[Module 7 part 1 & 2] IN SITU STRESSES: GEOSTATIC STRESSES

7.1 TOTAL AND EFFECTIVE STRESS

The deformations of soils are similar to the deformations of structural framework such as a truss. The
truss deforms from changes in loads carried by each member. If the truss is loaded in air or submerged
in water, the deformations under a given load will remain unchanged. Deformations of the truss are
independent of hydrostatic pressure. The same is true for soils.
Let us consider an element of a saturated soil subjected to a normal stress, σ, applied on the
horizontal boundary, as shown in Figure 7.1.

The stress, σ is called the total stress, and for equilibrium (Newton’s third law) the stresses in the soil
must be equal and opposite to σ. In geostatic condition, the total stress, σ at a point is the saturated
unit weight of the soil and the unit weight of water above it. The total stress, σ can be divided into two
parts:
1. A portion is carried by water in the continuous void spaces called porewater pressure.
2. The rest of the total stress is carried by the soil solids at their point of contact. This is called
the effective stress, σ’.
The resistance or reaction to σ is provided by a combination of the stresses from the solids, called
effective stress (σ′), and from water in the pores, called porewater pressure (u). The equilibrium
equation is:

Equation (7.2) is called the principle of effective stress and was first recognized by Terzaghi (1883–1963)
in the mid-1920s during his research into soil consolidation. The principle of effective stress is the most
important principle in soil mechanics. Deformations of soils are a function of effective stresses, not
total stresses. The principle of effective stresses applies only to normal stresses and not to shear
stresses. The porewater cannot sustain shear stresses, and therefore the soil solids must resist the shear
forces. Thus 𝜏 = 𝜏′, where 𝜏 is the total shear stress and 𝜏′ is the effective shear stress. The effective
stress is not the contact stress between the soil solids. Rather, it is the average stress on a plane through
the soil mass.
Soils cannot sustain tension. Consequently, the effective stress cannot be less than zero. Porewater
pressures can be positive or negative. The latter are sometimes called suction or suction pressure.
7.2 GEOSTATIC STRESSES
In a given volume of soil, the solid particles are distributed randomly with void spaces between. The
void spaces are continuous and are occupied by water and/or air. To analyze problems (such as
compressibility of soils, bearing capacity of foundations, stability of embankments, and lateral pressure
on earth-retaining structures), we need to know the nature of the distribution of stress along a given
cross section of the soil profile.
To evaluate the stresses at a point in the ground, we need to know the locations, magnitudes, and
directions of the forces that cause them.
Two broad categories of sources of stress in the ground:
GEOSTATIC STRESSES – are those that occur due to the weight of the soil above the point being
evaluated.
INDUCED STRESSES – are those caused by external loads such as structural foundations, vehicles, or
fluid in a storage tank.

7.2.1 Stresses in Saturated Soil without Seepage

Figure 7.2 shows a column of saturated soil mass with no seepage of water in any direction.
The total stress at the elevation of point A can be obtained from the saturated unit weight of the soil
and the unit weight of water above it. Thus,
The effective stress at any point A is independent of the depth of water H, above the submerged
soil. Effective stress is the force per unit area carried by the soil skeleton. The effective stress in the
soil mass controls its volume change and strength. Increasing the effective stress induces soil to move
into a denser state of packing.

7.2.2 Stresses in Saturated Soil with Upward Seepage

If water is seeping, the effective stress at any point in a soil mass will differ from that in the static
case. It will increase or decrease depending on the direction of seepage.
Figure 7.3 shows a layer of granular soil in a tank where upward seepage is caused by adding water
through the valve at the bottom of the tank. The rate of water supply is kept constant. The loss of head
caused by upward seepage between the levels of A and B is h.
Keeping in mind that the total stress at any point in the soil mass is due solely to the weight of soil and
water above it, we find that the effective stress calculations at points A and B are as follows:
7.2.3 Stresses in Saturated Soil with Downward Seepage
The condition of downward seepage is shown in Fig. 7.4. The water level in the soil tank is held
constant by adjusting the supply from the top and the outflow at the bottom.
The hydraulic gradient caused by the downward seepage equals i = h/H2. The total stress, pore water
pressure, and effective stress at points A, B, and C are:

7.3 CRITICAL HYDRAULIC GRADIENT

 The effective stress at a point located at depth z measured from the surface of a soil layer is reduced
by an amount izγw because of upward seepage. If the rate of seepage and hydraulic gradient
gradually are increased, a limiting condition will be reached at which the effective stress becomes
zero. From Fig. 7.3,

If the effective stress becomes zero, the soil loses its intergranular frictional strength and behaves like a
viscous fluid. The soil at this state is called static liquefaction. Static liquefaction occurs when icr is
reached. In this condition, the soil stability is lost.
Events connected to static liquefaction are:
 Boiling occurs when the upward seepage force exceeds the downward force of the soil.
 Piping (or tunneling) refers to the subsurface “pipe-shaped” erosion that initiates near the toe
of dams and similar structures.
 Quicksand is the existence of a mass of sand in a state of static liquefaction.
 Heaving occurs when seepage forces push the bottom of an excavation upward.
7.4 SEEPAGE FORCE
 The preceding sections showed that the effect of seepage is to increase or decrease the effective
stress at a point in a layer of soil. Often, expressing the seepage force per unit volume of soil is

convenient.