Chapter 3

Bearings
Design of Machine Elements II

Addis Ababa Science and Technology University(AASTU)

Department of Mechanical Engineering
April 2023
 Bearings
Bearing is a mechanical element that permits relative
motion between two parts, such as the shaft and the
housing, with minimum friction. The functions of the
bearing are as follows:
(i) The bearing ensures free rotation of the shaft or the
axle with minimum friction.
(ii) The bearing supports the shaft or the axle and holds it
in the correct position.
(iii) The bearing takes up the forces that act on the shaft or
the axle and transmits them to the frame or the
foundation.

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 Bearing Classification
• Bearings are classified in different ways.
1) Depending upon the direction of force that acts on them
Radial bearings: supports the load, which is
perpendicular to the axis of the shaft
Thrust bearings: supports the load, which acts along
the axis of the shaft.

Fig. Radial and Thrust Bearings

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 Bearing Classification
2) Depending upon the type of friction between the shaft and
the bearing surface
 Sliding contact bearings: are also called plain bearings,
journal bearings or sleeve bearings. In this case, the surface
of the shaft slides over the surface of the bush resulting in
friction and wear. In order to reduce the friction, these two
surfaces are separated by a film of lubricating oil. The bush
is made of special bearing material like white metal or
bronze.
 Rolling contact bearings: also called antifriction bearings or simply
ball bearings. Rolling elements, such as balls or rollers, are
introduced between the surfaces that are in relative motion. In this
type of bearing, sliding friction is replaced by rolling friction.

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 Fig. A journal Bearing and a deep grove ball bearing
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 Sliding and rolling contact bearings
• Sliding contact bearings are used in the following applications:
(i) crankshaft bearings in petrol and diesel engines;
(ii) centrifugal pumps;
(iii) large size electric motors;
(iv) steam and gas turbines; and
(v) concrete mixers, rope conveyors and marine installations.
• Rolling contact bearings are used in the following
applications:
(i) machine tool spindles;
(ii) automobile front and rear axles;
(iii) gear boxes;
(iv) small size electric motors; and
(v) rope sheaves, crane hooks and hoisting drums.
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 1. Rolling contact bearings
• A rolling contact bearing consists of four parts— inner and
outer races, a rolling element like ball, roller or needle and
a cage which holds the rolling elements together and
spaces them evenly around the periphery of the shaft.

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 1. Rolling contact bearings
• Depending upon the type of rolling element, the
bearings are classified as ball bearing, cylindrical roller
bearing, taper roller bearing and needle bearing.
• Depending upon the direction of load, the bearings are
also classified as radial bearing and thrust bearing.
There is, however, no clear distinction between these
two groups.
• Certain types of radial bearings can also take thrust
load, while some thrust bearings are capable of taking
radial loads.

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 1. Rolling contact bearings
• The types of rolling contact bearings, which are
frequently used, are shown in Fig (next slide). The
characteristics of these bearings are as follows:
• (i) Deep Groove Ball Bearing: The most frequently used
bearing is the deep groove ball bearing
In this type of bearing, the radius of the ball is slightly less
than the radii of curvature of the grooves in the races.
Kinematically, this gives a point contact between the balls
and the races. Therefore, the balls and the races may roll
freely without any sliding.

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 1. Rolling contact bearings

Fig. Types of Rolling Contact Bearing

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 1. Rolling contact bearings
Deep groove ball bearing has the following advantages
(a) Due to relatively large size of the balls, deep groove ball bearing has high
load carrying capacity.
(b) Deep groove ball bearing takes loads in the radial as well as axial direction.
(c) Due to point contact between the balls and races, frictional loss and the
resultant temperature rise is less in this bearing
(d) Deep groove ball bearing generates less noise due to point contact.
(e) Deep groove ball bearings are available with bore diameters from a few
millimeters to 400 millimeters.

The disadvantages of deep groove ball bearings are as follows:

(a) Deep groove ball bearing is not self-aligning. Accurate alignment between
axes of the shaft and the housing bore is required.
(b) Deep groove ball bearing has poor rigidity compared with roller bearing..
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 1. Rolling contact bearings
(ii) Cylindrical Roller Bearing: A cylindrical roller bearing consists of
relatively short rollers that are positioned and guided by the cage.
Cylindrical roller bearing offers the following advantages:
(a) Due to line contact between rollers and races, the radial load
carrying capacity of the cylindrical roller bearing is very high.
(b) Cylindrical roller bearing is more rigid than ball bearing.
(c) The coefficient of friction is low and frictional loss is less in high-
speed applications.
The disadvantages of cylindrical roller bearing are as follows:
(a) In general, cylindrical roller bearing cannot take thrust load.
(b) Cylindrical roller bearing is not self-aligning. It cannot tolerate
misalignment. It needs precise alignment between axes of the shaft
and the bore of the housing.
(c) Cylindrical roller bearing generates more noise.
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 1. Rolling contact bearings
(iii) Angular Contact Bearing: the grooves in inner and outer
races are so shaped that the line of reaction at the contact
between balls and races makes an angle with the axis of the
bearing.
 This reaction has two components, radial and axial.
 Therefore, angular contact bearing can take radial and
thrust loads.
 Angular contact bearings are often used in pairs, either
side by side or at the opposite ends of the shaft, in order
to take the thrust load in both directions.

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 1. Rolling contact bearings

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 1. Rolling contact bearings

Angular contact bearings offer the following advantages:

(a) Angular contact bearing can take both radial and thrust
loads.
(b) The load carrying capacity of angular contact bearing is
more than that of deep groove ball bearing.
The disadvantages of angular contact bearings are as follows:
(a) Two bearings are required to take thrust load in both
directions.
(b) The angular contact bearing must be mounted without axial
play.

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 (iv) Self-aligning Bearings
 There are two types of self-aligning rolling contact
bearings, self-aligning ball bearing and spherical roller
bearing.
 The self-aligning ball bearing consists of two rows of balls,
which roll on a common spherical surface in the outer race.
 In this case, the assembly of the shaft, the inner race
and the balls with cage can freely roll and adjust
itself to the angular misalignment of the shaft.
There is similar arrangement in the spherical roller
bearing, where balls are replaced by two rows of
spherical rollers, which run on a common spherical
surface in the outer race.
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 Principle of Self-aligning Bearing
• In the previous section, two types of self-aligning bearings,
namely, self-aligning ball bearing and spherical roller
bearing, were explained.
• In many applications, the bearing is required to tolerate a
small amount of misalignment between the axes of the
shaft and the bearing. The misalignment may be due to
deflection of the shaft under load or due to tolerances of
individual components. Self-aligning bearings are used in
these applications.
• The principle of self-aligning bearing is illustrated in Figure
shown on next slide.

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  Fig. a shows Perfectly aligned shaft with the bearing
Fig. Self aligning Bearing:
(a) Shaft aligned with
Bearing
(b) Shaft misaligned with
Bearing
(c)Self aligning Bearing
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 When the shaft is deflected under the
load, it exerts pressure at the edges of the
bearing as shown in Fig. b.
 The edge pressure is dangerous and may
result in undue wear and breakdown of
the oil film. In self-aligning bearing, the
external surface of the bearing bush is
made spherical as shown in Fig. c. The
center of this spherical surface is at the
center of the bearing. Therefore, the bush
is free to roll in its seat and align itself
with the journal.
 Lubricant between the spherical surfaces
of the bush and its seat in order to reduce
the friction.
Bearings
Fig. Spherical roller bearings. (a, Courtesy McGill Manufacturing
Company, Inc., Bearing Division, Valparaiso, Indiana, b, c, Courtesy
Hoover–NSK Bearing Company.)
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 (v) Taper Roller Bearing:
 Taper roller bearing can carry both radial and axial loads.
 A taper roller bearing subjected to pure radial load induces
a thrust component and vice versa. Therefore, taper roller bearings
are always used in pairs to balance the thrust component.

Fig. Tapered roller bearings. (Courtesy The Torrington Company)

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 Advantages Taper roller bearings
(a) Taper roller bearing can take heavy radial and thrust
loads.
(b) Taper roller bearing has more rigidity.
The disadvantages of taper roller bearing are as follows:
(a) It is necessary to use two taper roller bearings on the
shaft to balance the axial force.
(b) Taper roller bearing cannot tolerate misalignment
between the axes of the shaft and the housing bore.
(c) Taper roller bearings are costly.

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 (vi) Thrust Ball Bearing:
 A thrust ball bearing consists of a row of balls running between
two rings, the shaft ring and the housing ring.
 Thrust ball bearing carries thrust load in only one direction and
cannot carry any radial load.
 The use of a large number of balls results in high thrust load
carrying capacity in smaller space. This is the major advantage
of thrust bearing.
The disadvantages of thrust bearings are as follows:
(a) Thrust ball bearing cannot take radial load.
(b) It is not self-aligning and cannot tolerate misalignment.
(c) Their performance is satisfactory at low and medium speeds
(d) Thrust ball bearings do not operate as well on horizontal shafts
as they do on vertical shafts.
(e) Thrust ball bearing requires continuous pressure applied by
springs to hold the rings together.
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 Rolling Type Bearing Selection
Bearing Selection
• The detailed design of rolling-element bearings is a
sophisticated engineering endeavor too specialized to
warrant extensive treatment here.
• On the other hand, the selection and use of these bearings
is of concern to virtually all engineers dealing with
machinery.
• For this reason the present section attempts to point out
selection and application of rolling-element bearings.

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 Selection of Bearing-Type
The selection of the type of bearing in a particular application
depends upon the requirement of the application.
The guidelines for selecting a proper type of bearing are as
follows:
(i) For low and medium radial loads, ball bearings are used,
whereas for heavy loads and large shaft diameters, roller bearings
are selected.
(ii) Self-aligning ball bearings and spherical roller bearings are used
in application where a misalignment between the axes of the shaft
and housing is likely to exist.
(iii) Thrust ball bearings are used for medium thrust loads whereas
for heavy thrust loads, cylindrical roller thrust bearings are
recommended. Double acting thrust bearings can carry the thrust
load in either direction.
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 Selection of Bearing-Type
(iv) Deep groove ball bearings, angular contact bearings and
spherical roller bearings are suitable in applications where the
load acting on the bearing consists of two components radial and
thrust.
(v) The maximum permissible speed of the shaft depends upon the
temperature rise in the bearing. For high speed applications, deep
groove ball bearings, angular contact bearings and cylindrical roller
bearings are recommended.
(vi) Rigidity controls the selection of bearings in certain
applications like machine tool spindles. Double row cylindrical
roller bearings or taper roller bearings are used under these
conditions. The line of contact in these bearings, as compared with
the point of contact in ball bearings, improves the rigidity of the
system.
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 Selection of Bearing-Type
(vii) Noise becomes the criterion of selection in applications
like household appliances. For such applications, deep groove
ball bearings are recommended.

Knowledge of the design characteristics of different types

of bearings and proper appreciation of the needs of an
application enables the designer select a proper type of
bearing. The characteristic of the bearing should match
with the requirements of the application

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 Static Load Carrying Capacity
• Static load (C0) is defined as the load acting on the bearing when the
shaft is stationary.
• It produces permanent deformation in balls and races, which increases
with increasing load. The permissible static load, therefore, depends
upon the permissible magnitude of permanent deformation.
• The static load carrying capacity of a bearing is defined as the static load
which corresponds to a total permanent deformation of balls and races,
at the most heavily stressed point of contact, equal to 0.0001 of the ball
diameter. This is found from past experience.
• Formulae are given in standards for calculating the static load carrying
capacity of different types of bearings.
• However, while selecting the bearings, it is not necessary to use these
formulae. The values of static load carrying capacities are directly given
in the manufacturer’s catalogues, which are based on a total permanent
deformation of 0.0001.
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 STRIBECK’S Equation
• Stribeck’s equation gives the static load capacity of bearing. It
is based on the following assumptions:
(i) The races are rigid and retain their circular shape.
(ii) The balls are equally spaced.
(iii) The balls in the upper half do not support any load.
Figure (a) below shows the forces acting on the inner race
through the rolling elements, which support the static load C0.

Figure
(a) Forces acting on Inner Race
(b) Deflection of Inner Race
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 STRIBECK’S Equation

• According to Stribeck, the static load capacity of bearing is

given by,
𝑘𝑑 2 𝑧
𝐶𝑜 =
5
Where z is number of balls, d is the ball diameter and the
factor k depends upon the radii of curvature at the point of
contact, and on the modulii of elasticity of materials.
The above equation is known as Stribeck’s equation.

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 Dynamic load carrying capacity
• The life of a ball bearing is limited by the fatigue failure at
the surfaces of balls and races. The dynamic load carrying
capacity of the bearing is, therefore, based on the fatigue
life of the bearing.
• The life of an individual ball bearing is defined as the
number of revolutions (or hours of service at some given
(constant speed)), which the bearing runs before the first
evidence of fatigue crack in balls or races.
• Since the life of a single bearing is difficult to predict, it is
necessary to define the life in terms of the statistical
average performance of a group of bearings

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 Dynamic load carrying capacity
• The rating life of a group of apparently identical ball
bearings is defined as the number of revolutions that 90%
of the bearings will complete or exceed before the first
evidence of fatigue crack. There are a number of terms
used for this rating life. They are minimum life, catalogue
life, L10 life or B10 life. These terms are synonyms for rating
life.
• In this chapter, we will use the term L10 life. The life of an
individual ball bearing may be different from rating life.

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 Dynamic load carrying capacity
• Statistically, it is proved that the life, which 50% of a
group of bearings will complete or exceed, is
approximately five times the rating or L10 life. This
means that for the majority of bearings, the actual life is
considerably more than the rated life.

The dynamic load carrying capacity of a bearing is

defined as the radial load in radial bearings (or thrust
load in thrust bearings) that can be carried for a
minimum life of one million revolutions.

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 Dynamic load carrying capacity
• The minimum life in this definition is the L10 life, which
90% of the bearings will reach or exceed before fatigue
failure.
• The dynamic load carrying capacity is based on the
assumption that the inner race is rotating while the
outer race is stationary.
• The formulae for calculating the dynamic load capacity
for different types of bearings are given in standards.
• However, the manufacturer’s catalogues give ready-
made values of dynamic load capacities of bearings.

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 Equivalent Bearing Load
• In actual applications, the force acting on the bearing has
two components—radial and thrust. It is therefore
necessary to convert the two components acting on the
bearing into a single hypothetical load, fulfilling the
conditions applied to the dynamic load carrying capacity.
Then the hypothetical load can be compared with the
dynamic load capacity.
• The equivalent dynamic load is defined as the constant
radial load in radial bearings (or thrust load in thrust
bearings), which if applied to the bearing would give same
life as that which the bearing will attain under actual
condition of forces.
• The expression for the equivalent dynamic load is written
as, 𝑃 = 𝑋𝑉𝐹𝑟 + 𝑌𝐹𝑎
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 Equivalent Bearing Load
𝑃 = 𝑋𝑉𝐹𝑟 + 𝑌𝐹𝑎
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝑃 = equivalent dynamic load (N) X = radial loading factor
𝐹𝑟 =radial load (N) Y = axial loading factor
𝐹𝑎 = axial or thrust load (N)
𝑉 = race−rotation factor
• The race-rotation factor depends upon whether the inner
race is rotating or the outer race.
• The value of V is 1 when the inner race rotates while the
outer race is held stationary in the housing.
• The value of V is 1.2 when the outer race rotates with respect
to the load, while the inner race remains stationary.
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 Equivalent Bearing Load
• In most of the applications, the inner race rotates and the
outer race is fixed in the housing. Taking V as unity, the
general equation for equivalent dynamic load is given by,
𝑃 = 𝑋𝐹𝑟 + 𝑌𝐹𝑎
• The above equation is used for calculating equivalent
dynamic load.
• When the bearing is subjected to pure radial load 𝐹𝑟 ,
𝑃 = 𝐹𝑟
• When the bearing is subjected to pure thrust load 𝐹𝑎 ,
𝑃 = 𝐹𝑎

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 Load-Life Relationship
• The relationship between the dynamic load carrying
capacity, the equivalent dynamic load, and the
bearing life is given by:
𝑝 Where
𝐶 𝐿10 = rated bearing life (in million revolutions)
𝐿10 = 𝐶 = dynamic load capacity (N), and
𝑃
p = 3 (for ball bearings)
p = 10/3 (for roller bearings)
• Rearranging the above equation,
𝐶 = 𝑃(𝐿10 )1Τ𝑝
For all types of ball bearings, 𝐶 = 𝑃(𝐿10 )1Τ3
For all types of roller bearings, 𝐶 = 𝑃(𝐿10 )0.3
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 Load-Life Relationship
• The relationship between life in million revolutions and
life in working hours is given by:

60𝑛𝐿10ℎ
𝐿10 =
106

where, L10h = rated bearing life hours

n = speed of rotation (rpm)

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Selection of bearing from manufacturer’s catalogue
• The basic procedure for the selection of a bearing from the
manufacturer’s catalogue consists of the following steps:
(i) Calculate the radial and axial forces acting on the bearing
and determine the diameter of the shaft where the bearing is
to be fitted.
(ii) Select the type of bearing for the given application.
(iii) Determine the values of X and Y, the radial and thrust
factors, from the catalogue. The values of X and Y factors for
single-row deep groove ball bearings are given in Table 1 below.
𝐹𝑎 𝐹𝑎
The values depend upon two ratios, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 , where C0 is
𝐹𝑟 𝐶𝑜
the static load capacity. The selection of the bearing is,
therefore, done by trial and error.
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 Selection of bearing from manufacturer’s catalogue
Table 1: X and Y factors for single-row deep groove ball bearings

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Selection of bearing from manufacturer’s catalogue

𝑃
𝑉𝐹𝑟

𝐹𝑎
𝑉𝐹𝑟

Figure: The Relationship of dimensionless group (P/VFr) and (Fa/VFr )

and the straight line segments representing the data
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Selection of bearing from manufacturer’s catalogue
• Single-row deep groove ball bearings of different series are
given in Table 2 below.
• To begin with, a bearing of light series, such as 60, is selected for
the given diameter of the shaft and the value of C0 is found from
Table 2.
• To begin with, a bearing of light series, such as 60, is selected for
the given diameter of the shaft and the value of C0 is found from
the Table 1.
𝐹𝑎 𝐹𝑎
• Knowing the ratios 𝑎𝑛𝑑 , the values of X and Y factors
𝐹𝑟 𝐶𝑜
are found from Table 1.
Iv) Calculate the equivalent dynamic load from the equation.
𝑃 = 𝑋𝐹𝑟 + 𝑌𝐹𝑎
v) Make a decision about the expected bearing life and express the
life L10 in million revolutions.
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 Table 2: Dimensions and static and dynamic load capacities of
single-row deep groove ball bearings

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Table 2 (continued)

In the Table 2, the following notations are used:

d = inner diameter of the bearing
D = outer diameter of the bearing
B = axial width of the bearing
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Selection of bearing from manufacturer’s catalogue
vi) Calculate the dynamic load capacity from the equation
𝐶 = 𝑃(𝐿10 )1Τ3
(vii) Check whether the selected bearing of series 60 has
the required dynamic capacity. If not, select the bearing of
the next series and go back to Step (iii) and continue.

Ball bearings are thus selected by the trial and error

procedure. The above procedure is also applicable to other
types of bearings.

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 Selection of bearing from manufacturer’s catalogue

Fig. Relative Proportions of Bearings of different series

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 Further explanation on Selection procedure of
Bearing from manufacturers catalogue
a) Suppose it is required to select a single-row deep groove
ball bearing, for a shaft that is 75 mm in diameter and which
rotates at 125 rpm. The bearing is subjected to a radial load
of 21 kN and there is no thrust load. The expected life of the
bearing is 10000 hours.
Solution
Step (i) 𝐹𝑟 = 21000 𝑁 𝐹𝑎 = 0 𝑑 = 75𝑚𝑚
Step (ii): Type: single-row deep groove ball
Bearing
Step (iii) Since there is no axial load,
𝑃 = 𝐹𝑟 = 21000 𝑁
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 Selection (continued)
• Step (iv): 60𝑛𝐿10ℎ 60 × 125 × 10000
𝐿10 = 6
=
10 106
∴ 𝐿10 = 75 × 106 revolutions
• Step (v): 𝐶 = 𝑃(𝐿10 )1Τ3 = 21000 75 1/3 = 88560.43 𝑁
• Step (vi): It is observed from Table 2, that following
bearings are available with 75 mm bore diameter,
No. 6015 (C = 39 700 N)
No. 6215 (C = 66 300 N)
No. 6315 (C = 112 000 N)
No. 6415 (C = 153 000 N)
Therefore, bearing No. 6315 is selected for the above
application.
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 2. Sliding Contact Bearings
• Sliding bearings require direct sliding of the load-
carrying member on its support, as distinguished from
rolling-element bearings.
Sliding bearings (also called plain bearings) are of two
types:
(1) Journal or sleeve bearings, which are cylindrical and
support radial loads (those perpendicular to the shaft
axis); and
(2) Thrust bearings, which are generally flat and, in the
case of a rotating shaft, support loads in the direction of
the shaft axis.

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 Sliding Contact Bearings Classification
1) Hydrodynamic lubrication and
2) Hydrostatic lubrication.
• Hydrodynamic lubrication: is defined as a system of
lubrication in which the load-supporting fluid film is
created by the shape and relative motion of the sliding
surfaces.

Figure: Hydrodynamic Lubrication (a) Journal at Rest

(b) Journal Starts to Rotate (c) Journal at Full Speed
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 Sliding Contact Bearings Classification
• The pressure distribution around the periphery of the
journal is shown in Figure below.

Figure: Pressure Distribution in Hydrodynamic

Bearing

• Since the pressure is created within the system due to

rotation of the shaft, this type of bearing is known as self-
acting bearing. The pressure generated in the clearance
space supports the external load (W). In this case, it is not
necessary to supply the lubricant under pressure and the
only requirement is sufficient and continuous supply of the
lubricant.
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 Sliding Contact Bearings Classification
• A journal bearing is a sliding contact bearing working on
hydrodynamic lubrication and which supports the load
in radial direction.
• The portion of the shaft inside the bearing is called
journal and hence the name ‘journal’ bearing.

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 Sliding Contact Bearings Classification
• The cylindrical portions of the shaft in contact with the
bearings are called journals. The flat portions bearing
against the thrust bearings are called thrust surfaces.

Figure: A plain surface, sliding or journal bearing.

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 Sliding Contact Bearings Classification
• There are two types of thrust bearings which take axial
load, namely ‘footstep’ bearing and ‘collar’ bearing as
shown in Figure below. The footstep bearing or simply
‘step’ bearing is a thrust bearing in which the end of the
shaft is in contact with the bearing surface. The collar
bearing is a thrust bearing in which no contact between
end of shaft and thrust bearing.

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 Sliding Contact Bearings Classification
• Hydrostatic lubrication: is defined as a system of
lubrication in which the load supporting fluid film,
separating the two surfaces is created by an external
source, like a pump, supplying sufficient fluid under
pressure. Since the lubricant is supplied under pressure,
this type of bearing is called externally pressurized
bearing.

Figure: Hydrostatic Lubrication: (a)

Journal at
Rest (b) Journal at Full Speed

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 Sliding Contact Bearings Classification
• Compared with hydrostatic bearings, hydrodynamic
bearings are simple in construction, easy to maintain
and lower in initial as well as maintenance cost.
Hydrostatic bearings, although costly, offer the following
advantages:
(i) high load carrying capacity even at low speeds;
(ii) no starting friction; and
(iii) no rubbing action at any operating speed or load.

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 Lubrication and Types of Lubrication
• When relative motion occurs between the surfaces, it is usually
desirable to minimize friction and wear.
• Any interposed substance that reduces friction and wear is a
Lubricant.
• Lubricants are usually liquid but can be a solid, such as graphite,
molybdenum disulfide, or a gas, such as pressurized air.
• Lubrication is commonly classified according to the degree with
which the lubricant separates the sliding surfaces. Figure below
illustrates three basic cases.

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 Types of Lubrication
1) In hydrodynamic lubrication the surfaces are completely
separated by the lubricant film. The load tending to
bring the surfaces together is supported entirely by fluid
pressure generated by relative motion of the surfaces (as
journal rotation). Surface wear does not occur, and
friction losses originate only within the lubricant film.
Typical film thicknesses at the thinnest point (designated h0)
are 0.008 to 0.020 mm (0.0003 to 0.0008 in.). Typical values
of coefficient of friction ( f ) are 0.002 to 0.010.

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 Types of Lubrication
2) In mixed-film lubrication the surface peaks are
intermittently in contact, and there is partial
hydrodynamic support. With proper design, surface wear
can be mild. Coefficients of friction commonly range from
0.004 to 0.10.
3) In boundary lubrication surface contact is continuous
and extensive, but the lubricant is continuously “smeared”
over the surfaces and provides a continuously renewed
adsorbed surface film that reduces friction and wear.
Typical values of f are 0.05 to 0.20.

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 Types of Lubrication
• Figure below illustrates the influence of three basic
parameters on type of lubrication and resulting coefficient
of friction, f.
1) Viscosity (𝜇). The higher the viscosity, the lower the
rotating speed needed to “float” the journal at a given
load.
2) Rotating speed (n), in revolutions per second. The higher
the rotating speed, the lower the viscosity needed to
“float” the journal at a given load..
3) Bearing unit load (P), defined as load W divided by the
bearing projected area, which is journal diameter D times
bearing length L.

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 Types of Lubrication

Figure: Schematic representation of the variation of bearing performance with

lubrication, commonly called (Stribeck curve).
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 Types of Lubrication

Figure: The variation of the coefficient of friction f with µN/P

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 Types of Lubrication
• Note that the achievement of hydrodynamic lubrication
requires three things.
1. Relative motion of the surfaces to be separated.
2. “Wedging action,” as provided by the shaft eccentricity.
3. The presence of a suitable fluid.

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 Viscosity
• Viscosity is defined as the internal frictional resistance
offered by a fluid to change its shape or relative motion of
its parts.
• An oil film placed between two parallel plates is shown in
Figure below.
• The lower plate is stationary while the upper plate is
moved with a velocity U by means of a force P.

Figure: Newton's Law of Viscosity

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 Viscosity
• The molecules of oil are visualized as small balls, which
roll in layers between two plates.
• The oil will stick to both the surfaces, and therefore the
layer of molecules in contact with the stationary plate
has zero velocity.
• Similarly, the layer of molecules in contact with the
upper plate will move with a velocity U. The
intermediate layers will move with velocities which are
proportional to their distance from the stationary plate.
Therefore,

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 Viscosity
• This type of orderly movement is called streamline,
laminar or viscous flow.
• The tangential force per unit area, i.e., (P/A), is shear
stress, while the ratio (U/h) is the rate of shear.
• According to Newton’s law of viscosity, the shear stress is
proportional to the rate of shear at any point in the fluid.
Therefore,

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 Viscosity
• The constant of proportionality 𝜇 in the above equations is
called the absolute viscosity. The unit of absolute viscosity is
given by

• Units of Viscosity: the popular unit of viscosity is the Poise,

which gives absolute viscosity in dyne-s/cm2. Poise is a large
unit and viscosities of most of the lubricating oils are given in
terms of centi-Poise (cP), which is one-hundredth of a Poise.
Therefore, following two separate notations are used for
viscosity:

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 Viscosity Temperature Relationship

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 PETROFF’S Equation
• Petroff’s equation is used to determine the coefficient
of friction in journal bearings.
It is based on the following assumptions:
(i) The shaft is concentric with the bearing.
(ii) The bearing is subjected to light load.
• In practice, such conditions do not exist. However,
Petroff’s equation is important because it defines the
group of dimensionless parameters that govern the
frictional properties of the bearing.

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 PETROFF’S Equation
A vertical shaft rotating in the bearing is shown in Figure
below.

• According to Petroff, coefficient of friction in the bearing is

given by:
Petroff’s Equation

r = radius of the journal (mm)

c = radial clearance (mm) and ns = journal speed (rev/sec)
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 PETROFF’S Equation
• The bearing characteristic number, or the Sommerfeld
number, is defined by the equation,

• The Sommerfeld number is very important in lubrication

analysis because it contains many of the parameters
that are specified by the designer. Note that it is also
dimensionless. The quantity r/c is called the radial
clearance ratio.

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 Hydrostatic step bearing
• A hydrostatic step bearing is shown in figure below.
• The lubricant is flowing radially outward through the
annulus of radii Ri and Ro and leaves at the periphery of
the shaft.

Figure: Hydrostatic Step Bearing

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 Hydrostatic step bearing

Figure: Pressure Distribution in Hydrostatic Bearing

• The pressure distribution is given by

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 Hydrostatic step bearing
• The equation given below is used to calculate the flow
requirement of the bearing.

The following notations are used in

the analysis:
Po = outlet or atmospheric
W = thrust load (N),
pressure (N/mm2) or (MPa),
Ro = outer radius of the shaft (mm),
ho = fluid film thickness (mm)
Ri = radius of the recess or the
pocket (mm), Q = flow of the lubricant
Pi = supply of inlet pressure (mm3/s), μ = viscosity of the
(N/mm2) or (MPa), lubricant (N-s/mm2) or(MPa-s)
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 Hydrostatic step bearing
• The load carrying capacity of the bearing is the sum of the
load supported by the central recess area, where the
pressure Pi is constant and the load supported by the
annular area from the radius Ri to radius Ro, where
pressure p varies.
• Therefore, thrust load W is given by:

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 Energy losses in hydrostatic bearing
• The total energy loss in a hydrostatic step bearing
consists of two factors-the energy required to pump the
lubricating oil and energy loss due to viscous friction.
• The energy EP required to pump the oil is given by,

where (kW)p is the power loss in pumping (in kW).

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 Energy losses in hydrostatic bearing
• The frictional power loss is determined by

• The total power loss (kW)total is given by

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 Hydrodynamic lubrication theory
• The theory of hydrodynamic lubrication is based on a
differential equation derived by Reynold.

REYNOLD’S Equation is given by:

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 Hydrodynamic lubrication theory
• The equation given above is known as Reynold’s equation.
• There is no exact analytical solution for this equation for
bearings.
• Approximate solutions have been obtained by using
numerical and graphical methods. One of the important
solutions is due to Sommerfeld and may be expressed in
the form.
ns

where φ indicates a functional relationship. Sommerfeld

found the functions by using the assumption of no side
leakage.

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 Raimondi and Boyd method
• Raimondi and Boyd also found results in the form of
charts and tables.
• Unlike Sommerfeld, however, AA Raimondi and John Boyd
of Westinghouse Research Laboratory solved this equation
on computer using the iteration technique.
• The results of this work are available in the form of charts
and tables.
• In the Raimondi and Boyd method, the performance of
the bearing is expressed in terms of dimensionless
parameters.
• Table below gives value of these parameters, for a full
journal bearing with side flow.

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Table 1: Dimensionless performance parameters for full journal bearing with side flow

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 …cont’d
• In Figure below, O and O’ are the axes of bearing and
journal respectively. The distance OO’ is called eccentricity
and denoted by the letter e. The radial clearance c is given
by,

• The eccentricity ratio (𝜀) is

defined as the ratio of
eccentricity to radial clearance.

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 …cont’d
• Also, by considering geometrical relationship and
substituting,

this quantity is called the minimum film

thickness variable.
• The Bearing characteristic number or Sommerfeld number
is given by
where,
S = Sommerfeld number (dimensionless)
μ = viscosity of the lubricant (N-s/ mm2) or (MPa-s)
ns = journal speed (rev./s) p = unit bearing pressure,
i.e., load per unit of the projected area (N/mm2)
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 …cont’d
• The angle 𝜙 shown in figure below is called the angle of
eccentricity or attitude angle.
• It locates the position of minimum film thickness with
respect to the direction of load. The values of 𝜙 given in
Table 1 are in degrees.
• The coefficient of friction variable (CFV) is given by,

where f is coefficient of friction

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 …cont’d
• The frictional torque is given by,

• The flow variable (FV) is given by,

Where l = length of the bearing (mm), Q = flow of the lubricant

(mm3/s)
• In this case, Q represents the total flow of the lubricating oil.

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 Temperature rise
• Heat is generated in the bearing due to viscosity of the
lubricating oil.
• The frictional work is converted into heat, which
increases the temperature of the lubricant.
• Assuming that the total heat generated in the bearing is
carried away by the total oil flow in the bearing, the
expression for temperature rise can be determined
from,

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 Temperature rise
• For most lubricating oils,
• Substituting these values

• The average temperature of the lubricating oil is given

by

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 Design Considerations of sliding bearings
• We may distinguish between two groups of variables in
the design of sliding bearings.
• In the first group are those whose values either are
given or are under the control of the designer. These
are:
• The viscosity µ
• The load per unit of projected bearing area, P
• The speed n
• The bearing dimensions r, c, and l

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 Design Considerations of sliding bearings
• In the second group are the dependent variables. The
designer cannot control these except indirectly by
changing one or more of the first group. These are
– The coefficient of friction f
– The temperature rise Δ𝑡
– The volume flow rate of oil Q
– The minimum film thickness h0
This group of variables tells us how well the bearing is
performing, and hence we may regard them as
performance factors.

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 Basic Concepts of Hydrodynamic Lubrication
• Figure (a) shows a loaded journal bearing at rest. The
bearing clearance space is filled with oil, but the load (W)
has squeezed out the oil film at the bottom.
• Slow clockwise rotation of the shaft will cause it to roll to
the right, as in Figure (b). Continuous slow rotation would
cause the shaft to stay in this position as it tries to “climb
the wall” of the bearing surface. The result would be
boundary lubrication.

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 Basic Concepts of Hydrodynamic Lubrication
• If the shaft rotating speed is progressively increased, more
and more oil adhering to the journal surface tries to come
into the contact zone until finally enough pressure is built
up just ahead of the contact zone to “float” the shaft, as
shown in Figure c.

Figure: Journal bearing lubrication. The bearing clearances are greatly exaggerated.

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 Basic Concepts of Hydrodynamic Lubrication
• When this happens, the high pressure of the converging oil
flow to the right of the minimum film thickness position (h0)
moves the shaft slightly to the left of center.
• Under suitable conditions, equilibrium is established with full
separation of the journal and bearing surfaces. This
constitutes hydrodynamic lubrication, also known as full-film
or thick-film lubrication. The equilibrium eccentricity of the
journal in the bearing is dimension e, shown in Figure c.

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 Viscous flow through rectangular slot
• The flow of lubricating oil through a rectangular slot is
shown in Figure below.

 l is the length of the slot in the

direction of flow, while b and h
are dimensions of the slot in a
plane perpendicular to the
direction of flow.
 The dimensions b is very large
compared with h so that losses at
the sides are neglected

Figure: Viscous flow through slot: (a) Rectangular slot (b)

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 Viscous flow through rectangular slot
• The fundamental equation for viscous flow through the
rectangular slot is given by,

where Δ𝑝 = 𝑝𝑎 − 𝑝𝑏

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