MATTU UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGOINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING

COMMUNICATION SREAM
OPTICS AND OPTICAL COMMUNICATION TERM PAPER
Prepared by:
No Name ID No
1. Duresa Tahir Ru 4852/12
2. Abdulaziz Hassen Ru5216/12
3. Yalew kifle Ru4045/12

Submitted to: Mr.Ketema

DEC 04 2023
MATTU, ETHIOPIA
 CHAPTER ONE
1 INTRODUCTION
A communication system transmits information from one place to another, whether
separated by a few kilometers or by transoceanic distances. Information is often
carried by an electromagnetic carrier wave whose frequency can vary from a few
megahertz to several hundred terahertz. Optical communication systems use high
carrier frequencies (~ 100 THz) in the visible or near-infrared region of the
electromagnetic spectrum. They are sometimes called light wave systems to
distinguish them from microwave systems, whose carrier frequency is typically
smaller by five orders of magnitude (~ 1 GHz).
Optical fiber communication refers to the technology that utilizes optical fibers as a
means to transmit information over long distances at high speeds. It is a significant
advancement in telecommunications as it allows for faster and more efficient data
transmission compared to traditional electrical cables. Fiber optics refers to the
technology that uses hair-thin strands of glass or plastic, called optical fibers, to
transmit data in the form of pulses of light. This technology revolutionized the
telecommunications industry due to its high bandwidth, low attenuation, and
immunity to electromagnetic interference.
The communication process starts with a transmitter, which converts electrical signals
into optical signals using a light source such as a laser or an LED. These signals are
then launched into the optical fiber, where they travel through the core by bouncing
off the walls due to total internal reflection. The signals can be modulated using
different techniques, mainly amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation
(FM), or phase modulation (PM). Modulation allows for encoding various digital or
analog information into the optical signals, making it possible to transmit voice, data,
and video signals. At the receiving end, a detector called a photo-diode converts the
optical signals back into electrical signals. These signals are then processed and
decoded by the receiver to retrieve the original information.
1.1 Optical Fiber Materials, Design and Fabrication
1.1.1 Optical fiber material
Fiber optic materials are the key components used in the construction of fiber optic
cables, which are used to transmit data, voice, and video signals over long distances.
These materials are carefully selected and manufactured to ensure the efficient
transmission of light signals with minimal loss and distortion. The core material of a
fiber optic cable is typically made of glass or plastic. Glass fibers are commonly used
in high-performance optical communication systems due to their low attenuation and
high bandwidth capabilities. The core is typically made of high-purity silica, which
provides excellent transparency and low signal loss. The cladding surrounding the
core is made of a slightly lower refractive index material to prevent signal leakage.
on the other hand, Plastic fibers, are often used in short-distance communication
applications due to their flexibility and ease of handling. They are made of polymers
such as PMMA or fluorinated polymers, which offer cost-effectiveness and ease of
installation. While plastic fibers have higher signal loss compared to glass fibers, they
are suitable for applications where cost and ease of installation are prioritized. In
addition to the core and cladding materials, fiber optic cables may also include
coatings to protect the fiber from environmental factors and mechanical stress. These
coatings are typically made of materials such as acrylate or polyimide, providing
additional protection and flexibility to the fiber.
1.1.2 Optical fiber design
The design of fiber optics consists of several components. The core, which is at the
center of the fiber, is the region through which the light propagates. It is surrounded
by the cladding, which has a slightly lower refractive index than the core, ensuring
that the light is confined to the core. Fiber optics can be either single-mode or multi-
mode. Single-mode fibers have a small core diameter, typically around 9 microns,
which allows for the transmission of a single light mode. Multi-mode fibers, on the
other hand, have a larger core diameter, usually around 50 to 62.5 microns, allowing
for the transmission of multiple light modes simultaneously. This enables higher
bandwidth but over shorter distances.
1.1.3 Fabrication of fiber optics material
The fabrication process of fiber optics involves several steps. In the case of glass
fibers, it begins with the production of a preform, a large glass rod with a carefully
controlled refractive index profile. This preform is then heated to a high temperature
and drawn into a thin fiber, typically around 125 microns in diameter. The fiber is
then coated with protective layers to form the cladding and the buffer. Plastic fibers
are produced through a similar process, but instead of using glass, a polymer material
is used. The polymer is heated and extruded into a thin fiber, which is then coated to
form the cladding and the buffer.
Both glass and plastic fibers undergo rigorous testing and quality control to ensure
their performance meets the required standards. These tests include measuring the
transmitted power, attenuation, and bandwidth.
Fiber optics materials, design, and fabrication play a crucial role in the success of this
technology. The choice of material, the design of the core and cladding, and the
fabrication process all determine the performance characteristics of fiber optics,
enabling high-speed data transmission over long distances.
1.2 Optical Fiber Couplers and Connectors
Optical fiber couplers and connectors play a crucial role in the field of
telecommunications and data communication systems. They are essential components
in transmitting and receiving light signals efficiently and reliably across fiber optic
networks.
Optical fiber couplers are devices used to combine two or more optical signals into a
single output or split a single input into two or more outputs. They are used to
collimate or redirect light signals, allowing for the efficient distribution of information
across multiple fibers. Coupler can vary in their types, such as fused bi-conical taper
(FBT) couplers, fiber splitter couplers, wavelength division multiplexer (WDM)
couplers, and polarization beam splitters (PBS) couplers. These designs allow for
different functionalities, including signal splitting, signal combining, signal
multiplexing, and signal polarization separation [1]
On the other hand, optical fiber connectors are used to provide low-loss connections
between optical fibers, enabling easy and quick means of fiber optic cable installation
and maintenance. They allow for the seamless connection of fiber optic cables to
various devices, such as routers, switches, and transceivers, without compromising
signal quality. Connectors are designed to ensure precise alignment and minimal
insertion loss, ensuring the efficient transmission of light signals. Popular connector
types include the straight-tip (ST), subscriber connector (SC), and the smaller form
factor connector, such as the small form-factor (SFF), and the small form-factor
pluggable (SFP) connectors [2]
1.3 Objective of the paper
1.3.1 General objective
The general objective of our paper is describing and analyzing the optical fiber
Materials, Design, Fabrication and optical fiber couplers and connectors.
1.3.2 Specific objective
 To develop our understanding about fiber communication.
 To know about optical fiber material.
 To understand how optical fiber material can be designed and fabricated.
 To know about optical connector and couplers.
 To identify types of optical connectors and couplers.
 CHAPTER TWO
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
An optical fiber is a thin cylindrical strand of silica glass, consisting of a central core
surrounded by a cladding: the core has higher refractive index than the surrounding
cladding, thus allowing light to be guided through internal reflection. Typical
dimensions are from 10 to a few 10s of µm for the core diameter, depending on fiber
type, and 125 µm for the cladding. The index difference between the core and the
cladding is very small, ranging from ∼5 to ∼30 × 10−3, again depending on fiber type
[3]
Optical fiber materials play a crucial role in the transmission of data and information
through fiber optic cables. These materials are designed to have low signal loss, high
bandwidth, and strong durability to ensure efficient and reliable communication
networks. One of the most commonly used materials for optical fibers is silica glass,
which offers excellent transparency and low signal attenuation. Silica glass has been
extensively studied and utilized in the telecommunications industry for its outstanding
optical properties and reliability [4]
One key aspect of optical fiber materials fabrication is the selection and processing of
the core and cladding materials. The core material is typically chosen for its high
refractive index, which allows for efficient light transmission, while the cladding
material has a lower refractive index to confine the light within the core. The
fabrication process involves carefully controlling the composition and structure of
these materials to achieve the desired optical properties. Additionally, the fabrication
process may involve the use of dopants and additives to further enhance the optical
properties of the fiber, such as increasing its bandwidth or reducing signal loss. The
precise control of these additives during the fabrication process is crucial for
achieving the desired optical performance. Furthermore, the mechanical properties of
the materials are also crucial for ensuring the long-term reliability of optical fibers.
The fabrication process must carefully consider factors such as tensile strength,
fatigue resistance, and resistance to environmental factors such as moisture and
temperature fluctuations [5]
Optical fiber couplers and connectors play a vital role in ensuring efficient
transmission of optical signals in fiber optic communication networks. These
components allow for enabling the seamless transfer of data over long distances. A
study conducted by Kaushal et al. (2019) highlights the essential role of optical fiber
couplers and connectors in a fiber optic communication network. These components
are crucial for achieving low insertion loss and high return loss, ensuring efficient and
reliable signal transmission. Couplers and connectors also facilitate rapid and flexible
deployment of fiber networks, making them a crucial element in modern
communication systems [6]
With the rapidly increasing demand for higher data rates and more reliable
communication networks, researchers have been exploring new techniques and
materials to enhance the performance of optical fiber couplers and connectors. A
study by Tan et al. (2020) discusses the use of advanced materials, such as graphene
and nanowires, to improve the properties of couplers and connectors. These materials
offer high transmission efficiency, low power consumption, and enhanced mechanical
strength, there by addressing the limitations of traditional coupling and connection
techniques [7]
Optical fiber couplers and connectors are available in various designs and
configurations to meet different requirements. In their research paper, Agrawal and
Singh (2018) provide an overview of different types of couplers and connectors,
including fusion splicing, mechanical connectors, and opto electronic connectors.
Fusion splicing is widely used for permanent, low-loss, and high-strength
connections, while mechanical and optoelectronic connectors are suitable for
temporary or re-configurable setups [8]
 CHAPTER 3
3 FABRICATION PROCESSES OF OPTICAL FIBER
MATERIAL , COUPLERS AND CONNECTORS
During preparing a paper about Optical Fiber Materials, Design, and Fabrication and
fiber couplers and connectors, we are follow some structured method to ensure a
comprehensive and effective presentation of our paper. In this chapter we are
dividing our portion in two parts firstly, we are described about optical fiber material,
design and fabrication, and lastly about fiber couplers and connectors.

3.1 Optical Fiber Materials, Design and Fabrication

In this section of our paper we aimed to provide a comprehensive overview of the
optical fiber material, design, and fabrication process. Optical fibers play a crucial
role in modern communication systems, enabling the transmission of large amounts of
data over long distances at high speeds. The success and efficiency of optical fibers
depend on several factors, including the choice of materials, the design of the fiber,
and the fabrication techniques employed.
Here general steps should be followed in process of optical fiber material , Design and
Fabrication are described as follow with overall block diagram. MCVD, VAD and
OVD techniques

Literature Material Fabrication Materials

review selection Design techniques
Preparation
Selection

Fiber Preform
Characterizat Cladding and Fiber
Optimization Drawing Fabrication
ion Coating
(testing )
Figure 1: overall block diagram of Optical Fiber Materials, Design and Fabrication
As we see from figure 1 , first steps Conduct an extensive literature review to
understand the existing knowledge and research gaps in the field of optical fiber
materials, design, and fabrication then by selecting proper material for design and
fabrication of fiber , Develop a suitable design for the optical fiber and Determine the
fabrication process based on the design requirements. After developed design Prepare
the selected materials for the fabrication process and drawing fiber then apply
appropriate cladding and coating materials to the drawn fiber. Finally Conduct
comprehensive characterization tests on the fabricated optical fiber and Based on the
results obtained from the tests, identify areas for improvement in the materials,
design, or fabrication process [9].
1. Literature Review: Conduct a thorough literature review to gain an
understanding of the current state-of-the-art materials, design, and fabrication
techniques used in optical fiber technology.
2. Material Selection: Select the appropriate materials for the optical fiber based on
the desired properties and applications.by considering factors such as refractive
index, dispersion, and mechanical strength.
3. Design: Develop a suitable design for the optical fiber considering factors such as
mode field diameter, numerical aperture, and attenuation. Use mathematical
models and simulation software to optimize the fiber design parameters.
4. Fabrication techniques Selection: Determine the fabrication process based on
the design requirements. Common fabrication techniques include the modified
chemical vapor deposition (MCVD) technique, vapor axial deposition (VAD),
and the outside vapor deposition (OVD) method.
5. Materials Preparation: Prepare the selected materials for the fabrication
process. This may involve cleaning, polishing, and preparing the preforms or
deposition substrates.
6. Preform Fabrication: Fabricate the preform, which involves depositing layers of
different materials with varying refractive indices using the selected fabrication
technique.
7. Fiber Drawing: Transform the fabricated preform into an optical fiber by
heating and stretching it. Which involves controlling the temperature, tension,
and drawing speed to achieve the desired fiber dimensions and optical properties.
8. Cladding and Coating: Apply appropriate cladding and coating materials to the
drawn fiber. The cladding provides the necessary refractive index profile for
guiding light, while the coating protects the fiber from external environmental
factors.
9. Fiber Characterization (test): Conduct comprehensive characterization tests on
the fabricated optical fiber to assess its optical, mechanical, and environmental
 performance. This includes measuring parameters such as attenuation, dispersion,
numerical aperture, and bend sensitivity.
10. Optimization and Iterative Improvements: Based on the results obtained from
the characterization tests, identify areas for improvement in the materials, design,
or fabrication process. Make necessary adjustments and repeat the fabrication and
characterization steps to achieve desired performance.
3.2 Optical fiber couplers and connectors
In this portion of our work we are described about Fabrication process, Assembly
process, Testing procedures, Performance evaluation, Safety considerations and
Quality assurance of optical fiber couplers and connectors.

Fabrication Assembly Quality Safety

Performance
process process assurance consideratio
evaluation
n

Figure 2: Overall methodology used in optical couplers and connectors process

3.2.1 Fabrication process of optical fiber couplers and connectors
In order to Manufacturing optical fiber couplers and connectors involves various
steps, materials, and equipment. There is a general outline of the process:
1) Material selection: primary material used for optical fiber couplers and
connectors is fused silica, a high-quality glass with low attenuation.
2) Preform fabrication: The preform is made by heating and melting silica
granules and then stretching them into a rod shape.
3) Core deposition: the doped silica is deposited onto the preforms surface to create
the fiber core.
4) Cladding deposition: the pure silica is deposited over the core layer to create the
cladding.
5) Fiber drawing: it involves slowly pulling the preform while heating it, resulting
in the formation of long, thin fibers.
6) Cleaving and polishing: to ensure and create a smooth and flat end surface.
7) Connector assembly: The polished fibers are inserted into connector ferrules,
which are typically made of stainless steel or ceramic.
8) Epoxy curing: A special epoxy adhesive is applied to bond the fiber to the
ferrule.
9) Testing and quality control: to ensure their optical performance. This includes
measuring insertion loss, return loss, and mechanical durability.
10) Packaging and distribution: After passing the quality control tests, the finished
couplers and connectors are packaged and prepared for distribution.
Overall, the manufacturing of optical fiber couplers and connectors involves precision
and careful handling of delicate materials. The process may vary slightly depending
on the specific type of coupler or connector being produced, but the steps mentioned
above provide a general overview [10]
3.2.2 Assembly process optical fiber couplers and connectors
The below process are used to assembling the fiber connectors and couplers. [11]
 Preparation of materials.
 Fusion splicing.
 Cleaving and polishing.
 Connector assembly.
 Curing,
 Testing and quality control.
 Packaging

Preparation Fusion Cleaving and Connector

of materials splicing polishing assembly

Testing and Curing

Packaging quality
control
Figure 3: Assembly process optical fiber couplers and connectors
1. Preparation of materials: in assembling optical fiber couplers and connectors
involves preparing the materials needed for the process. It include optical fibers,
ferrules, connectors, adhesives, and other components.
2. Fusion splicing: Fusion splicing is commonly used to join optical fibers together.
It involves carefully aligning and fusing the fiber ends using a fusion splicer to
ensure low insertion loss and high reliability.
3. Cleaving and polishing: Cleaving involves cutting the fiber end at a precise
angle to create a smooth surface, while polishing ensures that the end face is
 smooth and free from imperfections. Which are used to prepare the fiber ends for
connection to connectors.
4. Connector assembly: The prepared fiber ends are then assembled into
connectors using specialized tools and equipment.
5. Curing: to ensure strong and durable connections between the fibers and
connectors.
6. Testing and quality control : to ensure that they meet the required specifications
and standards for performance and reliability.
7. Packaging : the finished product is then packaged and shipped to customers for
use of in various application such as telecommunication , data centers and
medical equipment.[12]
3.2.3 Testing procedures of optical fiber couplers and connectors
Performance and reliability testing of optical fiber couplers and connectors is crucial
to ensure their proper functioning and long-term stability in optical networks. Several
methods are employed to evaluate their performance and reliability. Here are some
commonly used methods [13]
 Insertion Loss Measurement: Insertion loss refers to the amount of light power
loss that occurs when light transmitted through a coupler or connector.
 Return Loss Measurement: Return loss measures the amount of light reflected
back towards the source due to mismatched connectors or imperfections. A high
return loss indicates low reflections and better performance.
 Durability Testing: Fiber couplers and connectors are subjected to repeated
insertion and removal cycles to determine their durability of fiber connectors and
couplers.
 Environmental Testing: Optical couplers and connectors are tested for their
performance under various environmental conditions such as temperature,
humidity, and vibration.
 Tensile and Bending Testing: to ensures that the components can withstand
normal installation and handling conditions without damage.
 Interoperability Testing: It ensures compatibility and functionality with a
variety of devices, preventing any compatibility issues in the field.
 Aging and Reliability Testing: testing assesses the reliability and stability of the
connectors by monitoring their performance over an extended period.
3.2.4 Performance and requirements for of a good fiber connector and coupler
When evaluating the performance of optical fiber couplers and connectors, several
criteria are taken into consideration. These criteria determine the quality, reliability,
and efficiency of the connection. Here are some key factors that are commonly
evaluated:
1. Insertion Loss: It refers to the amount of light signal loss that occurs when the
fiber coupler or connector is inserted in the optical path. Lower insertion loss is
desirable as it indicates minimal signal attenuation.
2. Return Loss: Also known as back reflection, return loss measures the amount of
light that reflects back towards the source.. Higher return loss is preferred as it
reduces the interference and signal degradation.
3. Polarization Dependent Loss (PDL): PDL quantifies the change in insertion
loss with respect to the polarization of light. It is important to have a low PDL to
prevent polarization-induced fluctuations in the signal.
4. Directivity: Directivity relates to the amount of light that couples to the desired
output port compared to the light that leaks to other ports or reflects back towards
the source. A high Directivity ensures better signal isolation and minimal
crosstalk.
5. Wavelength Dependent Loss (WDL): WDL measures the variation in insertion
loss across different wavelengths within the operating range. Ideally, the WDL
should be minimal to guarantee consistent performance over wavelength.
6. Excess Loss: Excess loss accounts for any additional attenuation introduced apart
from the intrinsic loss associated with the optical coupler or connector. Lower
excess loss have better performance and higher signal integrity.
7. Durability: The durability of the coupler or connector is vital to withstand
repeated mating and de-mating cycles without compromising the performance.
8. Environmental Performance: Evaluating performance of couplers and
connectors under environmental conditions, such as temperature variations,
humidity, and vibrations, ensures their suitability and reliability in real-world
applications.
These criteria are usually tested according to standardized industry procedures and
can vary depending on the specific application requirements. Manufacturers and users
typically refer to these performance criteria when selecting and evaluating optical
fiber couplers and connectors for their specific needs.
Requirements of a good connector design [14]
 Low coupling losses: The connector assembly must assure low mating losses.
 Interchangeability: Connectors of the same type must be compatible.
 Ease of assembly: A service technician should be able to install the connector
easily in a field.
 Low environmental sensitivity: temperature, dust, and moisture should have a
small effect on connector-loss variations.
 Low cost and reliable construction: the cost must not be a major factor in the
fiber system.
 Ease of connection: should be able to mate and de-mate the connector, simply,
by hand.
3.2.5 Quality assurance of optical fiber connectors and couplers
During the fabrication of optical fiber couplers and connectors, various quality
assurance processes and standards are followed to ensure the products meet the
required specifications and performance criteria.
One of the key standards followed is the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) 9001 certification, which outlines the requirements for a quality
management system. This standard ensures that the manufacturing processes are
consistently monitored and improved to meet customer expectations and regulatory
requirements.
In addition to ISO 9001, specific quality control measures are implemented during the
fabrication of optical fiber couplers and connectors. This includes rigorous testing of
raw materials, such as the optical fibers and connector components, to ensure they
meet the required standards for strength, durability, and optical performance.
During the manufacturing process, various inspection and testing procedures are
carried out to verify the quality of the products. This may include visual inspections,
dimensional measurements, insertion loss and return loss testing, and environmental
testing to assess the products' performance under different operating conditions.
Overall, adherence to these quality assurance processes and standards ensures that
optical fiber couplers and connectors meet the required performance and reliability
standards, providing customers with high-quality products that meet their specific
application needs [15].
3.2.6 Safety consideration of optical fiber connectors and couplers
During the fabrication of optical fiber connectors and couplers, several safety
considerations and protocols are implemented to ensure the integrity of the
components and the safety of the personnel involved. These considerations aim to
prevent accidents, protect the workers from potential hazards, and maintain the
quality of the optical fiber products being manufactured.
1. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): like, safety goggles, gloves, and aprons.
Which used to protect from potential eye injuries, hand injuries, and exposure to
hazardous chemicals.
2. Controlled Environment: to minimize external contaminants, such as dust, dirt,
and airborne particles, to increase the quality and performance of the final
product.
3. Chemical Handling and Hazardous Materials: Proper handling and storage of
chemicals are essential during the fabrication process.
4. Equipment Safety: to prevent accidents, including fiber cleavers, polishers, and
epoxy dispensers.
5. Electrical Safety: Optical fiber fabrication often involves the use of electrical
equipment, such as fusion splicers and curing ovens.
6. Ergonomics and Workstation Design: The fabrication process may involve
repetitive tasks, such as polishing or splicing, which can lead to musculoskeletal
strain if not properly managed.
7. Quality Control and Testing: Proper testing of the finished connectors and
couplers is crucial to ensure their optimal performance and reliability.
Generally, safety considerations are of almost importance during the fabrication of
optical fiber connectors and couplers. Personal protective equipment, controlled
environments, proper chemical handling, equipment safety, electrical safety,
ergonomic design, and quality control protocols all contribute to the overall safety and
quality of the components being produced [16].
 CHAPTER FOUR
4 TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBER MATERIAL ,COUPLERS AND
CONNECTORS
In this chapter we are described types of optical fiber material , couplers and
connector in detail by dividing in to two parts firstly about types of optical fiber
materials, secondly about types of couplers and connectors. So let is begin with
describing over view of fiber material ,connectors and couplers.