circulated to
various water-air heat exchangers called Fan Coil Units/ Air Handling Units. The system is
also preferred where multiple zones are to be cooled like a hotel or hospital.

5.18 Compressors Used In Vapour Compression Central Plants:

As we saw in the tree diagram for Central Plants, the main division were those that use the
Direct Expansion (DX) system and those that use Chilled Water. Referring again to the
diagram you will see that the next level is divided into system using vapour compression
units and those vapour absorption system.

While the Vapour Absorption system uses a chemical reaction to produce low
temperature/ the Vapour Compression System uses a Compressor to compress the refrigerant
gas. These compressors are driven by an external motor. While smaller central plants use one
or two compressors, large plants depend on a bank of such machines. Generally two
compressors are provided in tandem so that even when one is being serviced the other one
keeps working. Compressors are truly remarkable machine built for extreme reliability and
efficiency.

The type of compressors most widely used in Central Plants are the Reciprocating
type the Screw Type and the Centrifugal type.

The Reciprocating Compressor: The reciprocating compressor is similar to the two-

stroke motorbike engine. It employs a crankshaft to drive reciprocating pistons which
compress the refrigerant. These compressors are the most common type of compressors used
in India today are as well suited for application ranging from less than a ton to 120 tons of
airconditioning.

BS/SCM/ 73
 The Screw Type Compressor: The objective of any compressor is to reduce the
volume of the gaseous refrigerant. The screw type compressors does it by using a pair of
helical l shaped screws which mesh while rotating and compress the volume of refrigerant
gas as it travels from the inlet to the discharge port. Screw compressors are popular in
capacities over 100 TR.

The Centrifugal Compressors: Centrifugal force is that force which pushes you to

the right of your car when you are taking a sharp left turn. Or vice versa. The centrifugal
compressor employs one or more rapidly spinning disks to force the refrigerant gas from it's
centre to its extremity thereby increasing pressure. These compressors are typically used for
application requiring tonnage ranging from 150 TR to several thousand tons.

5.19 Packaged Chillers

Many large airconditioning applications
require Chilled Water and depend on "Packaged
Chillers" to provide the chilled water. These chillers
are typically mounted on a frame and comprises a
compressor with it's drive motor, a condenser (air or
water cooled) and a shell & tube heat exchanger.
Depending on the type of compressor used these
chillers can be classified as a Reciprocating Chiller,
a Screw Chiller or a Centrifugal Chiller. Where the
absorption system is used the chillers are called
Absorption Chillers.

BS/SCM/ 74
5.20 Packaged Chillers Installation Tips
A few precautions are to be taken when installing Chillers

5.21 Air Cooled Chillers

Do not have obstruction on top of chillers (for top discharge units)

Have at least 1-meter clearance on all sides adjacent to the chillers.

Support chiller weights on reinforced building structure and not on slabs

Ensure all electrical switch gear are in weather proof enclosures.

BS/SCM/ 75
 Provide adequate vibration isolation between chiller and building by using vibration
absorbing pads or springs.

5.22 Water Cooled Chillers

Have at least 1 to 1.5 meters clearance between units

Leave space equal to condenser length for tube cleaning

Air & Water Cooled Systems

5.23 Introducing the Condenser

Now that we have been introduced to the compressor let us discuss the Condenser. If
we pause to think about it, we will notice that the airconditioning process is a series of heat
transfers. The heat from the conditioned space is transferred via the refrigerant, the condenser
and the cooling tower to the outside air.

In the air cooled system the heat from the conditioned area is transferred to the cold
refrigerant warming it up. This warm refrigerant then sheds the heat to the air outside in the
Air Cooled Condenser.

In the water-cooled system the heat from the conditioned area is transferred to the
cold refrigerant warming it up. This warm refrigerant transfers the heat to water in the Water
Cooled Condenser thereby warming the water. This warm water in turn transfers the heat to
the atmosphere through the cooling tower cooling tower.

5.23.1 How the Condenser Is Cooled

There are two ways in which the condenser is cooled:

By blowing or sucking Air through it in an Air cooled condenser and

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 By pumping water through in a Water Cooled Condenser

5.23.2 How The Air Cooled Condenser Is Cooled:

An air cooled condenser consists of a set of finned copper tubes and a fan to blow or
blow the air through this finned coil arrangement. The hot gas flows through the condenser
inside the tubes while air is blown or sucked through the condenser inside the tubes
arrangement by a fan. The air which is normally at a temperature 10°C to 12°C lower than
the gas, picks up the heat from the gas making it condense inside the tube. Air cooled
condensers are very common for windows, split and packaged airconditioners and are now
becoming popular for central plants also.

However, because of their superior efficiency, water-cooled plants are preferred,

where adequate water is available

5.23.3 How The Water Cooled Condenser Is Cooled:

In a water cooled condenser

water is pumped through the tubes of a
shell & tube condenser using a water
pump and the refrigerant is passed
through the shell. This condenser is also
called 'Heat Exchanger' because this is
where the refrigerant and water
exchange heat with each other. On
giving away some of it's heat to the
water, the refrigerant condenses in the
shell. The water, which gains some heat
in the heat exchanger travels to the
„cooling tower‟ where part of the water
evaporates on contact with air, cooling
the remaining water, which is once
again circulated through the heat
exchanger.

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5.24 Cooling Towers
We learnt that in the water cooled
airconditioning system the heat from the room
is transferred to the condenser, and from the
condenser to the cooling water, which finally
transfers the heat into the atmosphere

In the Cooling Tower the water is

sprayed through nozzles into the air. The water
becomes small droplets and evaporates thereby
losing heat and becoming cool. This cool water
falls into a sump tank at the bottom of the
cooling tower from where it is pumped into the
shell & tube condenser and the cycle repeats
again. The typical types of Cooling Towers are:

Atmospheric or Natural Draft Towers.

In these towers the water is sprayed into the tower
and the droplets of water cools in the natural air currents passing through the cooling tower.

Forced Draft Towers. These towers use a motor and fan to pull or push a constant
volume of air through the tower, water is sprayed through nozzles evaporating rapidly and
cooling the rest of the water.

The quality of water is very important for the performance of the airconditioning
system, hard water causes scaling, thereby decreasing the efficiency of heat transfer in the
condenser. Some water is required to make up for the water which evaporates and also the
portion of the water that is blown away by the wind. This is referred to as 'Make-up water‟.
Water cooled condensers and cooling towers are normally used where water is available in
plenty.

BS/SCM/ 78
5.25 Air Handling Units
The Air Handling Unit (AHU) is a centrifugal type fan that pumps air. The fan is
usually located in the Air Handler/Water Coil Cabinet. Its purpose is to create a pressure
differential so that the air from the conditioned space is drawn to the unit. The air is passed
through a filter first to remove dust particles and then over the cooling coils or chilled water
tubes where the heat is rejected. This cooled and dehumidified air is then drawn into the
suction side of the fan and discharged back into the conditioned space. A damper
arrangement in the suction side of the AHU is kept a little open to draw in fresh air.

The typical AHU is a steel sheet cabinet which houses the Cooling Coil and the
blower fan. The motor is mounted on the outside of the cabinet and drives the blower by
pulley-belt arrangements. Depending on their application, AHUs vary in size from
small/medium sized packaged units to large walk-in models.

There are two types of AHUs, the 'single skinned' and the 'double skinned' type.

The 'single skinned' AHUs are widely used. They have a single layer cabinet and are
usually placed inside an AHU room. It is advisable to insulate the room so that the air in the
AHU does not pick up heat from the outside warm air. Keeping the AHU in an insulated
room also reduces the sound levels in the conditioned space.

BS/SCM/ 79
 The 'double skinned' type has an inner cabinet and the outer cabinet. A layer of
thermal insulation is sandwiched between the two cabinets. Though these AHUs are more
expensive than the single skinned type, they have the following advantages:

Because of the Insulation, the cool air inside does not gain heat from the
surrounding air thereby improving the efficiency of the plant.

They are more silent because the thermal Insulation also acts like an acoustic
insulation.

They do no „sweat' on the outside and can be kept in the non- airconditioned space
thereby saving on the cost of a separate plant / AHU room.

5.26 Fan Coil Units

The Fan Coil Unit (FCU) is
a sheet metal cabinet that houses a
Chilled Water Coil constructed out
of copper tubes and aluminium
fins, a Blower with motor and an
Air Filter, Fan Coil Units are
generally used where multiple
areas (example, hotel rooms) are to
be cooled independently using a
central airconditioning plant.

The water is chilled centrally and pumped to various parts of the building through
insulated pipes. The chilled water enters the FCU where exchange takes place between the
room air and the chilled water in the coil. Air is passed over the coils using a three-speed
blower motor, mounted in the FCU. The air speed can be controlled by choosing the blower
motor speed, from a selector switch, in the conditioned space.

BS/SCM/ 80
 A thermostat is also mounted in the airconditioned space. The thermostat controls a
solenoid valve that closes when the desired temperature is reached, thereby shutting off the
flow of chilled water into the FCU water coil. Once the temperature in the room rises the
thermostat activates the solenoid valve which opens allowing the chilled water to flow into
the coil again

5.27 Ducts, Grilles & Diffusers

Ducts are usually Galvanised Sheet Steel or aluminium sheets shaped into rectangular
boxes or round tubes. They are used to distribute the cool air from the Air Handling Unit
(AHU), uniformly thorough out the building to be airconditioned. They start at the AHU, or
the packaged airconditioner, and travel to the spaces to be conditioned carrying the cool air.

Diffusers And Grilles: The conditioned supply air arrives through the ducts at the
supply air diffusers and enters the conditioned space. Most diffusers are attached to the false
ceiling and a variety of diffusers are available for different air spreading needs. For well
distributed cooling, an airflow pattern needs to be created in the conditioned space. The
design engineer takes care to separate the supply air diffusers and the return air grilles to
prevent short circuiting of the air. Return air usually flows into the plenum or return air box
through grilles placed in the false ceiling.

Return Air: Since a substantial amount of energy goes into cooling the air in the first
place, it is a practice to recycle the air. The air is therefore brought back to the AHU, or the
packaged airconditioned, using return air ducts. It is common to route the return air through
the gap between the false ceiling and the main ceiling, a space referred to as a 'plenum'. It is
desirable wherever possible to pass the supply air duct through the return air plenum, because
this works like a heat exchanger, thereby improving the efficiency of the plant. Sometimes a

separate system of return air ducts/boxing is employed to carry the return air instead of using

BS/SCM/ 81
the plenum. Where the supply air ducts do not pass through the plenum they are usually
insulated so that cool air does not pick up heat from the warmer surroundings.

Fresh Air Intake: A certain volume of fresh, outside air is sucked into the building
near the AHU This air is usually drawn in through a, damper' which is adjusted to allow the
specified volume of air into the building, This keeps the air pressure within the building a
little higher than the outside air pressure. This prevents dusty, moist or any undesirable
external air from infiltrating into the building.

5.28 Co-Ordination between Designer and Airconditioning Engineer

The vertical and horizontal distribution of air supply system is a major design issue
requiring co-ordination between the architect and the engineer. It would be advisable to select
the basic system during the early phase of building design. This is because ducting requires
taking the optimum route in the space between the false ceiling and the main ceiling avoiding
obstructions such as beams, columns and partition walls

5.29 Modern Trends in Design and Fabrication of Ducts

Most contractors fabricate the ducting on site according to drawings provided by
design engineers. In recent times however I computer aided design of ducting is being used to
determine the optimum duct dimensions.

Modern facilities are being set up to manufacture machine made ducts These ducts are
pre-fabricated and shipped to the site for quick and convenient assembly, Though these pre-
fabricated ducts cost more than the hand made ones, they have the following advantages:

BS/SCM/ 82
 Least disturbance at site because ducts come ready made

Less space required for storage of pre-fabricated sections

Minimum leakage and vibration noise

Better designed reinforcement

Consistent quality because of standardised material at factory

5.30 Fresh Air

Freshening The Air: One of the most important factors in delivering comfort is the
freshness of the conditioned air. If the same air was circulated over and over again it would
become 'stale' and make the occupants very uncomfortable. Ideally an airconditioning system
would induce plenty of fresh air into the air system. However this outside air brings with it
moisture and heat from outside. This causes the heat load on the airconditioning system to go
up thereby requiring a larger and consequently more expensive plant.

Substantial research has been done to determine the optimum requirement of fresh air
for different application and the airconditioning engineer designs the plant accordingly.
Usually the fresh air requirements are stipulated as cubic feet per minute (cfm) per person or
minimum air changes per hour. A guide on recommended Fresh Air requirements is given
below:

5.31 Sick Building Syndrome

Airconditioning systems must do more than provide immediate comfort conditions.
They must also be designed to prevent hidden negative affects on the occupants over a period
of time. Indoor Air Quality (AIQ) is becoming an important concern and one hears the term
'Sick Building Syndrome' (SBS) frequently these days. The effects of IAQ are usually non-
specific symptoms rather than clearly defined illness. Symptoms attributed to IAQ problems
include headache, nausea, shortness of breath, sinus congestion, cough and eye-nose & throat
irritation. The solution often lies in improvement of the air quality by introducing plenty of
fresh clean air into the building and reducing the noise of air-flow and machinery.

5.32 Changes in Fresh Air Requirement Over The Years

It is interesting to see how the specified fresh air requirements changed over the years.
In 1824 the recommendation was 4 cubic feet per minute (cfm) per person. In 1893 The
American Society of Heating Refrigeration and Airconditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)
changed the specification to 30 cfm. In 1936 it went down to 10 cfm which was considered
the threshold level for detecting human body odours. In the early seventies with the energy
crisis forcing the world into fuel economy the figure went way down to 5 cfm. Then in the
Eighties the growing concern about indoor air quality prompted the society to raise the
quantity of fresh air to 15 cfm

5.33 Filtration and Filters

BS/SCM/ 83
 In order to clean the air it is passed through filters that remove the airborne dust
particles and ensure delivery of clean air to the conditioned spaces. We have seen how
important the quality of air is in the airconditioning system and filters play an important part
in delivering good air quality. The filters keep the cooling coils from clogging thereby
maintaining the efficiency of heat transfer. Without a good air filtration system the diffusers
in the rooms 'streak' and fluorescent lamps gather a film of dust that cuts illumination. Dust
choked filters interfere with the performance of the air system. It is therefore very important
to clean or replace the filters periodically.

BS/SCM/ 84
5.34 Pleated Panel Type Filter
The typical filter in use is the Pleated Panel type
also known as the Synthetic Media Etended Surface type
filter. The pleated panel type filter consists of a porous
fabric like material folded like an accordion (to Increase
the surface area) and fitted into a frame

5.35 Noise & Noise Control in

Airconditioning
Sound is a result of vibration of air. When sound
is unpleasant it is referred to as' Noise In an
airconditioning system sound emanates from the machinery such as fans, fan motors,
compressors, pumps, air flow through ducts and diffusers, pipes & tubes and cooling tower
fans The solutions are a) to reduce the original source of the sound by using well designed
equipment; b) enclose the source in acoustically insulated space; and c) to absorb the sound
using sound tower fans.

It is a practice to mount vibration-producing machinery on anti- vibration mounts

such as cork, rubber, springs and 'cushioned feet‟. Plant rooms are acoustically
insulated to prevent machinery sound from permeating into the airconditioned
space.

Ducts are fitted with sound attenuators which work somewhat like the mufflers in
the exhaust pipe of a car. In addition, acoustic insulation is used on some portions
of the duct, near the AHU discharge, where it is most prone to making noise.

BS/SCM/ 85
 Pipes are insulated from the wall it passes through so that the vibrations are not
passed into the structure.

Cooling towers using Axial Fans are a little more noisy than those using
Centrifugal fans. In the induced draft cooling tower the sound is higher at the fan
discharge side of the tower desirable to arrange the fan discharge side in such a
way that windows do not overlook it.

Inside the conditioned space, some noise can make an entry through the diffusers.
Carpets and curtains inside the space help to dampen sound.

Locating the plant room properly will help reduce noise levels within the
conditioned space.

5.36 Saving Energy On Airconditioning

In any commercial airconditioned building the airconditioning system generally
consumes the maximum power. Taking a little care to minimise energy consumption will
result in substantial savings in the long run Energy savings can be made by

Adopting an energy-efficient building design

Using energy-efficient airconditioning systems and
Regular maintenance and effective utility management.

5.37 Building Design:

Orientation of the building plays a key role In the structure's airconditioning
requirement. Excessive use of glass especially on the western side adds high airconditioning
heat loads. Using materials such as foam concrete, double wall glazing, hollow concrete
blocks, or foam insulated roofing will help improve the insulation of the building and save
energy.

5.38 Energy Efficient Airconditioning Equipment:

It is advisable to go In for equipment with the best Energy Efficieny Ratio (EER).
Though initial capital may be higher, the user will save energy continuously thereby saving
expenses in the long run. Packaged airconditioners/Ducted Splits are available with
Reciprocating Compressors as well as Scroll Compressors. Scroll Compressors are capable of
higher EER and hence save on energy. For higher tonnages Screw and Centrifugal equipment
are most preferred because of low operating costs. Where heat source such as steam or hot
water is available as a by product or economically, Absorption type units are a good energy
saving choice.

5.39 Effective Maintenance and Utility Management:

Regular maintenance will ensure efficient performance. Cleaning of filters, de-scaling
of the heat exchanger, lubricating friction points, such as fans, motors and shafts, should be
done regularly. Prudent utility management will save substantial energy on the
airconditioning. Simple measures like isolating areas of the building not in use, setting indoor

BS/SCM/ 86
temperatures in the highest point acceptable to the largest segment of occupants, and shutting
off the system when not in use will save energy.

Assignment:
Discussion and case studies with respect to types of air conditioning – split , central.

Students to prepare schematic plans for various air-conditioning systems used in different
working environments such as a small office, drawing room of a residence etc.

BS/SCM/ 87
Summary:
Air-conditioning deals with various types of heats and the process is a series of heat transfers.
The heat from the conditioned space is transferred via the refrigerant, the condenser and the
cooling tower to the outside air.

Over the years, different Air conditioning Systems have evolved to suit different needs. The
emergence of new technologies, environment conditions and the availability of space have all
played a part in shaping the air conditioning system of today. Many types of air conditioning
systems are available – the ductable and the non ductable systems.

Further, the air distribution systems , namely the ducts , grills , diffusers etc. are used to
distribute cool air throughout the building. Regular maintenance of the above is a must to
ensure efficient performance.

Revision points:
1. What is air-conditioning

2. Various types of heats

3. The cooling cycle of air-conditioning.

4. Various typess of air-conditioning systems

5. The air distribution systems

Key words:
1. Air-conditioning

2. Sensible heat and latent heat

3. Ton

4. A.H.U.

In text questions:
1. What is air conditioning? Explain in detail the various types of heats.

2. What is heat load estimation?

3. What are air-handling units?

4. Define the following:

5. Cooling tower

6. A.H.U.

BS/SCM/ 88
 7. Grills and diffusers.

8. Split A.C.

Terminal exercises:
1. Explain with the help of a sketch the cooling cycle of an air conditioner.

2. Explain in detail the various types of split air conditioners.

3. What are ductable airconditioning systems? Explain in detail.

4. Explain in detail the various types of compressors in a window AC.

5. What points would you keep in mind while installing a split air conditioner?

6. What are central plants? Explain in detail the various types of central types.

7. How is the condenser cooled in an airconditioning system?

8. Write a detailed note on the types of grills and diffusers available in the market today.

9. What kind of airconditioning systems would you recommend for the following areas.
Give reasons for your choice.

10. Drawing room of a residence

11. A hotel suite

12. Restaurant

13. A small office

14. How do you control noise in an air-conditioned environment?

Suggested reading:
1. Time Savers Standards For Buildings Types

2. Time Savers Standards For Interior design and Space Planning.

3. Building Construction by S.K Sharma

BS/SCM/ 89
 Unit - IV

Lesson-6: Fire Protection

BS/SCM/ 90
 Lesson – 6: Fire Protection

Objective:
 To study major causes of fire in a building.
 To understand the aspects of fire safety and important characteristics of fire resistant
materials.
 To be familiar with fire extinguishing equipments.

Structure:
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Causes of fire
6.3 Characteristics of Fire Resisting Materials
6.4 Fire-Resisting Properties of Common Building Materials
6.5 General Fire Safety Requirements for Buildings
6.6 Fire Resistant Construction
6.6.1 Walls and columns
6.6.2 Floors and roofs
6.6.3 Wall Openings
6.6.4 Escape Elements
6.6.5 Strong room construction
6.7 Fire Alarms
6.8 Fire Extinguishing Equipments

6.1 Introduction
No building material is perfectly fire proof. Every building contains some materials
(such as furniture, clothing, eatables etc.) which can either easily catch fire or which are
vulnerable to fire. However, the endeavour of the architects and engineers should be to plan,
design and construct the building in such a way that safety of occupants may be ensured to
the maximum possible extent in the event of outbreak of fire in the building due to any reason
whatsoever. The technical interpretation of fire safety of building is to convey the fire
resistance of buildings in tern IS of hours when subjected to fire of known intensity. It should
have structural time interval so that adequate protection to the occupants is afforded. A wider
interpretation of fire safety may be deemed to cover the following aspects:

a. Fire prevention and reduction of number of outbreaks of fire,

b. Spread of fire, both internally and externally,

c. Safe exit of any and all occupants in the event of an out-break of fire, and

d. Fire extinguishing apparatus.

BS/SCM/ 91
6.2 Causes of fire
Most fires are caused by carelessness. Common instances of carelessness are:

a. Careless discarding of lighted ends of cigarettes, cigars, matches and tobacco,

b. Smoking in unauthorised places.

c. Indifferent maintenance of machinery including overloading and under or over

lubricating of bearings,

d. General indifference to cleanliness,

e. Incorrect storage of materials,

f. Faulty workmanship and inattention to electrical installations (this is

particularly evident by the fires which occur during the monsoon),

g. Un-approved equipment and layout,

h. Inattention of persons concerned with inspection and patrol of the premises

under their jurisdiction, and

i. Inattention of fire safety regulations, etc.

In case of an outbreak of fire, the danger is from fire, smoke and panic. The provision
of suitable means of escape should be in relation to these dangers and the number of persons
affected. The chances of damage due to panic can be reduced; the escapes should be located
in such a way that they remain unobstructed by smoke or fumes. The means of escapes from
fire should be easily accessible, unobstructed and clearly defined.

BS/SCM/ 92
BS/SCM/ 93
6.3 Characteristics of Fire Resisting Materials
An ideal fire resisting material should possess the following characteristics:

1. The material should not disintegrate under the effect of great heat.

2. The expansion of the material due to heat should not be such that it leads to
instability of the structure of which it forms a part.

3. The contraction of the material due to sudden cooling with water (during fire
extinguishing process) after it has been heated to a high temperature should not be rapid.

In relation to fire, building materials can be divided into two types:

a. Non-combustible materials: Non-combustible materials are those which if

decomposed by heat will do so with absorption of heat (i.e. endothermically) or if
they do oxidise, do so with negligible evolution of heat. These materials do not
contribute to the growth or spread of fire, but are damaged and decomposed when
high temperatures are reached. Examples of non-combustible materials are: stones
and bricks, concrete, clay products, metal, glass etc.

b. Combustible materials: Combustible materials are those which, during fire,

combine exothermically with oxygen, resulting in evolution of lot of heat and
giving rise to flame or glow. Such materials burn and also contribute to the growth
of fire. Examples of these materials are: wood and wood products, fibreboard,
straw board etc.

6.4 Fire-Resisting Properties of Common Building Materials

1. Stone: Stone is a non-combustible building material and also a bad conductor of heat and
does not contribute to the spread of fire. However, it is a bad fire-resisting material since
it is liable to disintegrate into small pieces when heated and suddenly cooled, giving rise
to failure of structure. Granite, on exposure to severe heat, explodes and disintegrates.
Limestone is the worst, since it is easily crumbled even under ordinary fire. Sand stone of
compact composition (fine grained) can, however, stand the exposure to moderate fire
without serious cracks. In general, the use of stone in a fire-resisting construction should
be restricted to a minimum.

BS/SCM/ 94
2. Bricks: Brick is a poor conductor of heat. First class bricks moulded from good clay can
stand exposure to fire for a considerable length of time, upto temperatures of about
1200°C. Brick masonry construction, with good mortar and better workmanship, is the
most suitable for safeguarding the structure against fire hazards.

3. Concrete: The behaviour of concrete during exposure to heat varies with the nature of
coarse aggregate and its density, and the quality of cement. It also depends upon the
position of steel in concrete. Aggregates expand on heating while ordinary cement shrinks
on heating. These two opposite actions may lead to spalling of the concrete surface.
Aggregates obtained from igneous rocks containing higher calcareous content, tend to
crack more while the aggregates like foamed slag, cinder and bricks are better. The cracks
formed in concrete generally extend to a depth of about 25 mm. Hence reinforced
concrete fire-resistant construction should have greater cover. In general, concrete offers
a much higher resistance to fire than any other building material. Reinforced concrete
structures can withstand fire lasting for several hours with a temperature of 1000°C
without serious damage.

4. Steel: Though steel is non-combustible, it has very low fire resistance, since it is a good
conductor of heat. During fire, it gets heated very soon, its modulus of elasticity reduces
and it looses its tensile strength rapidly. Unprotected steel beam sags and unprotected
columns or struts buckle, resulting in the collapse of structures. If the surface paint on
these steel components is not fire resistant structure, it is essential to protect structural
steel members with some coverings of insulating materials like brick, terra-cotta, concrete
etc. Fixing of steel in plate or sheet form to the structural steel framework is also effective
in resisting the passage of flame. Such construction is widely used in making fire-
resisting doors and windows.

5. Glass: Glass is poor conductor of heat, and its thermal expansion is also less. When it is
heated and then suddenly cooled, cracks are formed. These cracks can be minimised if
glass is reinforced with steel wire netting. Thus, reinforced glass is more fire resistant,
and can resist variations in temperature without serious cracks. Rein- forced glass has
higher melting point. Even if cracks are formed, the embedded wires hold the cracked
portion in position. Reinforced glass is therefore commonly used for fire-resisting doors,
windows, done skylights, etc.

6. Timber: Timber is a combustible material. It ignites and gets rapidly destroyed during
fire, if the section is small. However, if timber is used in thick sections, it possesses the
properties of self-insulation and slow burning. During exposure to fire, timber surface
gets charred; this charred portion acts as protective coating to the inner portion. However,
if the temperatures are higher than 500°C, timber gets dehydrated under continued
exposure, giving rise to combustible volatile gases which readily catch fire. In order to
make timber fire-resistant, the following measures are adopted:

i. Use of thicker sections at wider spacing than thinner sections at closer spacing,
especially in case of floor joints.

ii. Reducing number of comers and area of exposed surfaces to a minimum.

iii. Coating timber surface with chemicals like ammonium phosphate and sulphate,
borax and boric acid, zinc chloride,

BS/SCM/ 95
 iv. Painting timber surfaces with asbestos or ferrous oxide paints, if painting is
necessary. Painting these with oil paints or varnish should not be done since these
paints catch fire.

7. Cast-iron and wrought iron: Cast iron behaves very badly in the event of fire. On
sudden cooling, it gets contracted and breaks down into pieces or fragments, giving rise to
sudden failure. Hence it is rarely used in fire-resistant building unless suitably covered by
bricks, concrete etc. Wrought iron behaves practically in the same way as mild steel.

8. Asbestos cement: It is formed by combining fibrous asbestos with Portland cement. It

has low coefficient of expansion and has property of incombustibility. It has, therefore,
great fire-resistance. Asbestos cement products are largely used for construction of fire-
resistant partition walls, roofs, etc. It is also used as protective covering to other structural
members.

9. Aluminium: It is very good conductor of heat. It has very poor fire-resistant properties.
Its use should be restricted to only those structures which have very fire risks.

10. Plaster or mortar: Plaster is non-combustible. Hence it should be used to protect walls
and ceilings against fire risk. Cement plaster is better than lime plaster since the latter is
likely to be calcined during fire. Using it in thick layers or reinforcing it with metal laths
can increase the fire-resistance of plaster. Gypsum plaster, when used over structural steel
members, makes them better fire-resistant.

6.5 General Fire Safety Requirements for Buildings

In order that the fire hazards (i.e. personal hazard, internal hazard and exposure
hazards) are minimised, it is recommended that the buildings shall conform to the following
general requirements:

1. All buildings and particularly buildings having more than one storey shall be provided
with liberally designed and safe fire- proof exits or escapes.

2. The exits shall be so placed that they are always immediately accessible and each is
capable of taking all the persons on that floor, as alternative escape routes may be
rendered unusable and/or unsafe due to fire.

3. Escape routes shall be well ventilated as persons using the escapes are likely to be
overcome by smoke and/or fumes which may enter from the fire.

4. Fire-proof doors shall conform rigidly to the fire safety requirements.

5. Where fire-resisting doors are employed as cut-offs or fire breaks, they shall be
maintained in good working order so that they may be readily opened to allow quick
escape of persons trapped in that section of the building, and also, when necessary,
prompt rescue work can be expeditiously carried out.

6. Electrical and/or mechanical lifts, while reliable under normal conditions may not always
be relied on for escape purposes in the event of a fire, as the electrical supply to the
building itself may be cut-off or otherwise interrupted, or those relying on mechanical
drive may not have the driving powder available.

BS/SCM/ 96
7. Lift shafts and stairways invariably serve as flues or tunnels thus increasing the fire by
increased drought and their design shall be such as to reduce or avoid this possibility and
consequent spread of fire.

8. False ceiling, either for sound effects or air-conditioning or other similar purpose shall be
so constructed as to prevent either total or early collapse in the event of fire so that
persons underneath are not fatally trapped before they have the time to reach the exits;
this shall apply to cinemas, and other public or private buildings where many people
congregate.

9. To a lesser extent, the provisions of clause (8) above shall apply to single-storey buildings
which may be used for residence or an equivalent occupancy. Whatever be the class or
purpose of the building, the design and construction shall embody the fire retardant
features for ceilings and/or roofs.

10. Floors. Floors are required to withstand .the effects of fire for the full period stated for
the particular grading. The design and construction of floors shall be of such a standard
that shall obviate any replacement, partial or otherwise, because experience shows that
certain types of construction stand up satisfactorily against collapse and suffer when may
first be considered as negligible damage, but in practice later involves complete stripping
down and either total or major replacement. This consideration shall also be applied to
other elements of structure where necessary.

11. Roofs. Roof for the various fire-grades of the buildings shall be designed and constructed
to withstand the effect of fire for the maximum period for the particular grading, and this
requires concrete or equivalent construction. It is, however, important that maximum
endurance is provided for as stated above.

12. Basements. Where basements are necessary for a building and where such basements are
used for storage, provision shall be made for the escape of any heat arising due to fire and
for liberating and smoke which may be caused. It is essential that fire resistance of the
basement shall conform to the highest order and all columns for supporting the upper
structures shall have a grading not less than laid down in types 1 to 3.

13. Smoke extraction from basements: The following requirements shall be provided for
smoke extraction:

a. Unobstructed smoke extracts having direct communication with the open air shall be
provided in or adjoining the external walls and in positions easily accessible for
firemen in an emergency.

b. The area of smoke extracts shall be distributed, as tar as possible, around the
perimeter to encourage flow of smoke and gases where it is impracticable to provide a
few large extracts, for example, not less than 3 m2 in area, a number of small extracts
having the same gross area shall be provided.

c. Covers to the smoke extracts shall, where practicable, be provided in the stall board
and/or pavement lights at pavement level, and be constructed of light cast iron frame
or other construction which may be readily broken by fire-men in emergency. The
covers shall be suitably marked.

BS/SCM/ 97
 d. Where they pass through fire resisting separations, smoke extracts shall in all cases be
completely separated from other compartments in the building by enclosures of the
appropriate grade of fire resistance. In other cases, steel metal ducts may be provided.

e. Where these are sub-basements, the position of the smoke extracts from sub-
basements and basements shall be suitably indicated and distinguished on the external
faces of the building.

6.6 Fire Resistant Construction

In a fire resistant construction, the design should be such that the components can
withstand fire as an integral member of structure, for the desired period. We shall consider
the construction of the following components:

6.6.1 Walls and columns:

The following points should be observed for making walls and columns fire-resistant:

i. Masonry walls and columns should be made of thicker section so that

these can resist fire for a longer time, and can also act as barrier against
spread of fore to the adjoining areas.

ii. In the case of solid load-bearing walls, bricks should be preferred to

stones.

iii. If walls are to be made of stone, granite and limestone should be

avoided.

iv. In the case of building with framed structure, R.C.C. should be

preferred to steel.

v. If steel is used for the framed structure, the steel structural components
should be properly enclosed or embedded into concrete, terracotta,

BS/SCM/ 98
 brick, gypsum plaster board or any other suitable material, as
illustrated in the figure below:

vi. If the framework is of R.C.C., thicker cover should be used so that the
members can resist fire for a longer time. It is recommended to use 40
to 50 mm cover for columns, 35 to 40 mm cover for beams and long
span slabs and 25 mm for short span slabs.

vii. Partition walls should be of fire-resistant materials such as R.C.C.,

reinforced brick work, hollow concrete blocks, burnt clay tiles,
reinforced glass, asbestos cement boards or metal laths covered with
cement plaster.

viii. Cavity wall construction has better fire resistance.

ix. All walls, whether load bearing or non-load bearing, should be

plastered with fire-resistive mortar.

6.6.2 Floors and roofs:

The following points are note-worthy for fire-resistant floors and roots:

i. For better fire resistance, slab roof is preferred to sloping or pitched

roofs.

ii. If it is essential to provide sloping roof, trusses should either be of

R.C.C. or of protected rigid steel with fireproof covering.

iii. For better fire resistance, the floor should be either of R.C.C. or of
hollow tiled ribbed floor of concrete jack arch floor with steel joists
embedded in concrete.

iv. If floor is made of timber, thicker joists at a greater spacing should

be used, and fire stops or barriers should be provided at suitable
interval.

v. The flooring materials like concrete tiles, ceramic tiles, bricks etc.
are more suitable for fire resistance.

vi. If cast iron, wrought iron, cork carpet, rubber tiles etc. are to be used,
these should be protected by a covering of insulating materials like
ceramic tiles, plaster, terracotta, bricks etc.

vii. Ceiling, directly suspended from floor joists should be of fire

resistant materials like asbestos cement boards, fibre boards, metal
lath with plaster etc.

6.6.3 Wall Openings

i. From the point of view of fire spread, openings in the walls should be a bare
minimum.

BS/SCM/ 99
 ii. Openings serve means of escape. Hence these should be properly protected
by suitable arrangements, in case of fire.

iii. Doors and windows should be made of steel. Fire- resistant doors can be
obtained by fixing steel plates to both the sides of the door.

iv. Wire-glass panels are preferred for windows.

v. Rolling shutter doors should be used for garages, godowns, shops etc.

vi. In case of timber doors, minimum thickness of door leaf should be 4 cm. and
that of door frame as 8 to 10 cm.

vii. All escape doors should be such as to provide free circulation to the persons
in passages, lobbies, corridors, stairs etc., and should be made of fire
proofing material.

6.6.4 Escape Elements

i. All escape elements, such as staircases, corridors, lobbies, entrance etc.
should be constructed of fire-resistant materials.

ii. These escape elements should be well separated from the rest of the
building.

iii. Doors to these escapes should be fire proof.

iv. Staircases should be located next to the outer wall and should be accessible
from any floor in the direction of flow towards the exits from the building.

v. Fireproof doors to the emergency staircases should be fixed in such a way as

to make them close from inside only.

vi. The lift shafts connecting various floors should be surrounded with the
enclosure walls of fire-resisting materials.

vii. Lift shafts should be vented from top to permit escape of smoke and hot
gases.

viii. An emergency ladder should be provided in the fire- resisting building. This
ladder should be at least 90 cm wide, constructed of fire-resistant materials.

ix. All escape routes over roofs should be protected with railings, balustrades or
parapets not 1ess than one metre in height.

6.6.5 Strong room construction:

A strong mom construction is found to be useful in case of safe deposit vaults in
banks, Following are the important features of construction:

i. The walls, doors and ceilings of a strong room are made of atleast 30 cm
thick cement concrete. If thin R.C.C. walls are used, they should have a

BS/SCM/100
 covering of bricks or terra cotta and then suitably plastered with fire-
resistant plaster.

ii. Doors and windows are well anchored to concrete walls by large number
of steel holdfasts longer in length.

iii. Doors and windows should be fireproof. It is preferable to have double

fireproof door.

iv. Windows and ventilators should be covered by special grills made of 20

mm steel square bars. These grills should be well fixed to concrete walls
by means of long steel holdfasts.

6.7 Fire Alarms

Fire alarms are installed to give an alarm and to call for assistance in event of fire.
The fire alarms give enou2h time to the occupants to reach to a safe place. Fire alarms call be
either manual or automatic.

1. Manual alarms: These are of a hand-bell type or similar other sounding

device, which can emit distinctive sound when struck. These are sounded by
watchmen and the occupants are thereby warned to have safe exit in shortest
possible time. Manually operated alarms shall be provided near all main exits
and in the natural path of escape from fire, at readily accessible points which
are not likely to be obstructed.

2. Automatic alarms: These alarms start sounding automatically in the event of

fire. It is used in large industrial buildings which may remain unoccupied
during nigh1. The automatic fire alarm sends alarm to the nearest control point.

MANUAL ALARMS AND AUTOMATIC ALARMS

The system can also perform the function of sending message to the nearest fire
brigade station.

BS/SCM/101
6.8 Fire Extinguishing Equipments
Each building should have suitable fire extinguishing arrangements, depending upon
the importance of the building and the associated fire hazards. Following are usual
equipments required for fire extinction.

1. Manual fire extinguishing equipment: These devices are useful for extinguishing
fire as soon as it starts. They are not so useful when once the fire ha~ spread. Under
this category comes the portable extinguishers of carbon-dioxide type or foam
generation type etc. The discharge from a portable fire extinguisher lasts only for a
short duration of 20 to 120 seconds. In some cases, especially in small buildings
buckets of water, sand and asbestos blanket may be kept ready at all times to
extinguish fire. These buckets are installed at convenient locations for taking care of
fire of minor size.

2. Fire hydrants: These fire hydrants are provided on a ring main of 150 mm dia. in the
ground around the building periphery. The ring main gets water from underground
tank with pressure, so that available pressure at each hydrants is of the order of about
3.5 to 4 kg/cm.

3. Wet riser system: The system consists of providing 100 to 150 mm dia. vertical G.I.
pipes (risers) at suitable locations in the building. A fire pump is used to feed water
from underground tank to these pipes, to ensure a pressure of 3 kg/cm2 at uppermost
outlet.

BS/SCM/102
4. Automatic sprinkler system: This arrangement is adopted for important structures
like textile mills, paper mills etc. The system consists of a network of pipes 20 mm
dia. fixed to the ceiling of the room. These pipes are spaced at 3 m centre to centre.
Heat actuated sprinkler heads are fixed to these pipes at regular interval. The pipes get
supply from a header. Each sprinkler head is provided with fusible plug. In the event
of fire, the fusible plug in the sprinkler nearest to the wire melts due to rise of
temperature, and water gushes out of the sprinkler head. The fire is thus brought under
control in a short period.

Assignment:
 Students to do a case study / survey related to various fire extinguishing and
fire fighting equipment.

BS/SCM/103
Summary:
Safety of the occupants in the event of outbreak of fire is a major concern for
designers. Thus maximum use of non combustible materials should be encouraged
and the construction should be fire resistant. In addition to this, particularly in multi-
storeys, it is obligatory to make provision of fire detection and fire extinguishing
systems.

Revision Points:
 Major causes of fire
 Fire-Resisting Properties of Common Building Materials
 Fire resistant construction
 Fire extinguishing equipment.

Key Words:
 Fire alarms
 Fire hydrants
 Combustible materials

In Text Questions:
1. What are the aspects of fire safety?
2. Write down the fire resisting properties of the following materials:
i. Bricks
ii. Glass
iii. Stone
iv. Timber
v. Concrete

Terminal Exercises:
1. Explain in detail the major causes of fire in a building.
2. What are the characteristics of a fire resistant material? Explain in detail.
3. What are the general fire safety requirements of a building? Explain in detail.
4. What is fire resistant construction? Explain in detail the various ways in which you
can make a building fire resistant.
5. Explain in detail the various types of fire alarms and fire extinguishing equipment.

Suggested Reading:
1. Building Construction by Sushil Kumar
2. Building Construction by Dr. B.C. Punmia

BS/SCM/104
 Unit - V

Lesson-7: Lifts
Lesson-8: Escalators

BS/SCM/105
 Lesson – 7: Lifts and Elevators
Objective:
 To understand the brief history of vertical transportation.
 To study various types of lift and the design considerations for a lift

Structure:
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Types of lifts
7.2.1 Observation lift
7.2.2 Double-deck lift
7.2.3 Sky lobby
7.2.4 Freight lifts
7.2.5 Residential lifts
7.3 Design Considerations
7.3.1 Number of Lifts and Capacity
7.3.2 Positioning of Lift
7.3.3 Shape and Size of Lift Car
Positioning of Machine Room

7.1 Introduction

The need for vertical transport is as old as civilisation. Over the centuries, mankind
has employed ingenious forms of lifting. The earliest lifts used man, animal and water power
to raise the load. Lifting devices relied on these basic forms of power from the early
agricultural societies until the dawn of the Industrial Revolution.

In ancient Greece, Archimedes developed an improved lifting device operated by

ropes and pulleys, in which the hoisting ropes were coiled around a winding drum by a
capstan and levers.

By A.D. 80, gladiators and wild animals rode crude lifts up to the arena level of the
Roman Coliseum.

Medieval records contain numerous drawings of hoists lifting men and supplies to
isolated locations. Among the most famous is the hoist at the monastery of St. Barlaam in
Greece. The monastery stood on a pinnacle approximately 61 metres (200 ft) above the
ground. Its hoist, which employed a basket or cargo net, was the only means up or down.

At an abbey on the French seacoast, a hoist was installed in 1203 that used a large
tread wheel. A donkey supplied the lifting power. The load was raised by a rope wound on a
large drum.

By the 18th century, machine power was being applied to the development of the lift.
In 1743, a counterweighted personal lift was commissioned by Louis XV in France for his

BS/SCM/106
personal chambers in Versailles. By 1833, a system using reciprocating rods raised and
lowered miners in Germany‟s Harz Mountains. A belt-driven lift called the “teagle” was
installed in an English factory in 1835. The first hydraulic industrial lift powered by water
pressure appeared in 1846. As machinery and engineering improved, other powered lifting
devices quickly followed.

Lifts are a mechanism for moving people from floor to floor in a multi-storied
building. Electric lifts consist of an enclosed cab (lift car), fastened to one end of steel cables.
The cables go up and over a grooved drive wheel (sheave) and down to a counterweight of
cast iron blocks that counterbalance the weight of the car. An electric motor supplies power
to move both car and counterweight guided between steel guide rails in an enclosed shaftway.
Button controls in the lobby or floor bring the lift to the rider. Push button controls inside the
car allow the riders to select the desired floor. Hydraulic lifts use a plunger that moves up and
down to operate the lift car instead of steel cables, by a motor pumping hydraulic oil in and
out of the plunger cylinder. The car and hall push buttons on both types of lifts do the same
function.

For multi-storeyed buildings the installation of lifts is a must to avoid fatigue in

climbing up the stairs and for quick vertical circulation between different floors. The
provision of lifts in a building is a highly specialised job. However certain provisions are
required to be made in the building layout and structures for accommodating lifts and other
accessories such as operating devices. A vertical shaft with openings at the floor level is
provided. The shaft is located at a suitable place e.g. by the side of the stair or within the open
well of a stair. It may have sides built in masonry or concrete or metallic cage with suitable
doors. The shaft extends below the ground floor or the basement floor, as the case may be, to
accommodate the spring buffers for slow speed lifts and hydraulic buffers for high-speed lift.
Usually a machine room is located at the top of the lift shaft for housing equipment and
accessories. However it can also be at the bottom, by the side or at the base of the shaft. The
size or the machine room is normally 4 m X 3 m X 2.5 to.3 m. Its floor should be suitably
designed to 8upport the weight of the lift car, equipment, passengers, the balancing weight
and the weight of motor with the winch arrangement. Floors of machine room should be
designed to carry a load of not less than 500 kg/m2 plus the load imposed by the equipment or
any reaction from such equipment.

The shaft for the lift should be able to accommodate the lift car, balancing weight, and
vertical guides for them. Previously collapsible doors were provided both for the lift door or
cage and for the opening in the shaft in the floor level. Now a days flush doors of sliding type
are provided. The doors at the floor level are fitted with electro-mechanical safety looking
devices with special emergency lock release.

7.2 Types of lifts

7.2.1 Observation lift

The observation lift puts the cab on the outside of the building. Glass-walled lift cars
allow passengers to view the cityscape or the building‟s atrium as they travel. By
eliminating the hoistways, the observation lift also offers owners, architects and builders
valuable space-saving advantages.

BS/SCM/107
7.2.2 Double-deck lift
Double-deck lifts save time and space in high-occupancy buildings by mounting one car
upon another. One car stops at even floors and the other stops at the odd floors.
Depending on their destination, passengers can mount one car in the lobby or take an
escalator to a landing for the alternate car.

OBSERVATION LIFTS

DOUBLE DECK LIFTS

BS/SCM/108
7.2.3 Sky lobby
In very tall buildings, lift efficiency can be increased by a system that combines express
and local lifts. The express lifts stop at designated floors called sky lobbies. There,
passengers can transfer to local lifts that will take them to their desired floor. By dividing
the building into levels served by the express lifts, the local lifts can be stacked to occupy
the same shaft space. That way, each zone can be served simultaneously by its own bank
of local lifts.

7.2.4 Freight lifts

These lifts are specially constructed to withstand the rigors of heavy loads. Standard
capacities range from 1360 kilograms (3000 lb) up to 5440 kilograms (12,000 lb). These
lifts are rated according to load categories, with Class “A” being for hand trucks, Class
“B” for carrying automobiles and Class “C1” for lifts with the capacity to carry a
commercial truck.

BS/SCM/109
7.2.5 Residential lifts
Residential lifts use modern hydraulics to produce a smooth, quiet ride while occupying a
minimum amount of space. These hydraulic systems are quiet, producing about the same
amount of sound as a typical refrigerator, which makes them well suited for residential
use. They can be operated at any hour without causing disturbance. The compact design
allows the lift to be installed in the amount of space required for an average-sized closet.

7.3 Design Considerations

7.3.1 Number of Lifts and Capacity:

Two basic considerations, namely, the quantity of service required and the quality of
service required, determine the type of lifts to be provided in a particular building. Quantity
of service gives the passenger handling capacity of the lifts during the peak periods and the
quality of service is measured in terms of waiting time of passengers at various floors. Both
these basic factors require proper study into the character of the building, extent and duration
of peak period, frequency of service required, type and method of control, type of landing
doors, etc.

The number of lifts, their capacity and speed required for a building is governed by
such considerations as number of the floors to be served, number of passengers to be handled,
floor area and floor heights. In large buildings, the provision of a battery of lifts is advisable
wherever feasible. Consideration should also be given to leaving space for additional lift
installation to cater for future traffic development.

Quantity 0f Service: The quantity of service is a measure of the passenger handling

capacity of a vertical transportation system. It is measured in terms of the total number of
passengers handled during each five-minute peak period of the day. A five-minute base
period is used as this is the most practical time over which the traffic may be averaged. The
passenger handling capacity (H) for different occupancies expressed in percent of the
estimated population that has to be handled in the building in the five minute peak period
should be approximately as follow:

Class of Occupancy H (percent)

Diversified (mixed) office occupancy 10-15

Single purpose office occupancy 15-26

Residential 5

Quality of Service
The quality of service is generally measured by the passenger waiting time at the
various doors. The following is the guiding factor for determining this aspect:

Acceptable Interval Quality of Service or Rating

20 - 25 seconds Excellent
30 - 35 seconds Good

BS/SCM/110
 35 - 40 seconds Fair
40 - 45 seconds Poor
Over 45 seconds Unsatisfactory

The round trip time can be decreased not only by increasing the speed of the lift but
also by improving the design of the equipment related to opening and closing of the landing
and oar doors, acceleration, deceleration, levelling and passenger movement. These factors
are given below:

a) The most important factor in shortening the time consumed between the entry
and exit of the passengers to the lift car is the correct design of the doors and
the proper car width. It has been proved that the ideal door width is that of 100
cm and that of the ideal car width is approximately 200 cm. Under these
conditions, the car can comfortably hold four people, shoulder to shoulder, in
a straight line, permitting the two central located persons to make an exit
without disturbing the rest of the passengers.

b) The utilization of centre opening doors has been a definite factor in improving
passengers transfer time, since when using this type of door the passengers; as
a general rule, obtain to move before the doors have completely opened. On
the other hand with a side-opening door the passengers tend to wait until the
door has completely opened before moving. The utilization of centre opening
door also favours the doors opening and closing time periods. Given the same
door speed, the centre opening door is much faster than the side opening type.
It is beyond doubt that the centre-opening door represents an increase in
transportational capacity in the operation of a lift.

7.3.2 Positioning of Lift

A thorough investigation shou1d be made for assessing the most suitable position for
lift(s) while planning the building. It should take into account future expansions, if any.
Though each building has to be considered individually for purposes of location of lifts,
factors influencing the locations of passenger and goods lifts are given below.

The location of lifts may also conform to the travel distance requirements.

Arrangement of Lifts
The lifts should be easily accessible from all entrances to the building. For maximum
efficiency, they should be grouped near the centre of the building. It is preferable not to have
all the lifts out in straight line and, if possible, not more than three lifts should be arranged in
this manner. It bas to be kept in mind that the corridor should be wide enough to allow
sufficient space for waiting passengers as well as for through passengers.

In some cases when there are more than three lifts, the alcove arrangement, is
recommended. With this arrangement, the lift alcove leads off the main corridor so that there
is no interference by traffic to other groups or to other parts of the ground floor. This
arrangement permits the narrowest possible corridors and saves space on the upper floors.
Walking distance to the individual lift is reduced and passengers standing in the centre of the

BS/SCM/111
group can readily see all the lift doors and landing indicators. The ideal arrangement of the
lifts depends upon the particular layout of the respective building and should be determined
in every individual case.

Passenger Lifts
Low and Medium Class Flats: Where a lift is arranged to serve two, three or four
flats per floor, the lift may be placed adjoining a staircase, with the lift entrances serving
direct on to the landings. Where the lift is to serve a considerable number of flats having
access to balconies or corridors, it maybe conveniently be placed in a well ventilated tower
adjoining the building.

Office buildings, Hotels and High Class Flats: It is desirable to have at least a
battery of two lifts at two or more convenient points of a building. If this is not possible, it is
advisable to have lit least two lifts side by side at the main entrance and one lift each at
different sections of the building for intercommunication. When two- lifts are installed side
by side, the machine room shall be suitably planned with sufficient space for housing the
machine equipment. The positioning of lifts side by side gives the following advantages:

a) All machines and switch gear may be housed in one machine room

b) The lifts can be inter-connected more conveniently from an installation point of

view, and

c) Greater convenience in service owing to the landing openings on each floor being
adjacent.

Shops and Departmental Stores: Lifts in shops and store& should be situated so as
to secure convenient and easy access at each Floor.

Hospitals: It is convenient to place the passenger lifts near the staircases.

Goods Lifts: The location of lifts in factories, warehouses and similar buildings
should be planned to suit the progressive movement of goods throughout the bui1dings,
having regard to the nature of processes carried out in the building, the position of the loading
platforms, railway sidings, etc. The placing of a lift in a fume or dust laden atmosphere or
where it may be exposed to extreme temperatures, should be avoided wherever possible.
Where it is impossible to avoid installing a lift in an adverse atmosphere, the electrical
equipment should be of suitable design and construction to meet the conditions involved.

Hospital Bed Lifts

Hospital Bed Lifts should be situated conveniently near the ward and operating
theatre entrances. There shall be sufficient space near the landing door for easy movement of
stretcher.

7.3.3 Shape and Size of Lift Car

The shape and size of the passenger lift car bears a distinct relation to its efficiency as
a medium of traffic handling. The width of the lift well entrance is, in reality the basic
element in the determination of the best proportion. The width of the car is determined by the

BS/SCM/112
width of the entrance and the depth of the car is regulated by the loading. Centre opening
doors are the most practicable and the most efficient entrance units for passenger lifts.

7.3.4 Positioning of Machine Room

The machine room should as far as possible, be placed immediately above the lift well
as this has several advantages, such as reduced load on the building, lower capital cost of the
lift, a smaller lift well for a given size lift car and reduced power consumption compared with
a machine room in the basement, renewal of suspension ropes is less frequent and the cost of
such renewals is less because shorter ropes are required and time taken for fitting them is
less.

If a machine room on the lift well is impracticable for architectural or other reasons,
the machine room may be placed below the lift well or in the basement, but guidance of a lift
engineer should be followed on each instance, to minimize the disadvantage of its being so
placed.

BS/SCM/113
 Lesson – 8: Escalators
Objective:
 To know about escalators and its various parts
 To study several standard layout configurations of escalators.
Structure:
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Capacity of Escalators
8.2.1 Theoretical Capacity
8.2.2 Practical Capacity
8.3 Terminology
8.4 Essential Requirements
8.5 Layout Configuration

8.1 Introduction:
Escalators are deemed
essential where the movement
of people in large numbers at a
controlled rate in a controlled
space, is involved for example,
airports etc. In exhibitions, big
departmental stores and the
like, escalators encourage
people to circulate freely and
conveniently.
As the escalators
operate at a constant speed,
serve only two levels and have
a known maximum capacity,
the traffic study is rather easy.
Provided the population to be
bandied in a given time is
known, it is easy to predict the
rate at which the population
can be handled.

For normal peak

periods, the recommended
handling capacities for design
purposes should be taken as 3200 to 6400 persons per hour depending upon the width of the
escalator.

BS/SCM/114
8.2 Capacity of Escalators
Escalators are capable of moving a huge number of people. There are 3 widths of
Escalator, which are available. The handling capacity of an Escalator is dependant on the
number of people that you can accommodate on a step.

The person loading that is used for capacity calculations are as follows:

The persons per step assumes the passengers are standing facing the direction of
travel. The most popular escalator widths are 800mm and 1000mm, with very little cost
difference between the two.

8.2.1 Theoretical Capacity

All capacity calculations assume a step speed of 0.5 meters per second. The table
below details the theoretical capacity:

These calculations assume full loading on every step.

8.2.2 Practical Capacity

Passengers will leave small gaps between other passengers before entering the
Escalator. In addition to this some passengers may hesitate slightly at entrance and egress
from the Escalator. Hence the assumption of full capacity on every step is realistically
unachievable. Therefore a Load Factor to calculate the Practical Capacity has been
developed.

Dependent on the environment, the usage is classed as Light, Medium and Heavy and
the suitable factor applied accordingly.

With this factor applied, the Practical Capacity is as follows:

BS/SCM/115
 8.3Terminology
The below annotated picture highlights the terminology used for the main
features of an Escalator.

8.4 Essential Requirements

1. Angle of inclination shall not be in excess of 300 from the horizontal excepting that with
an escalator having a vertical rise not exceeding 6 m an angle up to 35° may be permitted.

2. The width between balustrades shall be measured on the incline up to a point 68.5 cm
vertically above the nose line of the steps and shall not be less than the width of the step.
It shall not exceed the width of the step by more than 33 cm with a maximum of 16.5 cm
on either side of the escalator.

BS/SCM/116
3. Escalators shall be provided on each side with solid balustrades. On the step side the
balustrades shall be smooth and substantially flush except for protective moulding
parallel to the run of the steps and properly bevelled vertical mouldings projecting not
more than 6.5 mm, that cover joints of panels.

a. There shall be no abrupt changes in the width between the balustrades on the two
sides of the escalator. Where a change in width is unavoidable, such change shall
not exceed 8 percent of the greatest width. In changing the direction of the
balustrades resulting from a reduction in width the maximum allowable angle of
change in balustrades shall not exceed 15 degrees from the line of the escalator
travel.

b. The clearance on either side of the steps between the steps and the adjacent skirt
guard shall be not be more than 5 mm and the sum of the clearances on both sides
shall be not more than 6 mm.

c. A solid guard shall be provided in the intersecting angle of the outside balustrade
(deck board) and the ceiling or soffit except where the intersection of the outside
balustrade (deck board) and the ceiling or soffit is more than 60 cm from the
centre line of the handrail. The vertical face of the guard shall project at least 36
cm –horizontally from the apex of the angle.

4. Handrails.

a. Each balustrade shall be provided with a handrail moving in the same direction
and at substantially the same speed as the steps.

b. Each moving handrail shall extend at normal handrail height not less than 30 cm
beyond the line of points of comb-plate teeth at the upper and lower landings.

c. Hand or finger guards shall be provided at the point where the handrail enters the
balustrade.

BS/SCM/117
 d. The horizontal distance between the centre lines of two handrails measured on the
incline shall not exceed the width between the balustrades by more than 15 cm,
with a maximum of 7.0 cm on either side of the escalator.

5. Step Treads

a. The depth of any step tread in the direction or travel shall not be less than 40 cm
and the rise between treads shall be not be more than 22 cm. The width of a step
tread shall be not less than 40 cm or more than 102 cm.

b. The maximum clearance between step treads on the horizontal run shall be 4 mm.

c. The tread surface of each step shall be slotted in a direction parallel to the travel of
the steps. Each slot shall be not more than 6.5 mm wide and less than 9.5 mm
deep; and the distance from centre to centre of adjoining slots shall be not more
than 9.5 mm.

6. Landing: Landing shall be made out of anti-slip material.

7. Comb-plates: There shall be a comb-plate at the entrance and at the exit of every
escalator. The comb-plate teeth shall be meshed with and set into the slots in the tread
surface so that the points of the teeth are always below the upper surface of the treads.
Comb-plates shall be adjustable vertically.

BS/SCM/118
 8. Trusses Or Girders: The truss or girder shall be designed to safely sustain the
step and running gear in operation. In the event of failure of the track system it
shall retain the running gear in its guides.

9. Step Wheel Tracks: This shall be designed to prevent displacement of steps

and running gear if a step chain breaks.

10. Driving Machine, Motor and Brake

a. The driving machine shall be connected to the main drive shaft by

toothed gearing, a coupling, or a chain.

b. An electric motor shall not drive more than one escalator.

c. Each escalator shall be provided with an electrically released,

mechanically applied brake capable of stopping the up or down
travelling escalator with any load up to rated load. This brake shall be
located either on the driving machine or on the main drive shaft.

d. Where a chain is used to connect the driving machine to the main drive
shaft, a brake shall be provided on this shaft. It is not required that this
brake be of the electrically released type if an electrically released
brake is provided on the driving machine.

11. Speed Governor: Speed governor shall be provided, the operation of which
shall cause the interruption of power to the driving machine should the speed
of the steps exceed a predetermined value which shall be not more than 40
percent above the rated speed.

8.5 Layout Configuration

There are several standard layout configurations. The layout is a key element in the
traffic flow through the building. The layout configurations are:

BS/SCM/119
Summary:
Both lifts and escalators are mechanical ways of vertical transportation. The location of lifts,
their installation, design, type and arrangement – are all important areas to be studied.

Escalators are more common where the movement of people in large numbers at a controlled
rate in a controlled space is involved for example, airports etc. In exhibitions, big
departmental stores and the like.

Revision points:
1. Types of lifts
2. Design considerations for a lift
3. Parts of an escalator.

Key words:
1. Sky lobby
2. Lift shaft
3. Comb plates
4. Speed governor
5. Driving machine

In text questions:
1. Give a brief history of vertical transportation.

2. What are the various types of lifts?

3. What are escalators?

Terminal exercises:
1. What are the design considerations for a lift? Explain in detail

2. Explain in detail the various parts of an escalator.

3. How do you work out the capacity of an escalator? Explain in detail.

BS/SCM/120
 Suggested Reading
1. Building Construction by S.K Sharma

2. Building Construction by Sushil Kumar

3. Time Savers Standards For Buildings Types

BS/SCM/121