Animal Physiology

BST1152
Level I Semester I

Prof.E.P.S.Chandana
Dilshan Dissanayaka
Department of BioSystems Technology
Faculty of Technology
University of Ruhuna

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 Course outline -2 credits
Lectures-15hours
Lab-30 hours

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 Objectives

• Basic architecture of animal body and its constituent biological

systems in structural and functional perspective
• Biological processes within the animal body that sustain
functionality of animals
• Basic physical and chemical principles underlying the
physiological processes of living systems
• Physiological adaptations of animals in order to meet the
challenges of environment
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 Learning outcomes

• Describe the basic structure of animal body

• Interpret the nature of biological systems and their

functionality to sustain life of animals

• Illustrate the physiological adaptability of animals to

succeed in their environment

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 Examination

End
Continuous
semester
assessment
examination

40% (2 Quizzes,
Presentation, 60% (Theory 40 %,
Mid semester Practicals 20%)
examination)
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 Lecture plan
Topic of the lecture No. of lectures

General anatomy and intracellular organization 02

Circulation 02

Respiration 02
Digestion 03
Excretion 02
Homeostasis: Neural and Endocrine 04
Reproduction 02

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 What is Animal physiology

• Physiology-Study of how animal

body works

• Animal physiology is the scientific

study of the life-supporting
properties, functions and processes
of animals or their parts.

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 Importance of Animal physiology

• It is the principal discipline in the understanding of health

and diseases among animal populations.

• Forms the fundamental science on which the teaching in

the breeding, feeding and management of farm animals
should be based.

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 Levels of organization of animal body

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• Cell - smallest, basic unit of life that is responsible for
all of life’s processes.

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• Tissue -Tissues are groups of similar cells that perform
a particular function.
• Organ -An organ is a complex structure within the body.
It has a special job or jobs to do.

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• System- group of organs that work together to perform
a certain function in an organism’s body.
• Circulatory and lymphatic systems
• Respiratory system
• Digestive system
• Excretory system
• Nervous system

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 Circulatory and lymphatic system

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 Water and Body fluids

• Water- 60% of total body weight

• It is the solvent for the chemicals of the body,
solutions thus formed provide the diffusion media
for body cells.

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• The physical properties of
water make it ideal for this
transport function.

• It has a relatively high

specific heat.

• Provides the lubrication

necessary for minimizing
friction associated with fluid
flow, cell movement, and
movement of body parts.

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Activity 1
• List out various physical properties of water along with their usage in
body functioning.
Ex: High specific heat –Heat of cells is absorbed with minimum
temperature increase

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• Body fluids-Contain not only water ,but also solutes
• Examples: Blood, Lymph, cerebrospinal fluid, synovial
fluid, breast milk, urine, saliva
• medium for carrying nutrients to and waste products
from the cells.
• To carrying of the chemical communicators that
coordinate activities among cells

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 Total body water

Intracellular fluid Extracellular fluid

Transcellular fluid Intersititial fluid Intravascular

fluid

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• Intracellular fluid-
About two thirds of the body water which is found within
cells

• Extracellular fluid-
All water that is not in cells
•Interstitial fluid
•Intravascular fluid
•Transcellular fluid

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• Interstitial fluid- the fluid outside capillaries that immediately
surrounds cells.It is the environment of cells.

• Intravascular fluid -That portion of the total body fluid

contained within blood and lymphatic vessels.

• Transcellular fluid-Fluid found in body cavities.

Examples:Cerebrospinal fluid,synovial fluid,bile,fluids in
digestive tract
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 Blood circulatory
system

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• As animals became more complex and multicellular, the
circulatory system evolved because simple diffusion was
insufficient to supply all of the cells with nutrients.

• The coordination of the circulatory system and the respiratory

system to ensure proper gas exchange is very important in
animals that have lungs and gills

• Purpose of a circulatory system-supplies the cells, tissues, and

organs with oxygen and nutrients, while removing carbon
dioxide and waste, the byproducts of respiration

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 Two distinct types

Open circulatory system

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Closed circulatory system 23
 Open circulatory system and closed circulatory system

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 Open circulatory system

• An open circulatory system, found in arthropods, pumps blood

into a cavity called a hemocoel where it surrounds the organs
and then returns to the heart(s) through ostia (openings).

• The blood found in arthropods, a mix of blood and interstitial

fluid, is called hemolymph.

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 Main components of blood circulatory system

Heart Blood Vessels

The pumping device The circulatory fluid Tubes for circulation

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Activity 2

• Compare open and closed circulatory system

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 Warm blooded animals and cold blooded
animals
• Warm-blooded animals
such as mammals and birds, were able to maintain their
body temperature regardless of the surroundings.

• Cold-blooded animals
such as reptiles, amphibians, insects, arachnids and fish,
were not.

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Activity 3

• List the functions of blood.

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General characteristics of blood
• Hematocrit
• Blood volume
• Blood pH
• Blood color

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Hemotocrit

• Hematocrit is the percentage of red blood

cells in the total blood volume.
•Results are given as a percentage.

•Normal values are:

•36% to 48% for women
•42% to 52% for men
•30% to 44% for children, depending on
age
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Hemotocrit contd..
• If HCT is high, it may mean body is making too many red blood
cells.
• Your HCT may also be high if your plasma or blood volume is too
low. This can happen when dehydrated or in shock.

• If your HCT is low, it means you may have:

• Anemia
• White blood cell cancers, such as leukemia
• Chronic illness
• Bleeding

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 Blood volume

• Blood volume refers to the total amount of fluid circulating within

the arteries, capillaries, veins, venules, and chambers of the
heart at any time.
• The components that add volume to blood include red blood
cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), platelets,
and plasma.
• Plasma - 60% of total blood volume
• erythrocytes make up roughly 40% along with leukocytes
and platelets.

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Blood volume contd.
• The amount of blood circulating within an individual depends on
their size and weight.
• Average human adult has nearly 5 liters of circulating blood.
• Women tend to have a lower blood volume than men.
However, a woman's blood volume increases by roughly 50%
during pregnancy.

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 Blood pH
• The acidity or alkalinity of blood.
• A variety of factors affect blood pH including
• what is ingested
• vomiting
• diarrhea lung function
• endocrine function
• kidney function
• urinary tract infection
• The normal blood pH is tightly regulated between 7.35 and
7.45.
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 Blood color
• The level of oxygen in your blood cells determines the
brightness of the red color.
• Blood pumped directly from the heart is oxygen rich and bright
red.
• As the blood circulates the body and carbon dioxide is removed
by tissue, the blood grows darker.
• For that reason, blood returning to the heart and lungs often has
a dark red appearance

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 Elements of blood

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• It has four main components:

• Plasma
• red blood cells
• white blood cells
• platelets

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 Plasma
• Plasma is a pale straw-colored liquid
• It’s the liquid part of the blood.

• Consist of 90% water and 10% of a variety of substances in

solution and suspension .

• It is the medium of exchange between the blood vessels and

the cells of the body.

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 Components of blood plasma and
their functions
• Water
• Provides cells of the body with water.

• Transports many dissolved materials round the body.

• Regulation of water content helps to regulate blood pressure

and blood volume.

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Plasma Proteins

• Three major classes of plasma proteins

• Albumin
• Globulin
• Fibrinogen

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Plasma Proteins
• α– globulins and β– globulins
• Bind and transport hormones, lipids and fat-soluble vitamins ( A, D, E,
and K)

• γ– globulins
• Antibodies.
• Important in immune response

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• Prothrombin –
• A protein involved in blood clotting
• Fibrinogen
• Produced by liver.
• Takes part in blood clotting
• Enzymes
• Take part in metabolic activities

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Mineral ions

•These include Sodium, Potassium, Magnesium, chloride ions,

bicarbonate ions, sulphates, phosphates

•All help collectively to regulate solute potential and pH levels in

the blood.

• They also have a variety of other functions

• Example: Calcium ions may act as a clotting factor

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Components that occur in varying concentrations

• Products of digestion ex: sugars, fatty acids, glycerol, amino

acids
• Vitamins
• Excretory products ex: insulin, sex hormones, growth hormone
• Gases(Carbon dioxide,Oxygen,Nitrogen)
All these components are being constantly transported to and
from cells within the body

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 Erythrocytes/Red blood cells(RBC)

Microscopic view of erythrocytes

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• Major function : gaseous exchange i.e. oxygen and carbon
dioxide
• The particular shape results in a larger surface area to volume
ratio. This increases the area which can be used for gaseous
exchange.
• Each cell is very thin, thus allowing efficient diffusion of gases
across its surface.
• The shape makes it very flexible and this property allows it to
squeeze through capillaries

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 Transport of oxygen
• It is the hemoglobin molecule found in the erythrocytes which is
responsible for the transport of oxygen around the body.

• Hemoglobin is composed of four subunits.

• Each subunit is composed of a globin protein and the haem group.
• Haem groups are responsible for the characteristic red colour of the
blood.

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• A ferrous (iron) atom is located within each haem group and each of
these can combine reversibly with one molecule of oxygen.

• Therefore each hemoglobin molecule can carry up to four oxygen

molecules.

• Hb + 4O2 HbO8
• (Hemoglobin molecules) (Oxyhemoglobin)

• Combination of oxygen with hemoglobin to oxyhemoglobin

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 Hemoglobin combines reversibly
with oxygen to form
oxyhemoglobin in areas of high
oxygen concentrations (Ex:
lungs) and releases the oxygen
in regions of low oxygen
concentration (Ex: body tissues)

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 Transport of Carbon Dioxide
• Carbon dioxide is carried by the blood in different ways.
• As HCO3 - ions in the plasma (about 70%): When CO2 diffuses into the red
blood cells the enzyme carbonic anhydrase catalyze the combination of CO2
with water to form bicarbonate ( HCO3 - ) and H+ ions. The HCO3 - moves out
of the erythrocytes into the plasma

• As carbaminohemoglobin (about 23%): CO2 combined with protein group of

hemoglobin and form carbaminohemoglobin. Therefore CO2 does not
compete with oxygen binding sites in hemoglobin.

• Dissolved in plasma (about 7%): as free gas

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 Red blood cells(RBC)
Alternative Name Erythrocytes
Origin In the embryonic phase, they are
formed in the liver and spleen.
However, after birth, they are
formed in the red bone marrow.
Process of Formation Erythropoiesis
Abundance More abundant (4-5 million
/mm3) They are the most
abundant cell in the blood,
accounting for about 40 to 45
percent of its volume.
Size Smaller than WBC ( 0.008 mm
diameter )
Shape Circular,Biconcave disc-shaped
Hemoglobin The complex protein,
hemoglobin, is the major
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White blood cells(WBC)
Leucocytes
They are formed in red bone
marrow, lymph nodes, spleen,
etc
Leucopoiesis
They are much fewer in number
than red blood cells, accounting
for about 1 percent of blood
(8000 /mm3).
Larger than RBC (0.02mm)
Irregular or round in shape
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 Red blood cells(RBC) White blood cells(WBC)

Nucleus The nucleus is absent Present and may be bilobed,

irregular or round.
Circulatory system Belong to the cardiovascular Belong to the lymphatic system
system
Types Single type. In healthy people, there are at
least five types of white cells in
the circulating blood.
Number Increment Number increases during The infection leads to an
exercise or when at high altitudes increase in the number of WBCs.
Life span The average life span of 120 Life span ranges from 5-21 days.
days

Movement type Do not leave the blood vessel They can leave blood from
capillaries and land in tissues

Function Carry respiratory gases- oxygen Phagocytosis and defensive role

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contributes to blood viscosity.
• Leukocytes are involved in pathogen recognition, phagocytosis
(ingestion of particles), pathogen destruction, inflammation
mediation, and antigen presentation.
• All are capable of a crawling movement known as amoeboid
movement which allows them to move through pores in the
capillary walls
• Leukocytes can be divided in to two main groups according to
whether they show granules in their cytoplasm
• granulocytes
• agranulocytes

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 Granulocytes
• These are made in the bone marrow but by cells different from
those that make RBC.
• Can be further subdivided into three categories
• Neutrophils
• Eosinophils
• Basophils
•These granules are membrane-bound enzymes
that act primarily in the digestion of endocytosed
particles.

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• The nucleus contains multiple lobes (polymorphonuclear)

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 Neutrophils (Phagocytes)
• These make about 70% of the total number of WBC.
• 3-4 lobes are present in the nucleus
• They kill and digest bacteria and fungi. They are the
most numerous type of white blood cell and your first line of
defense when infection strikes.
• The cell membranes of these cells can engulf particulate matter
(ex: bacteria, cells, degenerating tissue) and extracellular fluid
and bring them into their cytoplasm.
• The ingestion of particulate matter is known as phagocytosis

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 Eosinophils

• Two lobes are present in the nucleus and are joined by thin
strand.
• Generally they represent only 1.5 % of the total number of
WBC
• Primarily deal with parasitic infections
They are also the predominant inflammatory cells
in allergic reactions.

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 Basophils
• These represent 0.5% of the WBC
• Granules are large in size
• Nucleus is divided into two lobes
• Responsible for short-term inflammatory response (particularly
from allergy or irritation) by releasing the chemical histamine,
which causes the vasodilation that occurs with inflammation.

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 Agranulocytes
• These cells possess non-granular cytoplasm and have either
oval or bean-shaped nucleus.
• Mononuclear (MN) leukocytes are characterized by a single
round nucleus within the cytoplasm.
• Two main types exist.
• Monocytes
• Lymphocytes

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 Monocytes
• These represent 4 % of the WBC.
• Formed in the bone marrow and have a beanshaped nucleus.
• They also play a role in the immune system

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• Monocytes are large leukocytes that differentiate
into macrophages and dendritic cells under varying conditions,
while performing similar functions in phagocytosis and
antigen presentation (the process by which molecular
components are presented to lymphocytes to stimulate an
adaptive immune response)

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Macrophages
• Macrophages are monocytes that have migrated out of the
blood stream and into the internal body tissues.
• They destroy necrotic cell debris and foreign material including
viruses and bacteria, and can present antigens to naive
lymphocytes.
• They typically arrive at the site of inflammation one to three
days after the initial neutrophil response to clean up dead
neutrophils, cellular debris, and remaining pathogens.

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Dendritic cells
• Dendritic cells are monocytes that have migrated to cells that
are in contact with the external environment, such as the skin,
intestines, or respiratory epithelium.
• They phagocytize pathogens and present antigens to naive
lymphocytes.

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 Lymphocytes
• These represent 24 % of the WBC.
• Produced in the thymus gland and lymphoid tissues from cells
which originate in the bone marrow.
• The cells are rounded and posses only a small quantity of
cytoplasm.
• Also found in lymph and body tissues.
• They are involved in immune reactions.
• The life span of these particular cells can vary from matter of
days to up to ten years or more.

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 Platelets
• Irregular shaped, membrane bound cell fragments.
• Usually lack of nuclei.
• Formed from specialized bone marrow cells.
• They are about one quarter the size of RBC.
• Responsible for starting the process of the blood clotting.
• There are about 250,000 per mm3 of blood.
• Life span is about 5-9 days and destroyed by the spleen and
the liver

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 Lymphatic system
• The lymphatic system is a circulatory system that drains fluid
from the blood vessels.

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 Lymph
• Blood pressure causes leakage of fluid from the capillaries,
resulting in the accumulation of fluid in the interstitial space.

• In humans, 20 liters of plasma is released into the interstitial

space of the tissues each day due to capillary filtration which is
known as interstitial fluid.
• Composition of lymph-a variety of substances, including
proteins, salts, glucose, fats, water, and white blood cells. does
not normally contain any red blood cells.

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 20L of plasma

17 reabsorbed directly Lymphatic system

by the blood vessels drains the excess fluid

• The lymphatic vessels begin as open-ended capillaries, which feed

into larger and larger lymphatic vessels, and eventually empty into the
bloodstream by a series of ducts.

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• Lymph is forced through the vessels by the movements of the
body, the contraction of skeletal muscles during body
movements, and breathing.

• One-way valves (semi-lunar valves) in lymphatic vessels keep

the lymph moving toward the heart.

• Lymph flows from the lymphatic capillaries, through lymphatic

vessels, and then is dumped into the circulatory system via the
lymphatic ducts located at the junction of the jugular and
subclavian veins in the neck.

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