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Energy
EnergyProcedia 119
Procedia 00(2017)
(2017)1003–1011
000–000
www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
International Conference on Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy, Environment and
Sustainability,
International Conference TMREES17,
on Technologies and21-24 Aprilfor
Materials 2017, Beirut Lebanon
Renewable Energy, Environment and
Sustainability, TMREES17, 21-24 April 2017, Beirut Lebanon
Statistical design of experiments as a tool for investigation for the
Statistical design
The
influence of porous
experiments
15th International
of Symposium
coating as ona tool
on District for
the critical investigation
Heating and Cooling for the
heat flux
influence of porous coating on the critical heat flux
Assessing Mebarkia the Mohamed
feasibility a of using
*, Louafi the aheat
Messaoud , Aoulmi demand-outdoor
Zoubira
temperature function
Mebarkia
Environment Laboratory,
a Mohamed
Department forfaculty
of Mines, a*,long-term
a
ofLouafi
Science and district
Messaoud
Technology,
a
heat
the, University
Aoulmi demand
Zoubir
of Tébessa,
a
forecast
Tébessa 12000, Algeria
a
Environment Laboratory, Department of Mines, faculty of Science and Technology, the University of Tébessa, Tébessa 12000, Algeria
I. Andrića,b,c*, A. Pinaa, P. Ferrãoa, J. Fournierb., B. Lacarrièrec, O. Le Correc
a
IN+ Center for Innovation, Technology and Policy Research - Instituto Superior Técnico, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
Abstract b
Veolia Recherche & Innovation, 291 Avenue Dreyfous Daniel, 78520 Limay, France
Abstract c
Département Systèmes Énergétiques et Environnement - IMT Atlantique, 4 rue Alfred Kastler, 44300 Nantes, France
This paper presents the results of a detailed characterization of critical heat flux (CHF), obtained using a design of experiments
(DOE)
This methods.
paper presents Thetheresults
resultsshow that thecharacterization
of a detailed operational behavior of aheat
of critical CHF is (CHF),
flux mainly obtained
influencedusingby afour independent
design input
of experiments
variables. The influence
(DOE) methods. of theshow
The results porous coated
that tube on critical
the operational heat flux
behavior of (CHF)
a CHFisisinvestigated. At first, by
mainly influenced there were
four 4 variable input
independent input
factors included
Abstract
variables. in the process.
The influence Only some
of the porous coatedoftubethem
on have dominant
critical heat fluxeffect
(CHF)onis CHF. More exact
investigated. relations,
At first, between
there were mass input
4 variable flux,
pressure,included
factors presence in of
theporous
process.coated,
OnlyL/Dsome andofcritical heat dominant
them have flux were effect
investigated.
on CHF. The effect
More of arelations,
exact measurementbetweenerrormass
was flux,
also
detected.
District presence
pressure, heating networks
of porousare commonly
coated, L/D and addressed
critical in
heattheflux
literature as one of the
were investigated. most
The effective
effect solutions forerror
of a measurement decreasing
was also the
greenhouse gas emissions from the building sector. These systems require high investments which are returned through the heat
detected.
© sales.
2017 Due Authors.
to the changed climate conditions and building renovation policies, heat demand in the future could decrease,
2017 The
©prolonging
The Authors.
the
Published
Published
investment return
by Elsevier
Elsevier Ltd.
byperiod. Ltd.
Peer-review
© under
under responsibility
2017 The Authors.
Peer-review Published by
responsibility of the
the Euro-Mediterranean
ofElsevier Ltd.
Euro-Mediterranean Institute
Institute for
for Sustainable
Sustainable Development
Development (EUMISD).
(EUMISD).
The main scope of this paper is to assess the feasibility of using the heat demand – outdoor temperature function for heat demand
Peer-review under responsibility of the Euro-Mediterranean Institute for Sustainable Development (EUMISD).
forecast. The(critical
Keywords:CHF district of flux),
Heat Alvalade,
Designlocated in Lisbon
of experiments, Tubes,(Portugal),
water, vaporwas. used as a case study. The district is consisted of 665
buildings that vary in both construction period and typology. Three weather scenarios (low, medium, high) and three district
Keywords:CHF (critical Heat flux), Design of experiments, Tubes, water, vapor .
renovation scenarios were developed (shallow, intermediate, deep). To estimate the error, obtained heat demand values were
1.compared with results from a dynamic heat demand model, previously developed and validated by the authors.
Introduction
The results showed that when only weather change is considered, the margin of error could be acceptable for some applications
1. Introduction
(the error in annual demand was lower than 20% for all weather scenarios considered). However, after introducing renovation
Critical heat flux (C.H.F), which is also known as burnout, dryout, or boiling crisis, represents an essential heat
scenarios, the error value increased up to 59.5% (depending on the weather and renovation scenarios combination considered).
transfer
The
phenomenon
Critical
value heat
of slope
at whichwhich
fluxcoefficient
(C.H.F), thereis is
increased
a sudden
also
on average
decrease
knownwithin
as burnout, in the valueorof
dryout,
the range of 3.8%
heat transfer
boiling
up to 8% crisis, coefficient
represents
per decade, that an
coupled with
essential
corresponds heat
to
a
the
high increase
transfer in
phenomenon the heating
at which surface
there temperature.
is a sudden Estimating
decrease the
in theCHF
value accurately
of heat is important
transfer
decrease in the number of heating hours of 22-139h during the heating season (depending on the combination of weather and for
coefficient design and
coupled safety
with a
analysis
high of various
increase
renovation in theindustrial
scenarios heating
considered). heatOntransfer
surface otherequipment
temperature.
the [1]. intercept
hand, Estimating
function CHFthe take
CHF place when
accurately
increased theimportant
is heatper
for 7.8-12.7% flux of design
for
decadea (depending
heating
andsurface
safety
on the
analysis
coupled of various The
scenarios). industrial
values heat transfer
suggested equipment
could be used to [1]. CHF the
modify take place when
function the heat
parameters flux
for the of a heating
scenarios surface
considered, and
improve the accuracy of heat demand estimations.

© 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +213-792-578-853.
Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and
meb12med@hotmail.com
* E-mail address:author.
Corresponding
Cooling. Tel.: +213-792-578-853.
E-mail address: meb12med@hotmail.com
1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Keywords: Heat demand;
Peer-review Forecast;the
Climate change
1876-6102 ©under
2017responsibility
The Authors. of Euro-Mediterranean
Published by Elsevier Ltd. Institute for Sustainable Development (EUMISD).
Peer-review under responsibility of the Euro-Mediterranean Institute for Sustainable Development (EUMISD).

1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Peer-review under responsibility of the Scientific Committee of The 15th International Symposium on District Heating and Cooling.
1876-6102 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Peer-review under responsibility of the Euro-Mediterranean Institute for Sustainable Development (EUMISD).
10.1016/j.egypro.2017.07.134
1004 Mebarkia Mohamed et al. / Energy Procedia 119 (2017) 1003–1011
2 Mebarkia Mohamed et al./ Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

increases or flow condition changes such that the generated vapor completely or partially coverts the heating surface.
This vapor blanket, a stable layer of vapor film covering the entire heating surface, prevents sufficient heat transfer,
speedily decreasing the heat flux result in very low thermal efficiency in operation of the heat transfer equipment,
witch, in some cases causing a catastrophic failure of the equipment or a severe physical damage to the heating
surface.
Predicting the CHF accurately is important for design and safety analysis of various industrial heat transfer
equipment including nuclear reactors, fossil-fueled boilers, fusion devices, heat exchanger, evaporator, etc. The
prediction of critical heat flux is an important parameter for the safety of many types of equipment in industry as
boiler, heat exchanger and heated pipe.
The effect of buoyancy becomes significant, in the situations of large specific volume of vapor under low
pressure and low flow conditions, making the prediction of CHF very complicated [2]. Critical heat flux (CHF) has
been studied extensively over the past several decades. Many experimental and analytical investigation related to
CHF have been performed since the 1950’s [3]. There are the empirical performed correlation approachs used since
the early 60’s [4]; the dimensional approach pioneered by Katto and Ohno [5], the phenomenological approach
initialed in the 1970’s [6] and fined tuned in 1990’s [7]; and the look up table method, initiated by the USSR
Academy of sciences (1976) and later adopted and extended by Groneveled et al [8-11].
Use of the porous coated surfaces as a boiling enhancement method is to increase the number of small scale
cavities on a surface [12]. Experimental analyses to the influence of porous coatings on the critical heat flux in
vertical round tubes are present only in a few works . In most cases the examinations took place only in the area of
high pressure or very high mass flow rate [13].
Design of experiments (DOE) methods seems to be very useful exploratory tool at many points of material
engineering. It is necessary to have a clear view on how the things are to have the processes under control. Then the
costs, used materials, production time and material properties can be optimized. In many cases, there are more than 4
known input factors in the process. For that reason, designing experiments and using statistical methods are very
effective ways how to achieve the main aims in research and business [14-17].
The main goal of the present study is therefore to study the influence of porous coated tube on critical heat flux
using design of experiments.

2. Experimental CHF data

For this study, 1125 data points for water in uniformly heated round vertical tubes for the low pressure and low
mass flux, for both smooth and porous coated tube were selected from word literature. The sources of the data were
as follows: Stein [18]. 48 points are chosen for the present analyses.
The experimental device used by Stein consists of a round tube vertical circular heated in a uniform manner by
Joule effect and connected to a circuit water-vapor.
The area of the tube heated by Joule effect see Fig. 1 is equipped with thermocouples attached to the outer wall of
the tube at regular intervals. Each thermocouple is surrounded by a sheath in order to ensure both a electrical
insulation and a good thermal conductivity, as well the electrical current that flows in the test section is isolated
from the welding of thermocouples. The generator supplying the section of tube heated by Joule effect is fitted with
a shunt allowing converting the intensity of the current in the voltage then measured by the central of acquisition.
The voltage between the two electrodes of heating is also measured by the central of acquisition. In considering the
tube as Resistive only, these two sizes allow to calculate the heating power.
The ranges of the collected experimental data were:

0.1 ≤ P ≤ 0.75MPa; 10 ≤ ∆Tsub ≤ 60 K ;

kg
0.127 ≤ L ≤ 0.450m; 20 ≤ G ≤ 400 ;
m² s
W δ
24.02 ≤ qcr ≤ 470.05 ; 3.8 ≤ ≤ 8.6;
cm2 dp
60 ≤ ε ≤ 70%, D = 0.009m.
 Mebarkia
Mebarkia Mohamed
Mohamed et al./ etEnergy
al. / Energy Procedia
Procedia 119 (2017)
00 (2017) 000–0001003–1011 1005
3

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the test section [18].

3. Results and discussion.

Under certain conditions, a CHF can be considered a closed system that is influenced by four independent factors
(pressure, mass flux, ratio L to D, and inlet subcooling).
The main design used in this work was the 2-level factorial design. At first, one DOE for the experiments with
smooth tube and with porous coated tube was made. About 1125 data points for water in uniformly heated round
vertical tubes for the low pressure and low mass flux, were selected from word literature. It was concluded, that in
each of those tubes , the operational behaviour of a CHF is mainly influenced by four independent input factors and
their interactions which vary in dependence with the tube type.
The case of using porous coated tube was the most significant in the process of CHF. A great difference in the
way of other factors changing the CHF behaviour, in case of Smooth tube and Porous coated tube was found. Thus,
this DOE was separated into tow, first for the case of smooth tube and the second for porous coated tube. In fig 2
and 3 there are Pereto charts of these two designs. It can be seen, that Mass flux and Heated length / Tube diameter
are the most important factors in both cases. The same significant level Alpha= 0.05 was used. The bar of the factor
or interaction, which exceeds the red line in Pareto chart is significant and the others are non significant.
In experiments with smooth tube illustrated in Fig. 2 the most significant factors are, i.e., Mass flux, Heated
length / Tube diameter, Pressure, and the interaction between Mass flux and pressure. Mass flux and Heated length /
Tube diameter.
When the porous coated tube was used plotted in Fig. 3, the same factors and interactions in case of smooth tube
influenced the CHF behaviour in case of porous coated tube intensively, within used set of data (The ranges of the
collected experimental data). The value of CHF varied a lot.
In fig. 4 and 5, There are plots of main effects for CHF (in case of smooth tube ). The values on the vertical axis
are CHF values and the data on horizontal one belong to the factor written on the top of each window. These are the
result for the 2-level factorial design, so there are only linear curves. Due to the measurement accuracy of the CHF,
the estimated values in the modal correspond well to the measured data. The two types of means are identical for
balanced designs. It is between 56 and 164 for both data means (measured data ) and fitted means (data fitted with
regression model). The fitted data also correspond well to the experimental results.
1006 Mebarkia Mohamed et al. / Energy Procedia 119 (2017) 1003–1011
4 Mebarkia Mohamed et al./ Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

In case of porous coated tube, Fig 6 and 7, there are similar plots for the fitted and data means. The values of
CHF and their variability are a higher than in the previous case.

Pareto Chart of the Standardized Effects

(response is Critical heat flux, α = 0.05)
Term 2.36

AD

AB

BD
Factor Name
A Pressure
ABD B Mass flux
C Inlet subcooling
C
D Heatedlength/Tube diameter
0 5 10 15 20
Standardized Effect

Fig. 2. Pareto chart of standardized effects (smooth tube).

Pareto Chart of the Standardized Effects

(response is critical heat flux, α = 0.05)
Term 2.36

BD

AB
Factor Name
AD
A Pressure
ABD B Mass flux
C inlet subcooling
C
D Heated length/Tube diameter
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Standardized Effect

Fig. 3. Pareto chart of standardized effects (Porous coated tube for dp = 60-80).
 Mebarkia Mohamed et al. / Energy Procedia 119 (2017) 1003–1011 1007
Mebarkia Mohamed et al./ Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000 5

Main Effects Plot for Critical heat flux

Data Means
Pressure Mass flux

1 50

1 25

1 00

75

50
Mean

-1 1 -1 1
Inlet subcooling Heatedlength/Tube diameter

1 50

1 25

1 00

75

50
-1 1 -1 1

Fig. 4. Main effects plot for CHF data means, smooth tube

Main Effects Plot for Critical heat flux

Fitted Means
Pressure Mass flux
1 50
Mean of Critical heat flux

1 25

1 00

75

50
-1 1 -1 1
Inlet subcooling Heatedlength/Tube diameter
1 50

1 25

1 00

75

50
-1 1 -1 1

Fig. 5. Main effects plot for CHF - fitted means, smooth tube.
6 Mebarkia Mohamed et al./ Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000
1008 Mebarkia Mohamed et al. / Energy Procedia 119 (2017) 1003–1011

There is an effect of a factor, when the response (here it is the CHF ) value varies with the change of the factor
level. For example in fig 4., the value of CHF for the lower level (-1) of Pressure is 89.3957 and 131.039 for the
higher level (+1). The line is increasing. The same it is for Mass flux and Inlet subcooling. In both cases (with
smooth tube and with porous coated tube) increasing in Heated length/ Tube diameter causes decreasing of CHF.

Main Effects Plot for critical heat flux

Data Means
Pressure Mass flux
200

1 50

1 00

50
Mean

-1 1 -1 1

inlet subcooling Heated length/Tube diameter

200

1 50

1 00

50
-1 1 -1 1

Fig. 6. Main effects plot for CHF data means, porous coated tube.

Main Effects Plot for critical heat flux

Fitted Means
Pressure Mass flux
200

1 50
Mean of critical heat flux

1 00

50
-1 1 -1 1
inlet subcooling Heated length/Tube diameter
200

1 50

1 00

50
-1 1 -1 1

7. Main effects plot for CHF - fitted means, porous coated tube.
 Mebarkia Mohamed et al. / Energy Procedia 119 (2017) 1003–1011 1009
Mebarkia Mohamed et al./ Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000 7

In Figs. 8 and 9 there are the interactions of the factor pairs. When the effect of one factor is the same for all
levels of the second factor, then there is no interaction. Two lines (red and blue ) are parallel in this case. For
example between mass flux and inlet subcooling. The significant interaction seems to be between each of the other
factors. i.e between Pressure and Mass flux, and between mass flux and heated length / tube diameter. This is also
shown in Pareto chart Fig. 2. The red line is concurrent to the blue line .
The usage of porous coated tube causes a higher variability of the CHF behavior.

Interaction Plot for critical heat flux

Data Means
-1 1 -1 1
300
Pressure
200 -1
Pressure
1 00 1
300 Mass
flux
200
-1
Mass flux
1 00 1
300 inlet
subcooling
200
inlet subcooling
-1
1 00 1
300 Heated
200 length/Tube
Heated length/Tube diameter diameter
1 00
-1
1
-1 1 -1 1

Fig. 8. Interaction plot for CHF - experimental data means, Porous coated tube

Interaction Plot for critical heat flux

Fitted Means

-1 1
300 Mass flux * Pressure Heated lengt * Pressure Pressure
Mean of critical heat flux

200 -1
1
1 00

Pressure * Mass flux Heated lengt * Mass flux Mass

300
flux
200
-1
1 00 1

Pressure * Heated lengt Mass flux * Heated lengt

300 Heated
lengt
200
-1
1 00 1

-1 1 -1 1
Pressure Mass flux Heated lengt

Fig. 9. Interaction plot for CHF - model fitted data means, Porous coated tube
1010 Mebarkia Mohamed et al. / Energy Procedia 119 (2017) 1003–1011
8 Mebarkia Mohamed et al./ Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000

In residual plot Fig.10 Minitab provided four different ways to look at the residuals, In this case the residuals
appear to be normally distributed (shown by the probability and histogram plots on the left ). In visually checking
the residuals we can see that nothing to complain about. There does not seem to be any great deviation in the normal
probability plot of the residuals. and generally random (shown by the right hand plots) which display the residuals
against their observation order, there are perhaps tow points (number 3 and 7, on the lower right hand plot ) which
do not fit the normal distribution and maybe worthy of further investigation.

Residual Plots for critical heat flux

Normal Probability Plot Versus Fits
99
5.0
90
2.5

Residual
Percent

50 0.0
-2.5
10
-5.0
1
-5.0 -2.5 0.0 2.5 5.0 0 1 00 200 300 400
Residual Fitted Value

Histogram Versus Order

4 5.0
3 2.5
Frequency

Residual

2 0.0
-2.5
1
-5.0
0
-4 -2 0 2 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Residual
Observation Order

Fig. 10. Residual plots for CHF – porous coated tube.

4. Conclusion.

Design of experiments using Minitab were performed to get better understanding of the influence of porous
coated tube on critical heat flux and the used factors behavior. Using porous coated tubes causes more CHF
enhancement than in case of using smooth tube. Thus, measured CHF values are higher in case of using porous
coated tube. It was found, that CHF mean value depends mainly on the mass flux, the ratio L/D and pressure within
the used set of data for both used tubes. The influence of the other input factors and their interactions are less
significant. The influence of Inlet sub-cooling is negligible in both cases, which is according to some recent
researches it may deserves further investigation. To get more exact relationship between factors, interactions and
responses, the same data computed using regression model had corresponded well to the experimentally measured
data.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank Dr. Ing. Stein Michael, university of Berlin, for his excellent technical assistance in this
work.
 Mebarkia Mohamed et al. / Energy Procedia 119 (2017) 1003–1011 1011
Mebarkia Mohamed et al./ Energy Procedia 00 (2017) 000–000 9

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