The Human Eye: Structures

External Structure of the Eye

Extrinsic Muscles of the Eye
Treatment
Best if done before 7 years old…

1. Eye patch over good eye – makes weaker eye

work harder.
2. Eye exercises.
3. Biconvex lenses.
4. Surgery.
Strabismus surgery
 Internal Structure of the Eye

Blind spot

Suspensory
ligaments
 Internal Structure of the Eye
The internal structure of the eye consists of
three layers.

1. Outer fibrous layer

• Sclera
• Cornea

2. Middle vascular layer

• Choroid
• Ciliary body
• Iris and pupil

3. Inner light-sensitive retina

 Internal Structure of the Eye
The internal structure of the eye consists of
three layers.

1. Outer fibrous layer

• Sclera
• Cornea
A tough white tissue that forms the
outer layer of the eyeball up to the
transparent cornea at the front. ‘whites of the eye’

Functions
 Maintains shape
and supports
eyeball
 Provides
attachment for
muscles
 Protects inner
parts of eye
(clear lens in front of eye)
 Transparent front part of the eye
 More convex than rest of eyeball
Conjunctiva
• Thin mucous membrane that covers front of the eye and
lines inner surface of eyelids
• Contains pain receptors which trigger protective blink
reflex when stimulated by dust and foreign particles
 Allows light rays into the
eye
 Functions as a fixed
lens – causes refraction
of incoming light rays
 Internal Structure of the Eye
The internal structure of the eye consists of
three layers.

1. Middle vascular layer

• Choroid
• Ciliary body
• Iris and pupil
  Thin, darkly pigmented, vascular
layer below sclera
Functions
 Pigment absorbs excess light rays to prevent internal
reflection which may cause blurred images
 Blood vessels supply oxygen and nutrients to cells
 Coloured part of eye
situated in front of the
lens
 Is a continuation of the
choroid
 Contains pigment –
melanin
 Has radial and circular
involuntary muscle
components
 Eye colour is the result of variations in the amount of melanin, a
pigment found in the front stroma layer of the iris.

• Very little melanin: blue eyes

• Some melanin: green eyes
• Lots of melanin: brown eyes
• Light brown eyes just have a bit less melanin than darker
brown eyes.
Eye colour is a
heritable trait.

All irises have a

darkly pigmented
epithelial layer
behind the stroma
layer
Regulates the amount of
light entering the eye by
controlling the size of
the pupil
(black hole)
 Black hole in iris where
light enters eye
Pupil size is controlled by
iris muscles
 PUPIL REFLEX (= pupillary mechanism)
• A reflex action!
• Automatic
response to
stimulus of light
entering the eye

When the eye needs more

light to enter (when it is dark),
the pupils get larger allowing
more light to enter the eye to
help form a clear, sharp image
 PUPIL REFLEX
When the eye
needs less light to
enter (when it is
very bright), the
pupils get smaller
allowing less light to
enter the eye

• Prevents damage to the

retina by ultraviolet rays
PUPIL REFLEX
 PUPIL REFLEX
Pupils also constrict
when looking at nearby
objects
and
dilate when looking at
distant objects
Ecstasy
Marijuana

• Pupils dilate when people are stressed,

excited or use certain drugs
• Cat pupils dilate when treated with
ketamine for general anaesthesia
 Anisocoria
(unequal pupil size)
in a cat

• Corneal injury such as an ulcer

• Disease or injury to the brain or nerves running to the affected
eye
• Glaucoma - a disease causing increased pressure within the eye
(dilated pupil)
• Uveitis - inflammation of the interior of the eye (constricted pupil)
• Middle ear infection
• Congenital defect of the iris
• Cancer within the affected eye
 Thickening of the front part
of the choroid
 Made of involuntary
muscles (ciliary muscles)
 Attached to lens by
suspensory ligaments

Function
 Contract and relax to change the curvature of the lens
during accommodation
 Rubbery, elastic, transparent,
biconvex structure that can
change shape
 Kept in position by suspensory
ligaments attached to ciliary
body

Function
 Changes shape to refract light
rays from near and far objects
to form a clear image on the
retina
 Internal Structure of the Eye
The internal structure of the eye consists of three layers.

1. Inner light-sensitive Retina

 Internal layer of eyeball
1. Pigment layer – outer layer in contact with the choroid
• Absorbs light rays to prevent internal reflection
2. Nervous tissue layer – photoreceptors (rods & cones)
• Detect light stimuli and convert the stimuli into nerve
impulses
Photoreceptors
1. Rods
• Stimulated in low
light intensity
• Black and white
vision

2. Cones
• Stimulated in high
light intensity
• Intense, bright,
colour vision
Yellow spot
• Mostly cones and very few rods
• Clearest, most accurate image formed here
Fovea centralis (in middle of yellow spot)
• Cones only

Direct line of vision

Optic nerve
• Conducts nerve impulses to the cerebral cortex of the brain where
they are interpreted , giving rise to sensation of sight
Blind spot
• Place where optic nerve leaves the eyeball – has no rods or cones
• Light rays falling here will not result in nerve impulses being
conducted to the brain – no image formed!
Eye examination
with an
ophthalmoscope
 Transmits nerve impulses from
retina to the brain
 Creates blind spot (optic disc)

Occipital
Lobe
• On retina where optic nerve
leads back into the brain
• No rod or cone cells
• Other eye compensates for
this area

Try these tests to prove

you have a blind spot…
Blind Spot (Optic Disk)

• Close your right eye and look directly at the number 3.

• Can you see the yellow spot in your peripheral vision?
• Now slowly move towards or away from the screen.
• At some point, the yellow spot will disappear.

This happens because the light rays coming from the yellow dot
are focused over the blind spot where there are no
photoreceptors.
Now stare at the red dot with your right eye from 12 inches, covering
your left eye with your left hand. Notice that the gap in the blue bar fills
in (completes). Move your left hand to unblock your left eye and the
gap re-appears.
Close left eye and approach screen while
staring at the letters…watch the dot!
How do we see?

Optic nerve
1. The Anterior Cavity - filled with watery aqueous humour
a. Anterior chamber • Refracts light rays to form
b. Posterior chamber sharp image

2. The Posterior Cavity - filled with jelly-like vitreous humour

• Maintains eye shape
• Holds retina against
choroid
• Refracts light rays to form
sharp image
Posterior
Cavity

Lens
 The change in lens shape to obtain focus on near and far
objects.
• The lens has a small depth of field
– You can’t focus on two objects which are near and far, at
the same time.
• Hold out your thumb about a foot away from your eye.
– Now, alternately focus on your thumb and me (above
your thumb).
• Note that you cannot see both me and your thumb sharply
(in focus) at the same time.
– You focus on one or the other by changing the bulge of
your lens.
 Your two lenses: Cornea and Lens

• There are two lenses in your eye, the cornea and the lens.
• The cornea (fixed lens), does most of the focusing in your eye
• The lens (adjustable lens) provides fine-tuning of the focus
The change in lens shape to obtain focus on near and far objects.
The change in lens shape to obtain focus on near and far objects.
The change in lens shape to obtain focus on near and far objects.
 Visual Defects
Short-sightedness - MYOPIA
• = Near-sightedness
• Problem seeing objects far away
• Distance between lens and retina
too large
• Elongated eyeball or abnormal
curvature of cornea
• Light rays are focused in front of
retina
• Correct with concave lenses
which diverge the light rays
before they enter the eye
• Laser surgery to flatten the
cornea (make it less convex)
Short-Sighted (Myopia)
 Visual Defects
Long-sightedness
(HYPERMETROPIA / HYPEROPIA)
• = Far-sightedness
• Problem seeing close objects
• Distance between lens and retina
too small
• Shorter eyeball or abnormally flat
cornea
• Light focused behind retina
• Corrected with convex lenses
which converge the light rays
before they enter the eye
• Laser surgery to thicken cornea
and make it more convex
Long-Sighted (Hypermetropia)
 Visual Defects
PRESBYOPIA
• Form of long-sightedness
• Harder for people to read
as they age – over 40 years
• Lens gradually loses its
elasticity – cannot change
its curvature
• Corrected by glasses with
convex lenses – reading
glasses
 Visual Defects
ASTIGMATISM
• Irregularly shaped cornea or lens, e.g.
cornea may be oval instead of
spherical.
• May be present from birth, or it may
develop after an eye injury, disease or
surgery.
• Eye cannot focus an object’s image on
a single point on retina.
• Causes blurred vision.
• Often occurs with near- and long-
sightedness.
• Some types can be corrected with
lenses (glasses or rigid contact lenses)
or laser surgery.
 Oval-
shaped Normal sphere-
cornea shaped cornea

Normal
Normal Irregular
lens
lens lens
 Visual Defects
Colour blindness / Colour vision problem
• Rods and cones contain
photopigment molecules that
undergo a chemical change
when they absorb certain
wavelengths of light.
• This chemical change triggers
nerve impulses that are passed
to the brain and perceived as
colour.
• Cones contain one of three
photopigment colours, namely
green, red or blue.
• Colour blindness results in
abnormal photopigment/s.
 Visual Defects
Colour blindness / Colour vision problem
• Inherited gene mutation
present at birth
• More common in males
• Usually red-green colour
blindness – difficulty
distinguishing between
green, yellow, orange and
red
• Very rare form – only see
black, grey and white
 Visual Defects
Colour blindness / Colour vision problem
• Red-green colour blindness
What dogs see…
• Dogs have two types
(yellow and blue) of
colour sensitive cone
cells in their retina.
• This means that they
can't distinguish
between green, yellow
or red objects.
• Red is perceived as
grey.

What dogs see… What humans see…

What cats see…
 What cats see…..

• A cat's vision is similar to a human who

is colour blind.
• They can see shades of blue and green, but
reds and pinks can be confusing. These may
appear more green, while purple can look like
another shade of blue. ...
• Distance— Cats seem to be near-sighted,
which means they can't see far objects as
well.
 Diseases of the eye
GLAUCOMA
• Group of diseases that
cause damage to the optic
nerve - gradual loss of sight
and eventual blindness.

• Caused by increased
intraocular pressure when
aqueous humour builds up
in the anterior cavity.
• Can be treated if diagnosed
early.
 Diseases of the Eye
CATARACTS
• Lens becomes cloudy due to
denaturing of lens protein.
• Obstructs passage of light.
• Caused by age, chronic
exposure to UV, diabetes or
trauma.
• Removed by surgery.
 Videos
“How Eyes Work: An Introduction” (10:48)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SCn83DHC1Ug

Bill Nye The Science Guy on the Eyeball (2:12)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cFVbLnXWn6A

“How the Human Eye Works”

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fn6v3SkH0LI

The Human Eye and How it Works (22:59)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=28NysX8JHDo