DATA COMMUNICATION CHP5

1. Give two example computer applications for which connection-oriented service is appropriate.
Now give two examples for which connection-less service is best.
1. File transfer, remote login, and video on demand need connection-oriented
service. On the other hand, credit card verification and other point-of-sale
terminals, electronic funds transfer, and many forms of remote database access are inherently
connectionless, with a query going one way and the reply
coming back the other way.

3. Give three examples of protocol parameters that might be negotiated when a connection is set up.
3. The negotiation could set the window size, maximum packet size, data rate, and timer values.

4. Assuming that all routers and hosts are working properly and that all software in both
is free of all errors, is there any chance, however small, that a packet will be delivered
to the wrong destination?
Yes. A large noise burst could garble a packet badly.
The packet could be garbled to fit another destination thus being delivered to a
wrong destination

5. Give a simple heuristic for finding two paths through a network from a given source to a given
destination that can survive the loss of any communication line (assuming two such paths exist).
The routers are considered reliable enough, so it is not necessary to worry about the possibility of
router crashes.
5. Pick a route using the shortest path. Now remove all the arcs used in the
path just found, and run the shortest path algorithm again. The second path
will be able to survive the failure of any line in the first path, and vice versa. It
is conceivable, though, that this heuristic may fail even though two line-disjoint
paths exist. To solve it correctly, a max-flow algorithm should be used.

6.Consider the network of Fig. 5-12(a). Distance vector routing is used, and the following vectors
have just come in to router C: from B: (5, 0, 8, 12, 6, 2); from D: (16, 12,6, 0, 9, 10); and from E:
(7, 6, 3, 9, 0, 4). The cost of the links from C to B, D, and E,are 6, 3, and 5, respectively. What is
C’s new routing table? Give both the outgoing line to use and the cost.

6. Going via B gives (11, 6, 14, 18, 12, 8).

Going via D gives (19, 15, 9, 3, 9, 10).
Going via E gives (12, 11, 8, 14, 5, 9).
Taking the minimum for each destination except C gives (11, 6, 0, 3, 5, 8).
The outgoing lines are (B, B, –, D, E, B).
7. If costs are recorded as 8-bit numbers in a 50-router network, and distance vectors are exchanged
twice a second, how much bandwidth per (full-duplex) line is chewed up by the distributed routing
algorithm? Assume that each router has three lines to other routers.

7. The routing table is 400 bits. Twice a second this table is written onto each
line, so 800 bps are needed on each line in each direction.

9. For hierarchical routing with 4800 routers, what region and cluster sizes should be chosen to
minimize the size of the routing table for a three-layer hierarchy? A good starting place is the
hypothesis that a solution with k clusters of k regions of k routers is close to optimal, which means
that k is about the cube root of 4800 (around 16). Use trial and error to check out combinations
where all three parameters are in the general vicinity of 16.

9. The minimum occurs at 15 clusters, each with 16 regions, each region having
20 routers, or one of the equivalent forms, e.g., 20 clusters of 16 regions of 15
routers. In all cases the table size is 15 + 16 + 20 = 51.
NB: if we multiply 16*15*20 = 4800, we know c= 16^3 <4800 and b= 17^3 >4800 So now c-1 =15
b-1 =16

17. Describe two major differences between the ECN method and the RED method of congestion
avoidance.

17. First, the ECN method explicitly sends a congestion notification to the source by setting a bit,
whereas RED implicitly notifies the source by simply dropping one of its packets. Second, the ECN
method drops a packet only when there is no buffer space left, whereas RED drops packets before
all the buffer are exhausted.

18. A token bucket scheme is used for traffic shaping. A new token is put into the bucket
every 5 μsec. Each token is good for one short packet, which contains 48 bytes of
data. What is the maximum sustainable data rate?

18. With a token every 5 µsec, 200,000 cells/sec can be sent. Each packet holds
48 data bytes or 384 bits. The net data rate is then 76.8 Mbps.

16. A data-gram network allows routers to drop packets whenever they need to. The probability of a
router discarding a packet is p. Consider the case of a source host connected to the source router,
which is connected to the destination router, and then to the destination host. If either of the routers
discards a packet, the source host eventually times out and tries again. If both host-router and
router-router lines are counted
as hops, what is the mean number of
(a) hops a packet makes per transmission?
(b) transmissions a packet makes?
(c) hops required per received packet?

In this network, each packet emitted by the source host makes either 1, 2, or 3 hops.
The probability that it makes one hop is p.
The probability that it makes two hops is p(1−p).
The probability that it makes three hops is (1 − p)2
So, the mean path length a packet can expect to travel is then the weighted sum
of these three probabilities, or p2 − 3p + 3.
Note that for p = 0 the mean is 3 hops and for p = 1 the mean is 1 hop.
a. Therefore, the probability that a transmission is successful is q = (1-p)2.
b. Let N be the number of transmissions a packet makes until it successfully reaches
the destination host.
Hence, N ~ Geom(q) E[N]= 1/q = 1/(1-p)2
c. The mean number of hops required per received packet is (p2–3p+3)/(1-p)2.

18. A token bucket scheme is used for traffic shaping. A new token is put into the bucket
every 5 μsec. Each token is good for one short packet, which contains 48 bytes of
data. What is the maximum sustainable data rate?

18. With a token every 5 µsec, 200,000 cells/sec can be sent. Each packet holds
48 data bytes or 384 bits. The net data rate is then 76.8 Mbps.

22. Consider the user of differentiated services with expedited forwarding. Is there a
guarantee that expedited packets experience a shorter delay than regular packets?
Why or why not?

22. There is no guarantee. If too many packets are expedited, their channel may
have even worse performance than the regular channel.

24. A router is blasting out IP packets whose total length (data plus header) is 1024 bytes.
Assuming that packets live for 10 sec, what is the maximum line speed the router can operate at
without danger of cycling through the IP datagram ID number space?
24. If the bit rate of the line is b, the number of packets/sec that the router can
emit is b/8192, so the number of seconds it takes to emit a packet is 8192/b.
To put out 65,536 packets takes 229 /b sec. Equating this to the maximum.

26. Suppose that instead of using 16 bits for the network part of a class B address originally, 20 bits
had been used. How many class B networks would there have been?
26. With a 2-bit prefix, there would have been 18 bits left over to indicate the net-
work. Consequently, the number of networks would have been 218 or
262,14

25. An IP data gram using the Strict source routing option has to be fragmented. Do you
think the option is copied into each fragment, or is it sufficient to just put it in the first
fragment? Explain your answer.
25. Since the information is needed to route every fragment, the option must
appear in every fragment.

27. Convert the IP address whose hexadecimal representation is C22F1582 to dotted

decimal notation.
27. The address is 194.47.21.130.

28. A network on the Internet has a subnet mask of 255.255.240.0. What is the maximum
number of hosts it can handle?
28. The mask is 20 bits long, so the network part is 20 bits. The remaining 12
bits are for the host, so 4096 host addresses exist.

14. Suppose that node B in Fig. 5-20 has just rebooted and has no routing information in
its tables. It suddenly needs a route to H. It sends out broadcasts with TtL set to 1, 2,
3, and so on. How many rounds does it take to find a route?
14. Node H is three hops from B, so it takes three rounds to find the route.

42. When the IPv6 protocol is introduced, does the ARP protocol have to be changed? If
so, are the changes conceptual or technical?
42. Conceptually, there are no changes. Technically, the IP addresses requested
are now bigger, so bigger fields are needed.

31. A router has just received the following new IP addresses: 57.6.96.0/21,
57.6.104.0/21, 57.6.112.0/21, and 57.6.120.0/21. If all of them use the same outgoing
line, can they be aggregated? If so, to what? If not, why not?
31. They can be aggregated to 57.6.96.0/19.

39. A person who lives in Boston travels to Minneapolis, taking her portable computer
with her. To her surprise, the LAN at her destination in Minneapolis is a wireless IP
LAN, so she does not have to plug in. Is it still necessary to go through the entire business with
home agents and foreign agents to make email and other traffic arrive correctly?
39. Yes. The fact that the Minneapolis LAN is wireless does not cause the packets that arrive for her
in Boston to suddenly jump to Minneapolis. The home agent in Boston must tunnel them to the
foreign agent on the wireless LAN in Minneapolis. The best way to think of this situation is that the
user has plugged into the Minneapolis LAN, the same way all the other Minneapolis users have.
That the connection uses radio instead of a wire is irrelevant.
30. A large number of consecutive IP addresses are available starting at 198.16.0.0. Sup-
pose that four organizations, A, B, C, and D, request 4000, 2000, 4000, and 8000 addresses,
respectively, and in that order. For each of these, give the first IP address as signed, the last IP
address assigned, and the mask in the w.x.y.z/s notation.
30. To start with, all the requests are rounded up to a power of two. The starting
address, ending address, and mask are as follows:
A: 198.16.0.0 – 198.16.15.255 written as 198.16.0.0/20
B: 198.16.16.0 – 198.23.15.255 written as 198.16.16.0/21
C: 198.16.32.0 – 198.47.15.255 written as 198.16.32.0/20
D: 198.16.64.0 – 198.95.15.255 written as 198.16.64.0/19

41. The Protocol field used in the IPv4 header is not present in the fixed IPv6 header.
Why not?
41. protocol field tells the destination host which protocol handler to give the IP packet to.But in
IPV6 The Next Header field of the last (extension) header is used for this purpose.
40. IPv6 uses 16-byte addresses. If a block of 1 million addresses is allocated every picoseconds,
how long will the addresses last?
40. With 16 bytes there are 2128 or 3.4 × 1038 addresses. If we allocate them at a
rate of 1018 per second, they will last for 1013 years. This number is 1000 times the age of the
universe. Of course, the address space is not flat, so they are not allocated linearly, but this
calculation shows that even with an allocation scheme that has an efficiency of 1/1000 (0.1percent),
one will never run out.

33. A router has the following (CIDR) entries in its routing table:

For each of the following IP addresses, what

does the router do if a packet with that
address arrives?
(a) 135.46.63.10
(b) 135.46.57.14
(c) 135.46.52.2
(d) 192.53.40.7
(e) 192.53.56.7

33. The packets are routed as follows:

(a) Interface 1
(b) Interface 0
(c) Router 2
(d) Router 1
(e) Router 2

32. The set of IP addresses from 29.18.0.0 to 19.18.128.255 has been aggregated to
29.18.0.0/17. However, there is a gap of 1024 unassigned addresses from 29.18.60.0
to 29.18.63.255 that are now suddenly assigned to a host using a different outgoing
line. Is it now necessary to split up the aggregate address into its constituent blocks,
add the new block to the table, and then see if any re-aggregation is possible? If not,
what can be done instead?
32. It is sufficient to add one new table entry: 29.18.0.0/22 for the new block. If
an incoming packet matches both 29.18.0.0/17 and 29.18.0.0./22, the longest
one wins. This rule makes it possible to assign a large block to one outgoing
line but make an exception for one or more small blocks within its range.