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Disinfection of Biologically Treated Municipal

Wastewater using Electrochemical Process
a a
A. K. Chopra & Arun Kumar Sharma
a
Department of Zoology and Environmental Sciences, Gurukula Kangri University, Haridwar,
Uttarakhand, India
Accepted author version posted online: 12 Aug 2014.Published online: 14 Nov 2014.

To cite this article: A. K. Chopra & Arun Kumar Sharma (2014) Disinfection of Biologically Treated Municipal Wastewater using
Electrochemical Process, Separation Science and Technology, 49:17, 2613-2619, DOI: 10.1080/01496395.2014.937815

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 Separation Science and Technology, 49: 2613–2619, 2014
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0149-6395 print / 1520-5754 online
DOI: 10.1080/01496395.2014.937815
Disinfection of Biologically Treated Municipal Wastewater using
Electrochemical Process
A. K. Chopra and Arun Kumar Sharma
Department of Zoology and Environmental Sciences, Gurukula Kangri University, Haridwar, Uttarakhand, India
The present study demonstrates the application of Al-Al elec-
trode combination for electrochemical disinfection of biologically
Downloaded by [Arun Kumar Sharma] at 20:19 17 November 2014
treated municipal wastewater (BTMW) of Sewage Treatment
Plant. A glass chamber of 2 liter volume was used for the
Electrochemical (EC) process using two electrode plates of alu-
minum (Al-Al) with DC power supply at different operating condi-
tions of current density (CD), operating time (OT), inter electrode
distance (IED), electrode area (EA), initial pH, and settling time
(ST). The maximum removal of total coliforms (TC) (99.99%) and
total bacteria (TB) (99.87%) from BTMW was achieved with the
optimum operating conditions of CD (2.65 A/m2 ), OT (40 mins.),
IED (0.5 cm), EA (160 cm2 ), initial pH (7.5), and ST (60 min.).
The efficiency of the EC process for disinfection of BTMW was
strongly affected by the CD, OT, IED, EA, pH, and ST. These
effects can be explained by the formation of the reactive species
such as OH− , and ClO2 −· during the electrochemical process.
Under optimal operating conditions, the operating cost was found
to be 1.01 $/m3 in terms of the electrode consumption (23.71 x 10−5
kg Al/m3 ) and energy consumption (101.76 kwh/m3 ).
Keywords aluminum; current density; electrochemical disinfection;
energy consumption; operating cost
INTRODUCTION
Municipal wastewater is a complex mixture of domestic
wastewater, (the basic component), a small amount of industrial
and agro-zootechnical wastewater, storm water, drain water,
surface infiltration, and ground water. Direct discharge of
untreated wastewater into the natural water bodies is not desir-
able since the decomposition of the organic waste seriously
deteriorates the water quality. In addition, communicable dis-
eases can be transmitted by the pathogenic microorganisms.
For these reasons, treatment of wastewater has become nec-
essary for the protection of the environment as well as public
Received 25 Ocotber 2013; accepted 19 June 2014.
Address correspondence to Arun Kumar Sharma, Department
of Zoology and Environmental Sciences, Gurukula Kangri
University, Haridwar-249404, Uttarakhand, India. E-mail: asharma.
env@gmail.com
Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be
found online at www.tandfonline.com/lsst.
2613
health (1). Sewage treatment demands ample documentation
due to the environmental impact caused by such wastewaters
if directly discharged into water bodies. In addition, due to
increasing scarcity of clean water, there is a dire need for proper
management of available water resources (2).
A significant goal of environmental protection and resource
conservation concepts is re-use of wastewater after appropri-
ate treatment (3, 4). Biological processes are the most common
methods which are usually employed for the treatment of
municipal wastewater (5). However, due to the long detention
time and large treatment system, it results in higher treatment
cost. Due to these reasons, location of biological treatment util-
ities has become a serious problem in high land value areas,
where land is scarce and hard to find. In addition to that,
biological processes are also susceptible to the changes of influ-
ent characteristics and require highly skilled labor. Therefore,
there is a need for new and novel processes that could effi-
ciently treat municipal wastewaters at relatively low operating
cost, yet require lower foot prints. Research has shown that
electrochemical (EC) techniques have the potential to be devel-
oped as robust processes, which can completely convert organic
pollutants into gases such as N2 and CO2 (6).
Disinfection has become a challenging aspect of water
treatment because of the rapid elevation of health standards
and the growing concern for pollution-free water resources.
Disinfection is especially required in drinking water treatment
to reduce infectious disease transmission and ensure people’s
health. Various processes such as chlorination (7, 8), photo-
chemical catalysis (9, 10), ozonation (11), UV (12), and EC
treatment (13, 14) have been used in the processes of disin-
fection. The most commonly used disinfection methods utilize
chlorine and its products, which unfortunately, have a num-
ber of serious drawbacks. They produce chlorinated organic
products which are dangerous for mankind as well as the
environment since they are toxic, carcinogenic, and muta-
genic (7). Among these, the EC process is environmentally-
friendly and shows great potential in both drinking water and
wastewater disinfection treatment. During the EC disinfection
process, water is forced to pass through a disinfector equipped
with electrodes on which current is charged. Li et al. (15)
demonstrated the great effectiveness of EC disinfection for
 2614 A. K. CHOPRA AND A. K. SHARMA

saline wastewater effluents collected from wastewater treatment
plants. The electrode material, current density, electrolyte char-
acter, and electrolyte concentration are parameters that influ-
ence the EC processes (16). Keeping this in view, the present
study was carried out to study the disinfection of biologically
treated municipal waste (BTMW) with EC process using Al-Al
electrode combination and to assess the economic cost as well
as energy consumption during the process.
(MPN), technique and Total Bacteria (TB) using the Standard
plate count (SPC) technique. After incubation at 35◦ C for 48 h,
the TC were calculated by using MPN table per 100 mL in
treated/ untreated BTMW samples. The numbers of colonies of
bacteria were counted and the results were expressed in terms
of colony forming units of the micro-organisms per mL of water
sample (CFU/100 mL). All the microbiological experiments
were carried out as per Standard methods (18).

MATERIALS AND METHODS Kinetic Study

Collection of BTMW Samples The rate of removal of TC and TB has been represented by
The composite samples of BTMW were collected from the the following first-order mechanism (19).
outlet of activated sludge process (ASP) of the Sewage treat-
ment plant Jagjeetpur located at Haridwar (Uttarakhand), India.  
C0
The plant has a capacity of 18 MLD with various treatment ln = kt (1)
Ct
units (screens, grit chamber, primary settling tank, aeration
Downloaded by [Arun Kumar Sharma] at 20:19 17 November 2014

tank, and secondarily settling tank). The samples were brought

where C0 - initial concentration (mg/L), Ct - final concentration
to the laboratory, preserved in an ice container at 4◦ C prior to
with respect to time, and t- the time (min) and k- the rate con-
the analysis, and processed for the electrochemical disinfec-
stant (min−1 ) for TC and TB for EC disinfection using Al-Al
tion within 24 h of sample collection. The pH of BTMW was
electrode combination.
adjusted before the EC process by adding the required amount
of H2 SO4 (1 M) or NaOH (1 M).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Electrolytic Experimental Setup The present study indicated that BTMW had pH (7.4 ±
A rectangular glass reactor with external dimensions of 0.52), conductivity (735 ± 58.08 µS), total dissolved solids
30 cm height, 7 cm width, 11 cm length, and a wall thickness (TDS) (445.6 ± 67.3 mg/l), TC (8.34 X 105 ± 2.3 X 104
of 10 mm was used. A BTMW sample of 2.0 l was used in MPN/100 mL) and TB (5.36 X 105 ± 1.5 X 104 SPC/mL)
the electrolytic reactor. Al-Al electrode combination was con- before treatment. The percent removal of TC and TB from
nected to their respective anode and cathode via a D.C. Power BTMW using Al-Al electrode combination in EC process at
supply (LMC electronics, India 0–500 V and 0–2 A) and ener- different operating conditions such as current density (CD),
gized for a required duration of time at different voltages and operating time (OT), inter-electrode distance (IED), electrode
currents. All the experiments were performed at room temper- area (EA), initial pH, and settling time (ST) have been stud-
ature (30 ± 2◦ C) and at a constant stirring speed (100 rpm) ied and are graphically represented in Figs. 1- 6 and discussed
to maintain the uniform mixing of BTMW sample during below.
the electrolytic treatment. Before conducting an experiment,
the electrodes were washed with water, dipped into diluted
HCl (5% v/v) for 5 mins, thoroughly washed with water,
and then finally rinsed twice with distilled water. Electrodes
were dipped into BTMW sample with different surface areas
(80 cm2 , 120 cm2, and 160 cm2 ) and different electrode dis-
tances (0.5 cm, 1.0 cm, 1.5 cm, 2.0 cm, and 2.5 cm). The
different voltages (5 to 40 volts) were passed for different oper-
ating times (10–80 min). After passing the particular voltage
for a particular time period, i.e., after each batch experiment,
the sample was taken for the different settling times (30, 60,
and 90 mins.) as stated earlier (17).

Analytical Methods
BTMW samples were analyzed for pH, TDS, and conduc-
tivity.The aliquots of the treated samples were withdrawn at
specific time intervals and analysed for the Total coliforms (TC)
by employing the serial dilutions using Most Probable Number
FIG. 1. % removal of TC and TB using Al–Al electrode combination with
different current densities (CD) at constant operating conditions (OT: 30 min.,
IED: 1.0 cm, EA: 80 cm2 , pH: 7.5, ST: 30 min.).
 DISINFECTION OF BIOLOGICALLY TREATED MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER USING ELECTROCHEMICAL PROCESS
FIG. 2. % removal of TC and TB using Al–Al electrode combination with dif-
ferent OT at constant operating conditions (Volt: 40, IED: 1.0 cm, EA: 80 cm2 ,
Downloaded by [Arun Kumar Sharma] at 20:19 17 November 2014
pH: 7.5, ST:30 min.).
FIG. 3. % removal of TC and TB using Al–Al electrode combination with
different IED at constant operating conditions (Volt: 40, OT: 40 mins., EA:
80 cm2 , pH: 7.5, ST:30 min.).
FIG. 4. % removal of TC and TB using Al–Al electrode combination with
different EA at constant operating conditions (Volt: 40 V, OT: 40 mins., IED:
0.5 cm, pH: 7.5, ST:30 min.).
2615
FIG. 5. % removal of TC and TB using Al–Al electrode combination with
different pH at constant operating conditions (Volt: 40 V, OT: 40 mins., IED:
0.5 cm, EA:160 cm2 , ST:30 min.).
FIG. 6. % removal of TC and TB using Al–Al electrode combination with
different ST at constant operating conditions (Volt: 40 V, OT: 40 mins., IED:
0.5 cm, EA:160 cm2 , pH:7.5).
Effect of Current Density (CD)
The removal efficiency of BTMW in terms of TC and TB
increased progressively with an increase in the CD from 0.16 to
1.68 A/m2 corresponding to its constant voltage (5 to 40V).The
maximum removal of TC (97.8%) and TB (95.64%) was with
the operating conditions of OT (30 min.), IED (1.0 cm), EA
(80 cm2 ), pH (7.5), and ST (30 min.) (Fig.1). In addition, it
was observed that during EC disinfection, electrical energy
consumption increased with increase in CD that may which
is likely due to formation of strong oxidizing agents such
as· OH− and ClO2 −· during the process causing inactivation of
the bacteria present in BTMW. Schmalz et al. (20) have also
observed disinfection of biologically treated wastewater using
boron-doped diamond electrode highest current density of j1/4
120 mA/cm2 and time t of 1.4 min to reach a 4-log reduction
(N/ N0). The similar level of Escherechia coli inactivation (1-
log) required 5 min at 5 mA using a platinum tipped copper
wire electrode. However, the difference was well expected since
 2616 A. K. CHOPRA AND A. K. SHARMA
their electrochemical reaction occurred in chloride containing
electrolyte (30 mM Tris, 150 mM KCl, pH 8.3), resulting in
the formation of chlorine (21). The free radicals formed during
electrolysis, such as O2−· may play a critical role in exerting
strong germicidal actions (22, 23, 24).The killing efficiency of
99.9% on total coliform bacteria was achieved for the saline
wastewater effluent with a contact time of less than 10 s and a
power consumption of no more than 0.01 kWh/m3 (8).
Effect of Operating Time (OT)
Figure 2 depicts that with an increase in OT, the anodic
electrode dissolution led to release of metal ions and the cath-
ode released OH− which formed their hydroxides into BTMW.
The removal of TC and TB increased progressively with an
increase in OT from 5 to 40 min. with the operating condi-
tions of CD (1.68 A/m2 ), IED (1.0 cm), EA (80 cm2 ), pH (7.5),
Downloaded by [Arun Kumar Sharma] at 20:19 17 November 2014
and ST (30 min.). The maximum removal of TC (98.63%) and
TB (98.02%) was observed at optimum OT of 40 min. beyond
which there was no significant removal of TC and TB. It can
be said that with increase in OT, there was a formation of more
active oxidants such as · OH− , and ClO2 −· responsible for the
disinfection of BTMW. The agglomeration and sedimentation
colloid particles contained in the BTMW likely enhance TC and
TB removal efficiency.
As the electrolysis period is increased, the concentration of
metal ions and their hydroxide flocs is also increased (25, 26,
27).The bactericidal efficiency generally increased with the CD
and contact time. For a low Cl concentration of 0.01 M, a
3-log E. coli reduction could be achieved at a current density
of 5 mA/cm2 with a contact time of 6 s or longer. In a contact
time as short as 3 s, a current density of around 10 mA/cm2
was needed to have a similar degree of disinfection (28).
Effect of Inter Electrode Distance (IED)
As shown in Fig. 3, IED was an effective factor in
EC disinfection of BTMW. The removal percentage of TC
and TB increased progressively with decrease in IED from
2.5 to 0.5 cm, whereby it exhibited the maximum removal
of TC (99.36%) and TB (99.42%) using a short distance of
0.5 cm between the electrodes, with each electrode having
a surface area of 80 cm2 with the operating conditions of
CD(1.68 A/m2 ), OT(40 min), EA(80 cm2 ), pH(7.5), and ST
(30 min.). It can be said that the lower distance between elec-
trodes increased the generation of different oxidizing agents in
comparison to experiments where higher distance between the
electrodes were maintained. There appear to be no reports in the
literature to study the effect of IED on disinfection efficiency
of BTMW. An increase in the IED of electrodes reduces TC
and TB removal due to decrease in current flow and coagulant
generation. It was found that the lower IED between electrodes
favored the increased formation of the anions and cations at
anode and cathode, which led to an increase in the disinfection
efficiency of BTMW.
However, for the removal of nitrate, it has been observed
that as the electrode gap becomes lesser, there is slower mixing
of the fluid between electrodes that is not sufficient which may
lead to increase in concentration-polarization layer on electrode
surface. It has been explained that the more the gap between the
electrodes, it increases the electric resistance against the cur-
rent flowing between anode and cathode. With the result, these
effects can increase electric potential or resistance of electrodes,
thereby, diminishing nitrate removal efficiency (29, 30, 31, 32).
The effect of IED has also been observed for the removal of
color by Ghosh et al. (33) who reported that with the increase
of IED, the percentage removal of dye products from waste
water decreases. At a lower IED, the resistance encountered
by current flowing in the solution medium decreases, thereby,
facilitating the electrolytic process resulting in enhancing dye
removal.
Effect of Electrode Area (EA)
The present study indicated that with an increase in EA
from 80 to 160 cm2 , the current density increased from 1.68 to
2.65 A/m2 corresponding to its constant voltage of 40V that
resulted in an increase in the removal percentage of TC and
TB (Fig. 4).The maximum removal of TC (99.86%) and TB
(99.74%) was achieved at EA of 160 cm2 with the operating
conditions of voltage (40 V), OT(40 min.) and IED (0.5 cm) at
an initial pH (7.5) and ST (30 min). The disinfection efficiency
can be attributed to more EA of Al electrodes resulting in the
generation of a larger amount of hydroxides and hydroxyl radi-
cals that can lead to inactivation of TC and TB in BTMW. The
increase in EA was predicted to increase the number of hydrox-
ide ions (OH− ) in solution resulting from water reduction at the
cathode.
An increase of EA causes corresponding increase of coagu-
lants during the EC process depends on the appropriate amount
of coagulant (34). The logistical relationship between electrode
geometric area (AG) and copper removal efficiency has indi-
cated that an increase in Cu removal was related to an increase
in AG, reaching to an optimal value of 35 cm2 with an asymp-
totic value of ≈80% (35). The removal efficiency of TD, BOD,
and COD has been attributed to a greater EA that produces
larger amount of anions and cations from the anode and cath-
ode. The higher EA increases the rate of the flock’s formation,
which in turn influences the removal efficiency of TD, BOD,
and COD (36).
Effect of pH
The pH of wastewater can vary significantly depending on
its origin. Hence experiments were conducted at pH values of
5.0 to 8.5. In the present study, the removal efficiency of TCand
TBat different initial pH values of 5 to 8.5 of BTMW with oper-
ating conditions of CD (2.65 A/m2 ) OT:40 min., IED:0.5 cm,
EA:160 cm2 , and ST:30 min. indicated that TC was increased
from 97.89 to 99.86 and TB was increased from 97.21 to
 DISINFECTION OF BIOLOGICALLY TREATED MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER USING ELECTROCHEMICAL PROCESS 2617

99.74% with an increase in the pH from 5 to 7.0. However, the
increase in pH of BTMW beyond 7.0 decreased the removal
efficiency of TC and TB. It was also indicated that the decreas-
ing the pH from 8.5 to 5.0 of BTMW increased the energy
consumption from 62.88 to 68.16 kwh/m3 (Fig. 5). It was found
that the pH of BTMW did not have significant influence on the
inactivation of TC and TB due to the formation of lower amount
of the oxidants at lower pH values. It can be explained that at a
pH 7.5 of BTMW increased the generation of active coagulants
that were responsible for inactivation of TC and TB.
It has been also observed by Gurseset al. (37) that the
removal efficiency of colloidal particles in the pH range of
4–7 leads to the formation of amorphous hydroxide precipitates
and other aluminum-hydroxo complexes with hydroxide ions
and polymeric species. Therefore, pH is an important factor in
EC process and its variation is usually caused by the solubility
of metal hydroxides. They further reported that the pH of the
Downloaded by [Arun Kumar Sharma] at 20:19 17 November 2014
and sludge dewatering and its disposal. In the present study, the
cost of energy and electrode material was taken into account for
the calculation of the operating cost (US $/m3 ) of EC disinfec-
tion using the formula (17, 33, 36). The energy consumption
increased from 64.32 kwh/m3 to 101.76 kWh/m3 with an
increase in EA (80-160 cm2 ) and CD (1.68 to 2.65 A/m2 ) that
in turn resulted in increase of the electrode consumption from
14.985 x 10−5 to 23.71x10−5 kg/m3 for the removal of TC and
TB from BTMW during EC disinfection (Fig. 4). The cost for
disinfection was found to be $1.01 in terms of energy and elec-
trode consumption with the optimum operating conditions of
CD (2.65 A/m2 ), OT (40 min.), IED (0.5 cm), pH (7.5), and ST
(30 min.) of the EC process.
KINETIC EVALUATION
The present study revealed that an increase in the voltage

effluent after electrocoagulation increases for acidic influent from 5 V to 40 V increased the rate constant from 0.0045 to
and decreases for alkaline influent hydroxides, which are 0.0466 min−1 for TC and 0.0012 to 0.0426 min−1 for TB during
produced as a result of dissociation of water and are known the electrolytic treatment of BTMW using Al-Al electrode com-
as one of the most reactive aqueous radical species and these bination .The increase in these rate constants may be ascribed
radicals have the ability to oxidize almost all of the organic to the decrease of TC and TB in BTMW. The removal of TC
compounds (38). Al3 + ions on hydrolysis may generate the and TB exhibited pseudo first-order kinetic with the significant
aqueous complex Al(H2 O)6 3+ , which is predominant at correlation coefficients (r2 > 0.81) at maximum voltage of 40V
pH < 4. Between pH 5-6, the predominant hydrolysis products (Table 1).
are Al(OH)2 + and Al(OH)2 + and between pH 5.2-8.8, the
solid Al(OH)3 is more prevalent; and above pH 9, the soluble CONCLUSIONS
species Al(OH)4 is the predominant and the only species The electrochemical disinfection in terms of TC and TB
present above the pH 10 (39). removal using Al electrodes was found to be dependent on dif-
ferent operating conditions viz. voltage/CD, OT, IED, EA, and
Effect of Settling Time (ST) initial pH during the EC process. The maximum removal of
The effect of ST on removal efficiency of TC and TB has TC and TB was with the optimal operating conditions of CD
not been given due consideration so far. There appears to (2.65 A/m2 ), OT (40 min.), EA (160 cm2 ), and pH (7.5). The
be no work with regard to the ST on the BTMW treatment interesting thing was that there was no need of pH adjustment of
during EC disinfection. During the present study, it was inter- the BTMW during EC disinfection. It could also be shown that
esting to note that the removal efficiency with the constant
operating conditions of CD (2.65 A/m2 ), OT (40 min.), EA TABLE 1
(160 cm2 ), and pH (7.5) improved with an increase of settling Rate constant (K min−1 ) values at variable voltages and
time from 30 to 90 min. of BTMW. The maximum removal of their correlation coefficients (r2 ) using Al-Al electrode
TC (99.99%) and TB (99.87%) was found at the ST of 60 mins combination
(Fig. 6), beyond which there was no significant removal of TC
and TB. It was indicated that the EC disinfection of BTMW TC TB
brought down the number of TC from 834000MPN/100 mL
Voltage (V) K (min−1 ) r2 K (min−1 ) r2
to 333.6MPN/100 mL, i.e., to within the discharge limit of
BTMW in surface water (Class B- water for outdoor bathing) 5 0.0045 0.9154 0.0012 0.8482
of BIS (1991) standard. 10 0.0083 0.9613 0.0058 0.9653
15 0.0120 0.9933 0.0091 0.9458
20 0.0135 0.9837 0.0153 0.9656
ECONOMIC EVALUATION
25 0.0157 0.9625 0.0182 0.9874
Electrical energy and electrode consumption are the impor- 30 0.0174 0.9094 0.0248 0.9806
tant parameters in the economic evaluation of EC process. 35 0.0203 0.8151 0.0346 0.9964
In EC process, the operating cost includes material mainly elec- 40 0.0466 0.9804 0.0426 0.9975
trodes and electrical energy cost as well as labor, maintenance,
 2618 A. K. CHOPRA AND A. K. SHARMA
the disinfection was strongly affected by CD, OT, IED, EA, pH,
and ST. These effects can be explained by the behavior of the
reactive species. The increase in CD formed a greater amount
of strong oxidizing agents such as· OH− and ClO2 −· during the
process for the inactivation of coliforms present in BTMW. The
EC process brought down the TC from BTMW to the extent of
their discharge into surface water within the permissible limit
(Quality: Class B- water for outdoor bathing) of the BIS stan-
dards. The kinetic rate constants for TC and TB removal at
various voltages indicated that pseudo first-order kinetic were
in good agreement with the experimental results. The operating
cost for disinfection was found to be 1.01 US$/m3 in terms
of energy and electrode consumption which would be eco-
nomical and eco-friendly for the removal of TC and TB from
BTMW.
Downloaded by [Arun Kumar Sharma] at 20:19 17 November 2014
FUNDING
The University Grant Commission, New Delhi, India is
acknowledged for providing the financial support in the
form of UGC Research Fellowship (F.4-1/2006 (BSR) 7-
70/2007 BSR) to Mr. Arun Kumar Sharma.
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