Semester Examination - November – 2017

Q1)A) Optical switching is essential in the field of optical communication to efficiently route and
manage data traffic carried by optical signals. Optical switching is employed to achieve fast and
reliable data transmission in optical networks. Here are six different optical switching techniques,
along with brief explanations:

1. Electro-Optical Switching:
 Explanation: Electro-optical switches use electronic signals to control the optical switching
elements. These switches convert electrical signals into optical signals, which are then routed
through the network.
 Application: Commonly used in integrated optical circuits and systems where the optical
signals need to be controlled by electronic means.
2. Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) Switching:
 Explanation: MEMS-based optical switches use tiny mechanical mirrors or other movable
microstructures to redirect optical signals. The movement is controlled electronically.
 Application: Suitable for creating compact and high-speed optical switching devices, often
used in telecommunications and data center applications.
3. Thermo-Optic Switching:
 Explanation: Thermo-optic switches use heat to change the refractive index of an optical
material, which, in turn, alters the path of the optical signal.
 Application: Useful in creating low-power and compact optical switches for applications like
wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) systems.
4. Liquid Crystal Optical Switching:
 Explanation: Liquid crystal materials are used to control the polarization of light, enabling
the switching of optical signals by manipulating the alignment of liquid crystal molecules.
 Application: Applied in devices that require fine control over the polarization state of light,
such as polarization-dependent devices and optical modulators.
5. Optical Cross-Connect (OXC) Switching:
 Explanation: OXC switches use an array of optical switches to establish connections between
various input and output ports, allowing for flexible routing of optical signals.
 Application: Commonly employed in large optical networks, such as long-haul
communication systems, to dynamically reconfigure connections based on demand.
6. Photonic Crystal Switching:
 Explanation: Photonic crystals are periodic structures that control the flow of light. Photonic
crystal switches use these structures to manipulate the propagation of optical signals.
 Application: Promising for creating compact and high-performance optical switches, often
used in the development of all-optical circuits and systems.

These optical switching techniques cater to different requirements in terms of speed, power
consumption, scalability, and integration, offering a range of solutions for building efficient and
reliable optical communication networks.
QB)
 In a network, several types of delays can be encountered during the transmission of data. These
delays include:

1. Transmission Delay:
 This is the time taken to push all the bits of a packet into the link. It is determined by the
size of the packet and the bandwidth of the link.
2. Propagation Delay:
 Propagation delay is the time taken for a signal to travel from the source to the
destination. It depends on the distance between the sender and receiver and the
propagation speed of the medium.
3. Queuing Delay:
 Queuing delay occurs when packets are waiting in a queue to be transmitted. This delay
is influenced by the congestion level in the network.
4. Processing Delay:
 Processing delay is the time it takes for a router or a switch to process a packet, including
the time it spends in the input queue, processing the packet, and placing it in the output
queue.
5. Serialization Delay:
 Serialization delay is the time taken to convert a packet into a bit stream for transmission
over the network. It depends on the transmission rate of the link.

Now, let's calculate the transmission time for a 1 MB file sent over an STS-1 (Synchronous
Transport Signal Level 1) channel.

Assuming:

 The transmission rate of the STS-1 channel is 51.84 Mbps.

 There is no queuing delay or processing delay for simplicity.
Q2
Q2)A)

In TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), the send and receive window are mechanisms used for flow
control to ensure efficient and reliable data transfer between two communicating devices. The
window size represents the amount of data (in bytes) that can be sent or received before requiring
an acknowledgment.

The sender's window (send window) indicates the amount of unacknowledged data the sender is
allowed to have in flight. The receiver's window (receive window) indicates the amount of buffer
space the receiver has available to accept incoming data.
 Let's analyze the scenario you provided:

 Initial conditions:
 Send window size: 10,000 bytes
 Previous acknowledgment number: 22,001
 Upon receiving a segment with acknowledgment number 24,001 and a window size advertisement of
12,000:
Now, let's draw a timeline diagram to illustrate the situation:
 Q2)B)
UDP, or User Datagram Protocol, is one of the core protocols of the Internet Protocol (IP) suite. It is a
connectionless and lightweight transport layer protocol that provides a simple mechanism for
sending and receiving data without the reliability and error recovery features of TCP (Transmission
Control Protocol). Here are some key characteristics and typical applications of UDP:

Characteristics of UDP:
1. Connectionless: UDP is a connectionless protocol, which means that it does not establish a
connection before sending data and does not guarantee the delivery of data.
2. Low Overhead: UDP has minimal overhead compared to TCP, making it suitable for applications that
require low latency and are tolerant to some data loss.
3. Unreliable: Since UDP does not provide error checking and recovery mechanisms, it is considered
unreliable. If packets are lost or arrive out of order, UDP does not attempt to retransmit or reorder
them.
4. No Flow Control: UDP does not implement flow control mechanisms, so it may overwhelm the
network with a large amount of data.

Typical Applications of UDP:

1. Real-time Communication:
 VoIP (Voice over IP): Voice and video communication applications often use UDP for its low
latency characteristics. Real-time communication can tolerate some packet loss, and the
emphasis is on minimizing delay.
 Online Gaming: Multiplayer online games frequently use UDP for fast and real-time
communication between players and the game server. Low latency is crucial for a smooth
gaming experience.
2. Streaming Media:
 Live Streaming: UDP is commonly used for live video and audio streaming. In streaming
applications, a slight delay or loss of a few packets may be acceptable, and the emphasis is
on maintaining a continuous stream.
 IPTV (Internet Protocol Television): IPTV services that deliver television content over the
Internet often use UDP for streaming channels.
3. DNS (Domain Name System):
 DNS Queries: DNS queries, which translate domain names into IP addresses, often use UDP.
While DNS can use TCP in certain situations, UDP is preferred for its lower overhead and
faster response times for simple queries.
4. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol):
 IP Address Allocation: DHCP, used for dynamically assigning IP addresses to devices on a
network, uses UDP. DHCP transactions are typically short-lived and benefit from the
simplicity and lower overhead of UDP.
5. Network Measurement and Testing:
  Traceroute and Ping: Network diagnostic tools like traceroute and ping use UDP to send
probe packets to determine the route and measure round-trip times to a destination.

While UDP is suitable for applications that prioritize speed and real-time communication, it's
important to note that it does not guarantee delivery, and applications using UDP need to handle
any necessary error checking and recovery at the application layer.
Q. NO. 3) A) To keep track of all the different events happening during connection establishment,
connection termination, and data transfer, TCP is specified as the finite state machine shown in
Figure.

The figure shows the two FSMs used by the TCP client and server combined in one diagram. The
ovals represent the states. The transition from one state to another is shown using directed lines.
The dotted black lines in the figure represent the transition that a server normally goes through; the
solid black lines show the transitions that a client normally goes through.
The state marked as ESTBLISHED in the FSM is in fact two different sets of states that the client
and server undergo to transfer data.
The states for TCP are as follows:
 Q. NO. 3) B) What is optical WDM network? Explain different characteristics of the optical networks.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is a technology used in optical networking to increase the data capacity of
optical fibers. In an optical WDM network, multiple signals (each on a different wavelength or color of light) can be
transmitted simultaneously over a single optical fiber. This enables the parallel transmission of data and greatly
enhances the overall capacity and efficiency of the network.

Here are some key characteristics of optical networks, particularly those employing WDM technology:

1. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM): WDM is the fundamental technology in optical networks. It allows
multiple signals to be sent simultaneously along different wavelengths of light within the same optical fiber. The two
main types of WDM are Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing (CWDM) and Dense Wavelength Division
Multiplexing (DWDM).
2. Increased Bandwidth: Optical networks provide significantly higher bandwidth compared to traditional copper-
based networks. With multiple wavelengths in use, the overall capacity of the network is greatly increased, supporting
the growing demand for data transmission.
3. Low Latency: Optical networks typically offer low latency, making them suitable for applications that require real-
time communication, such as video conferencing, financial transactions, and interactive gaming.
4. Long Transmission Distances: Optical fibers allow for data transmission over long distances without significant
signal degradation. This is particularly important for long-haul communication links and undersea cables.
5. Security: Optical networks are less susceptible to electromagnetic interference and are inherently more secure than
traditional copper-based networks. Fiber optic cables do not radiate signals, making it more difficult for external
entities to intercept data.
6. Reliability: Optical fibers are less prone to environmental factors such as electromagnetic interference, lightning, and
other forms of signal degradation. This results in a more reliable and stable communication infrastructure.
7. Scalability: Optical networks are highly scalable. As data demands increase, additional wavelengths can be added to
the existing fiber infrastructure to accommodate the growth without the need for major overhauls.
8. Flexibility: Wavelengths in optical networks can be dynamically allocated and reallocated based on demand. This
flexibility allows for efficient use of network resources and better adaptation to changing traffic patterns.
9. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing: Optical networks use multiplexers and demultiplexers to combine and separate
signals at different wavelengths. This enables the simultaneous transmission of multiple data streams over the same
optical fiber.
10. Transparency: Optical networks are "transparent" to the data format, meaning they can carry various types of data,
including voice, video, and data, without the need for conversion. This makes them versatile for different types of
applications.
In summary, optical WDM networks leverage the advantages of WDM technology to provide high-capacity, low-
latency, secure, and reliable communication infrastructures. These characteristics make optical networks crucial for
meeting the increasing demands of modern telecommunications and data transmission.

Q. NO. 4) A)

 The optical fiber consists of three main elements:

1. Transmitter: An electric signal is applied to the optical transmitter. The optical transmitter
consists of driver circuit, light source and fiber flylead.
o Driver circuit drives the light source.
o Light source converts electrical signal to optical signal.
o Fiber flylead is used to connect optical signal to optical fiber.
2. Transmission channel: It consists of a cable that provides mechanical and environmental
protection to the optical fibers contained inside. Each optical fiber acts as an individual
channel.
 o Optical splice is used to permanently join two individual optical fibers.
o Optical connector is for temporary non-fixed joints between two individual optical
fibers.
o Optical coupler or splitter provides signal to other devices.
o Repeater converts the optical signal into electrical signal using optical receiver and
passes it to electronic circuit where it is reshaped and amplified as it gets attenuated
and distorted with increasing distance because of scattering, absorption and
dispersion in waveguides, and this signal is then again converted into optical signal
by the optical transmitter.
3. Receiver: Optical signal is applied to the optical receiver. It consists of photo detector,
amplifier and signal restorer.
o Photo detector converts the optical signal to electrical signal.
o Signal restorers and amplifiers are used to improve signal to noise ratio of the signal
as there are chances of noise to be introduced in the signal due to the use of photo
detectors.
 For short distance communication only main elements are required.
Source- LED
Fiber- Multimode step index fiber
Detector- PIN detector
 For long distance communication along with the main elements there is need for couplers,
beam splitters, repeaters, optical amplifiers.
Source- LASER diode
Fiber- single mode fiber
Detector- Avalanche photo diode (APD)
OR
1. Transmitter:
 The data communication process begins with a transmitter, which converts electrical signals
into optical signals suitable for transmission over fiber optics.
 The transmitter typically includes a light source such as a laser or Light Emitting Diode (LED).
Lasers are often used for high-speed and long-distance communication due to their
coherence and narrower bandwidth.
2. Fiber Optic Cable:
 The optical signals are then transmitted through a fiber optic cable, which consists of a core
(through which the light travels) and a cladding (which reflects the light back into the core to
prevent signal loss).
 The core and cladding are typically made of glass or plastic materials.
3. Connectors and Splices:
 Connectors are used to join different sections of fiber optic cables. They allow for the easy
connection and disconnection of fibers.
 Splices are used to permanently join two fiber optic cables, minimizing signal loss. Fusion
splicing and mechanical splicing are common techniques.
4. Amplifiers:
 In long-distance communication, optical signals may weaken over the length of the fiber
optic cable. Optical amplifiers, such as erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs), are used to
boost the strength of the signals without converting them to electrical signals.
5. Optical Receivers:
 At the receiving end, optical receivers are used to convert the incoming optical signals back
into electrical signals.
 The receiver typically includes a photodiode or photodetector to detect the incoming light
signals.
6. Demodulator:
 The demodulator extracts the original data from the electrical signals received by the optical
receiver. This process is essential for recovering the transmitted information accurately.
7. Signal Processing and Data Link:
 Once the data is demodulated, signal processing may be required to clean up and reshape
the electrical signals.
 The data link layer handles the framing and error detection to ensure the integrity of the
transmitted data.
8. Network Equipment:
 The processed data is then sent to various network equipment such as routers and switches
for further routing and distribution within the network.
9. Receiver Device:
 Finally, the data is received by the destination device, which could be a computer, server, or
any other networked device.

It's important to note that fiber optic communication systems may include additional components
such as repeaters, which regenerate and amplify signals to extend the transmission distance, and
wavelength division multiplexers (WDM) for transmitting multiple signals over different wavelengths.

While this description provides an overview of the main components, the specific configuration of a
fiber optic data communication system can vary based on factors such as the network architecture,
the type of optical signals used, and the communication protocols employed.
General Light Wave System:

Communication systems that use high carrier frequencies in the near IR region of visible spectrum are called optical
communication systems or general light wave systems. Light wave system that employs optical fibre as channel for
information transmission is called ‘fibre Optics Communication Systems’. The technology to which light is propagated
through very fine cylindrical hair like transparent fibres is called fibre optics. Optical communication system or light
wave system can be broadly classified based on the nature of the communication channel into two.

1. Unguided Systems:

The optical beam emitted by the transmitter or optical signal propagates through air or vacuum. It is less suitable for
broadcasting applications since optical beams spreads out mainly in the forward direction. Hence require accurate
pointing between transmitter and receiver.

2. Guided Systems:
The optical beam emitted by the transmitter remains spatially confined.

Eg: Transmission using Optical Fibres.

Basic Optical Fiber Communication System

Information Source provides the input electrical signal.

Optical Fiber Communication System Block Diagram

Electrical Transmitter contains electrical stage which drives an optical source to give modulation of light wave
carrier.

Optical Source provides electrical to optical conversion can be LED’s on laser. Requirements are

1. High output power

2. High linearity
3. Narrow spectral width
4. High modulation rate
5. Temperature stability
6. Long life time

Optical fibres used as transmission medium to compensate for losses during transmission repeatrs or optical
amplifier can be used at regular intervals. Required characteristics are low dispersion, lower fibre non linearity, low
attenuation, high optical signal to noise ratio, large repeater span.

Optical detector detects and convert optical signal to proportional electrical signal.
Eg: Photo diodes, Photo transistors etc

Requirements are sensitive at operating wavelength, requirements are sensitive at operating wavelength, low power
consumption and operating voltage, fast response active area match fibre parameter, temperature stability small size
and cost capability of internal gain, low noise.
Repeaters and Optical Amplifier:

To compensate for signal degradation in long distance convert optical signal to electrical signal, restores the signal
used then converting back to optical signal for further transmission. This method increases cost, complexity and
reduces operational bandwidth. Optical amplifiers simply amplify the optical signal. They provide improved SNR due
to all optical domain operation.

Fibre Couplers and Fibre Connectors are used to distribute light from main fibre into one or more branches of
fibres and to convert one fibre with another.

Advantages of Optical Fibre Communication:

• Wider Bandwidth
• Small Size and weight
• Electrical Isolation
• Immunity to interference and cross stock (free from EMI, RFI, EMP)
• Signal Security
• Low transmission loss
• Flexibility
• System Reliability

Disadvantages of Optical Fibre Communication:

• Cost
• Signal distribution
• Difficulty in installation and maintenance
• Sensitivity

Fibre Birefringence

Modes propagate with different phase velocities in an optical fiber. The difference between their effective refractive
indices is called fibre birefringence (βf).
βf = nx - ny

Where nx = Effective refractive index of x mode

ny = Effective refractive index of y mode

Fibre Beat Length:

When light is injected to the fibre such that both nodes are excited one mode will be delayed in phase relative to the
other mode as they propagate through the fibre. When the phase difference is an integral multiple of 2π the two
modes will beat at that point, and the input polarization state is reproduced. The length over which this beat occurs is
called the fibre beat length (LB).

LB = 2π/(βx – βy) = λ/ (nx - ny) = λ/βf

 Where βx and βy = Propagation constants of two orthogonal polarization modes.

Q. NO. 4) B)
What is DHCP? What is necessity of DHCP server in the network?
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is a network protocol used to automatically assign IP addresses and
other network configuration information to devices on a network. It operates on the principle of dynamic allocation,
allowing devices to obtain an IP address dynamically when they connect to the network, rather than requiring manual
configuration.

Here are the key components and functions of DHCP:

1. Dynamic IP Address Assignment:

 DHCP allows network devices, such as computers, printers, and smartphones, to automatically obtain IP
addresses when they join a network. This dynamic assignment is more efficient than manually configuring
static IP addresses for each device.
2. IP Address Lease:
 When a device requests an IP address from the DHCP server, the server leases an IP address to the device for
a specific duration. The lease time can be configured by the network administrator. Once the lease expires,
the device must renew the lease or request a new IP address.
3. Subnet Configuration:
 DHCP can provide not only IP addresses but also subnet masks, default gateways, and DNS server addresses.
This comprehensive configuration simplifies the setup process for network devices, ensuring they have the
necessary information to communicate on the network.
4. Reduced Administrative Overhead:
 Manually assigning IP addresses to each device in a network can be time-consuming and prone to errors.
DHCP automates the process, reducing the administrative burden on network administrators.
5. Centralized Management:
 DHCP allows for centralized management of IP address allocation. A single DHCP server or a group of
synchronized servers can manage IP address assignments for an entire network or subnet.
6. Efficient Resource Utilization:
 DHCP ensures efficient use of IP addresses by dynamically allocating them only when needed. Devices that
are not actively connected to the network do not tie up IP addresses, and addresses are released back to the
pool when devices disconnect.
7. Ease of Network Changes:
 When network configurations change, such as the addition of new devices or changes to IP address ranges,
DHCP simplifies the process. Network administrators can make changes on the DHCP server, and devices will
automatically receive updated configurations upon renewal of their leases.
8. Prevention of IP Address Conflicts:
 DHCP servers are designed to avoid assigning duplicate IP addresses within the same network. This helps
prevent IP address conflicts, where two devices have the same IP address, causing connectivity issues.

In summary, the necessity of a DHCP server in a network lies in its ability to streamline the process of IP address
management, reduce administrative overhead, and ensure efficient and automated allocation of network
configurations. DHCP significantly simplifies the task of maintaining and scaling a network, especially in large or
dynamic environments where devices frequently connect and disconnect.

Q. NO. 5) A) What are the different optical network generations? Also discuss the various optical devices used in
each generation

Optical networks have evolved through different generations, each marked by advancements in technology, increased
capacity, and improved performance. The key optical network generations include:
1. First Generation (1G):
 Timeframe: 1960s - 1980s
 Technology: First-generation optical networks primarily involved the use of analog transmission for voice
communication using optical fibers. Early developments focused on understanding the basic principles of
optical communication.
 Optical Devices:
 Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs): Early optical sources used for transmitting signals.
 Photodetectors: Basic optical receivers that converted light signals into electrical signals.
2. Second Generation (2G):
 Timeframe: Late 1980s - Early 2000s
 Technology: The second generation saw the adoption of digital transmission, enabling the use of optical
fibers for data communication. The emergence of fiber optic communication systems revolutionized
telecommunications.
 Optical Devices:
 Semiconductor Lasers: Replaced LEDs for more efficient and high-speed signal transmission.
 Optical Amplifiers: Erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs) were introduced to boost optical signals
without converting them to electrical signals.
3. Third Generation (3G):
 Timeframe: Early 2000s - Present
 Technology: The third generation brought about advancements in Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing
(DWDM), enabling the simultaneous transmission of multiple wavelengths over a single fiber. This greatly
increased data capacity.
 Optical Devices:
 DWDM Systems: Multiplexers and demultiplexers for combining and separating multiple
wavelengths.
 Reconfigurable Optical Add-Drop Multiplexers (ROADMs): Allowed for flexible and dynamic
management of wavelengths in the optical network.
4. Fourth Generation (4G):
 Timeframe: Ongoing (around 2010s - Present)
 Technology: The fourth generation builds on the advancements of DWDM and introduces technologies like
coherent optical communication, providing increased spectral efficiency and higher data rates.
 Optical Devices:
 Coherent Receivers: Enhanced receivers that can process and detect coherent signals, allowing for
higher-order modulation formats.
 Forward Error Correction (FEC) Techniques: Improved error correction methods to enhance the
reliability of optical transmission.
5. Fifth Generation (5G) and Beyond:
 Timeframe: Ongoing (around 2020s - Future)
 Technology: The fifth generation is expected to bring even higher data rates, improved spectral efficiency,
and greater network flexibility. Technologies such as spatial division multiplexing and new materials for
optical components are being explored.
 Optical Devices:
 Spatial Division Multiplexing (SDM): Explores the use of multiple spatial paths (cores or modes)
within a single optical fiber to increase capacity.
 Advanced Optical Switching Technologies: Next-generation switches and routers for efficient
routing of optical signals.

It's important to note that the evolution of optical networks is a continuous process, and new technologies and
devices are regularly being developed to meet the increasing demands for higher data rates, lower latency, and
improved network efficiency. The generations mentioned here provide a broad overview of the historical progression
of optical networks.
 Q. NO. 5) B) What is MPLS Technology? Compare and Contrast MPLS and GMPLS technologies
MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching):

MPLS is a protocol-agnostic, packet-switched networking technology that is widely used for efficient data packet
forwarding in telecommunications networks. MPLS enables the creation of virtualized networks over existing
infrastructure, allowing for the separation of routing and forwarding decisions. In MPLS, each packet is assigned a
label that is used by routers to make forwarding decisions, providing a faster and more scalable alternative to
traditional IP routing.

GMPLS (Generalized Multiprotocol Label Switching):

GMPLS is an extension of MPLS that extends the label-switching concept to a variety of network technologies beyond
packet-switched networks. While MPLS is primarily designed for IP networks, GMPLS is designed to work with a range
of transport technologies, including optical networks, wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), time-division
multiplexing (TDM), and more. GMPLS allows for the control and management of diverse network resources.

Comparison of MPLS and GMPLS:

1. Scope of Application:
 MPLS: Primarily used for packet-switched IP networks.
 GMPLS: Extends label-switching concepts to a variety of network technologies beyond packet-switched
networks, including optical and TDM networks.
2. Network Layers:
 MPLS: Focused on the network layer (Layer 3) for IP routing and forwarding.
 GMPLS: Extends label-switching concepts to multiple network layers, including the physical layer (Layer 1)
and the data link layer (Layer 2).
3. Resource Types:
 MPLS: Primarily deals with logical paths in packet-switched networks.
 GMPLS: Manages diverse network resources, including wavelengths in optical networks, time slots in TDM
networks, etc.
4. Flexibility:
 MPLS: Well-suited for IP networks and provides flexibility in routing and forwarding decisions.
 GMPLS: Offers greater flexibility by extending label-switching to various types of networks, enabling unified
control and management of different resources.
5. Network Optimization:
 MPLS: Optimizes packet forwarding within IP networks.
 GMPLS: Optimizes the use of diverse network resources, allowing for more efficient utilization of optical
wavelengths, time slots, and other physical-layer resources.
6. Use Cases:
 MPLS: Commonly used in enterprise and service provider networks for IP routing and traffic engineering.
 GMPLS: Particularly beneficial in optical networks, WDM networks, and TDM networks for efficient control
and management of diverse resources.

In summary, while MPLS is well-suited for packet-switched IP networks, GMPLS extends these concepts to various
types of networks and resources, providing a more comprehensive and flexible approach to network control and
management. GMPLS is particularly valuable in scenarios where different network technologies need to be integrated
and optimized within a unified framework.

Q. NO. 6) A) What is an Optical Fiber? Discuss the different layers of fiber cable
 Optical Fiber:

An optical fiber is a thin, flexible, and transparent fiber made of glass or plastic, designed to transmit light signals
along its length. It is a key component in modern telecommunications networks, providing high-speed data
transmission over long distances with minimal signal loss. Optical fibers operate on the principle of total internal
reflection, where light signals are continuously reflected within the core of the fiber, allowing for efficient and low-loss
transmission.

Different Layers of Fiber Cable:

An optical fiber cable is composed of several layers, each serving a specific purpose to protect and enhance the
performance of the optical fiber. The main layers of a fiber optic cable, from the innermost to the outermost, include:

1. Core:
 Function: The core is the central part of the optical fiber through which light signals travel. It is made of
high-quality transparent glass or plastic to facilitate efficient light transmission through total internal
reflection.
 Characteristics: The core has a higher refractive index than the cladding, ensuring that light signals are
confined within the core.
2. Cladding:
 Function: Surrounding the core, the cladding is a layer of material with a lower refractive index than the
core. Its purpose is to reflect the light back into the core, preventing signal loss by minimizing leakage of
light.
 Characteristics: The cladding is typically made of a different material, such as a different type of glass, and is
carefully chosen to achieve the desired refractive index contrast with the core.
3. Buffer Coating:
 Function: The buffer coating provides additional protection to the optical fiber. It serves as a cushion to
absorb physical shocks and protect the fragile core and cladding from damage.
 Characteristics: The buffer coating is typically made of a soft and flexible material, such as acrylate or
silicone, to add mechanical strength and protect the fiber during handling and installation.
4. Strength Members:
 Function: Strength members are embedded within the cable to provide additional mechanical support and
protection. They help the cable withstand tension, compression, and bending stresses.
 Characteristics: Strength members can be made of materials like aramid yarn (Kevlar) or fiberglass, offering
high tensile strength and flexibility.
5. Outer Jacket:
 Function: The outer jacket is the final layer of the fiber optic cable, providing overall protection against
environmental factors such as moisture, chemicals, and physical damage. It also helps to bundle and
organize multiple fibers within a cable.
 Characteristics: The outer jacket is made of a durable and protective material, often PVC (Polyvinyl chloride)
or LSZH (Low Smoke Zero Halogen), depending on the application and safety requirements.

Each of these layers contributes to the overall performance, durability, and protection of the optical fiber, ensuring
reliable and efficient data transmission in a variety of applications, including telecommunications, internet
connectivity, and data networking.

What Is an Optical Fibre?

Optical fibre is the technology associated with data transmission using light pulses travelling along
with a long fibre which is usually made of plastic or glass. Metal wires are preferred for transmission
in optical fibre communication as signals travel with fewer damages. Optical fibres are also
unaffected by electromagnetic interference. The fibre optical cable uses the application of total
internal reflection of light. The fibres are designed such that they facilitate the propagation of light
along with the optical fibre depending on the requirement of power and distance of transmission.
Single-mode fibre is used for long-distance transmission, while multimode fibre is used for shorter
distances. The outer cladding of these fibres needs better protection than metal wires.

Types of Optical Fibres

The types of optical fibres depend on the refractive index, materials used, and mode of propagation
of light.

The classification based on the refractive index is as follows:

 Step Index Fibres: It consists of a core surrounded by the cladding, which has a single uniform index of
refraction.
 Graded Index Fibres: The refractive index of the optical fibre decreases as the radial distance from the
fibre axis increases.

The classification based on the materials used is as follows:

 Plastic Optical Fibres: The polymethylmethacrylate is used as a core material for the transmission of light.
 Glass Fibres: It consists of extremely fine glass fibres.

The classification based on the mode of propagation of light is as follows:

 Single-Mode Fibres: These fibres are used for long-distance transmission of signals.
 Multimode Fibres: These fibres are used for short-distance transmission of signals.

The mode of propagation and refractive index of the core is used to form four combination types of
optic fibres as follows:

 Step index-single mode fibres

 Graded index-Single mode fibres
  Step index-Multimode fibres
 Graded index-Multimode fibres

How Does an Optical Fibre Work?

The optical fibre works on the principle of total internal reflection. Light rays can be used to transmit
a huge amount of data, but there is a problem here – the light rays travel in straight lines. So unless
we have a long straight wire without any bends at all, harnessing this advantage will be very tedious.
Instead, the optical cables are designed such that they bend all the light rays inwards (using TIR).
Light rays travel continuously, bouncing off the optical fibre walls and transmitting end to end data.
Although light signals degrade over progressing distances, depending on the purity of the material
used, the loss is much less than using metal cables. A Fibre Optic Relay System consists of the
following components:

 The Transmitter – It produces the light signals and encodes them to fit to transmit.
 The Optical Fibre – The medium for transmitting the light pulse (signal).
 The Optical Receiver – It receives the transmitted light pulse (signal) and decodes them to be fit to use.
 The Optical Regenerator – Necessary for long-distance data transmission.

Advantages of Optical Fibre Communication

 Economical and cost-effective
 Thin and non-flammable
 Less power consumption
 Less signal degradation
 Flexible and lightweight

Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

Q1

What is used for the fabrication of optical fibres that are used for communication?

Silica or multi-component glass are used for the fabrication of optical fibres.
Q2

Why is silica used for the fabrication of the optical fibres?

Silica has a perfect elasticity until it reaches the breaking point, which makes it best for fabrication.
Q3

What is the principle of fibre optical communication?

Total internal reflection is the principle on which the optical fibre communication is based.
Q4

Name the factors that are responsible for generating attenuation of optical power in
fibre.

Following are the factors that are responsible for generating attenuation of optical power in fibre:

 Absorption
 Scattering
 Waveguide effect

Q5

Why are plastic-clad silica fibre optic cables not user-friendly?

Following are the reasons why plastic-clad silica fibre optic cables not user-friendly:

 The fibres are insoluble in organic solvents

 Bonding becomes difficult
 Connector application becomes difficult as there is excessive plasticity in the cladding

Q6

What is the Raman effect?

The Raman effect is the change in the wavelength of light which occurs when the molecules deflect
the light beam.
Q7

What are the benefits of optical fibre cable?

Following are the benefits of optical fibre cable:

 The data security is excellent

 It is cost-effective
 It won’t be affected by interference

Q8

What is the bandwidth of optical fibre?

900 THz is the bandwidth of the optical fibre.

Q9
 What is core in the optical fibre?

The core is the inner part of the optical fibre, which carries light.
Q10

List a few advantages of optical fibre communication.

A few advantages of optical fibre communication are:

 Less signal degradation

 Thin and non-flammable
 Economical and cost-effective
 Less power consumption
Q. NO. 6) B) What are the different SONET electrical transport signal and their bit rates?
Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET) is a standardized optical fiber network architecture used for high-speed
communication over optical networks. SONET defines a hierarchy of electrical transport signals, each with different bit
rates and functionalities. Here are the key SONET electrical transport signals and their corresponding bit rates:

1. STS-1 (Synchronous Transport Signal Level 1):

 Bit Rate: 51.84 Mbps (Megabits per second)
 Functionality: STS-1 is the basic building block of SONET. It carries payload data and overhead information.
2. STS-3 (Synchronous Transport Signal Level 3):
 Bit Rate: 155.52 Mbps
 Functionality: STS-3 is equivalent to three times the capacity of STS-1. It is commonly used as a backbone
for higher-level SONET signals.
3. STS-12 (Synchronous Transport Signal Level 12):
 Bit Rate: 622.08 Mbps
 Functionality: STS-12 has a capacity of 12 times that of STS-1. It is often used for higher-capacity network
connections.
4. STS-24 (Synchronous Transport Signal Level 24):
 Bit Rate: 1.244 Gbps (Gigabits per second)
 Functionality: STS-24 provides 24 times the capacity of STS-1 and is used for higher-capacity network
connections.
5. STS-48 (Synchronous Transport Signal Level 48):
 Bit Rate: 2.488 Gbps
 Functionality: STS-48 is used for high-capacity network connections and is a common rate for higher-level
SONET signals.
6. STS-192 (Synchronous Transport Signal Level 192):
 Bit Rate: 9.953 Gbps
 Functionality: STS-192 provides a significantly higher data rate, often used in large-scale
telecommunications networks to meet the demand for high-speed data transmission.
7. STS-768 (Synchronous Transport Signal Level 768):
 Bit Rate: 39.813 Gbps
 Functionality: STS-768 represents a higher capacity, suitable for large-scale backbone networks where
extremely high data rates are required.
These SONET signals are part of a hierarchical structure, with higher-level signals aggregating multiple lower-level
signals to achieve higher data rates. SONET is widely used in telecommunications networks, providing a standardized
and scalable framework for optical communication. It is important to note that similar standards, such as Synchronous
Digital Hierarchy (SDH), are used in different regions of the world, but the principles and hierarchy are similar.

SONET stands for Synchronous Optical Network. SONET is a communication protocol,

developed by Bellcore – that is used to transmit a large amount of data over relatively large
distances using optical fibre. With SONET, multiple digital data streams are transferred at the
same time over the optical fibre.
Key Points:
 Developed by Bellcore
 Used in North America
 Standardized by ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
 Similar to SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) which is used in Europe and Japan.
Why SONET is called a Synchronous Network?
A single clock (Primary Reference Clock, PRC) handles the timing of transmission of signals &
equipments across the entire network.

SONET Network Elements:

1. STS Multiplexer:
 Performs multiplexing of signals
 Converts electrical signal to optical signal
2. STS Demultiplexer:
 Performs demultiplexing of signals
 Converts optical signal to electrical signal
3. Regenerator:
It is a repeater, that takes an optical signal and regenerates (increases the strength) it.

4. Add/Drop Multiplexer:
It allows to add signals coming from different sources into a given path or remove a signal.
Why SONET is used?
SONET is used to convert an electrical signal into an optical signal so that it can travel longer
distances.

SONET Connections:
 Section: Portion of network connecting two neighbouring devices.
 Line: Portion of network connecting two neighbouring multiplexers.
 Path: End-to-end portion of the network.
SONET Layers:

SONET includes four functional layers:

1. Path Layer:
 It is responsible for the movement of signals from its optical source to its optical
destination.
 STS Mux/Demux provides path layer functions.
2. Line Layer:
 It is responsible for the movement of signal across a physical line.
 STS Mux/Demux and Add/Drop Mux provides Line layer functions.
3. Section Layer:
 It is responsible for the movement of signal across a physical section.
 Each device of network provides section layer functions.
4. Photonic Layer:
 It corresponds to the physical layer of the OSI model.
 It includes physical specifications for the optical fibre channel (presence of light = 1 and
absence of light = 0).
Advantages of SONET:
 Transmits data to large distances
 Low electromagnetic interference
 High data rates
 Large Bandwidth