Logic I

UNIT I – NATURE OF LOGIC

Prepared by Ms. Eveta Fernandes

Faculty, H.V.P.S. College of Law
Contents

1. Traditional and Modern definitions of Logic

2. Basic features of Inductive and Deductive reasoning. Their uses in
law courts.
3. Some basic logical concepts – Form, Content, Truth, Validity,
Inference, Implication.

Prepared by Ms. Eveta Fernandes

Faculty, H.V.P.S. College of Law
An Introduction to Logic

 Man is different from other creatures – He has reasoning ability

 Reasoning is not necessarily always good, sometimes it is bad
 Good reasoning – correct, valid, logical
 Bad reasoning – incorrect, invalid, illogical
 But what is logic? In simple terms, Logic is the science of reasoning
 It lays down certain principles and methods for distinguishing
between correct & incorrect reasonings

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Faculty, H.V.P.S. College of Law
An Introduction to Logic (contd.)

 Data provided: 2 + 2
 Conclusion drawn: 4
 Similarly, the terms ‘inference’ and ‘reasoning’ are used in the
process of logic
 In an inference- a thinker passes on from one or more given
statements, accepted as true, to another statement which follows
from them.

Prepared by Ms. Eveta Fernandes

Faculty, H.V.P.S. College of Law
An Introduction to Logic (contd.)

 The given statements are called the premises

 The statement which follows from them is called the conclusion
 Ex. 1.
Premise 1: All students are enthusiastic.
Premise 2: All enthusiastic beings are happy.
Conclusion: All students are happy.

Ex. 2.
Premise 1: Socrates, Plato and Aristotle are mortal.
Conclusion: All men are mortal.

Prepared by Ms. Eveta Fernandes

Faculty, H.V.P.S. College of Law
1. Traditional and Modern definitions of
Logic
 Traditional logic – Influenced by the doctrines or principles of
Aristotle
 Modern logic – Developed the traditional logic with certain
advancements in mathematics
 Modern logic uses symbols thus it is also called as ‘Symbolic Logic’
 Note: Modern logic does not differ completely from traditional logic
 It is a development & extension of the principles of traditional logic

Prepared by Ms. Eveta Fernandes

Faculty, H.V.P.S. College of Law
1. Traditional and Modern definitions of
Logic (contd.)
 Traditional definition– ‘Logic’ – Defined as the science which
investigates the general principles of valid thought.
 Provides principles to enable a person to distinguish between
correct & incorrect arguments.
 Arguments regard to the subject-matter of logic
 The term ‘thinking’ includes imagining, daydreaming &
remembering
 The above cannot be the concern of a logician
 Logic = deals with reasoning alone

Prepared by Ms. Eveta Fernandes

Faculty, H.V.P.S. College of Law
1. Traditional and Modern definitions of
Logic (contd.)
 Modern definition- ‘Logic’- Cohen & Nagel (Modern Logicians) –
“the Science of implication, or of valid inference (based on such
implications).
 Logic as the study of the forms of valid arguments.
 Validity is determined – by the nature of the relationship between
the premises & the conclusion
 Good evidence for the conclusion -> the argument is valid

Prepared by Ms. Eveta Fernandes

Faculty, H.V.P.S. College of Law
1. Traditional and Modern definitions of
Logic (contd.)
 “Good evidence” differs for inductive & deductive reasoning
 For deductive – relation of implication (premise & conclusion)
 Ex.
 P1: All cats are rats.
 P2: All rats are lazy.
 C:Therefore, all cats are lazy.

Prepared by Ms. Eveta Fernandes

Faculty, H.V.P.S. College of Law
2. Basic features of Inductive and Deductive
reasoning.
(Classification is based on the relationship between the premise and the conclusion.)

Inductive reasoning: Deductive reasoning:

1. Based on experience 1. Based on sufficient evidence for its
conclusion
2. Consists of one premise & one
conclusion 2. Consists of two or three premises &
one conclusion
E.g.:
E.g.:
P: All the crows that I have seen are
black. P1: All subjects are interesting.
C: Therefore, all crows are black. P2: Logic is a subject.
C: Therefore, Logic is interesting.

Prepared by Ms. Eveta Fernandes

Faculty, H.V.P.S. College of Law
2. Basic features of Inductive and
Deductive reasoning. (contd.)
INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT
1. Premises provide some evidence for 1. Premises claim to provide sufficient
the conclusion. evidence for the conclusion.
2. Premises do not imply the 2. In valid deductive argument
conclusion. premises imply the conclusion.
3. Even when premises are true 3. In valid deductive argument if
conclusion may be false. premises are true, conclusion must
Ex. be true.
P1: There is smoke coming out of the Ex.
building. P1: All men are mortal.
C: Therefore, the building has caught P2: Socrates is a man.
fire.
C: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
4. Conclusion is always probable.
4. Conclusion of valid deductive
argument is always certain.
Prepared by Ms. Eveta Fernandes
Faculty, H.V.P.S. College of Law
2. Basic features of Inductive and
Deductive reasoning. (contd.)
INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT
5. Conclusion goes beyond the
evidence in the premises.
6. Arguments are materially valid.
7. Correctness of arguments can be
decided by an appeal to
experience and not by rules and
methods of logic.
8. With inductive arguments we can
discover something new and
expand our knowledge of the
world.
DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT
5. Conclusion does not go beyond
the evidence in the premises.
6. Arguments are formally valid.
7. Validity can be determined by
rules and methods of logic.
8. Deductive arguments cannot
expand our knowledge of the
world, by deduction we can only
know what is implied by the
premises.

Prepared by Ms. Eveta Fernandes

Faculty, H.V.P.S. College of Law
2. Uses of Inductive and Deductive
reasoning in law courts
 Logic- theoretical & practical value

 Makes a person conscious of inconsistencies in his beliefs

 Makes us conscious of the reasons for the correctness and incorrectness of

arguments

 Person who knows the principles of logic is more likely to reason correctly

 Logic as a general intellectual discipline

 Study of logic cultivates the power of abstract thought

 Inductive reasoning involves drawing a general conclusion from specific cases

 Deductive reasoning involves drawing a specific conclusion from general cases

Prepared by Ms. Eveta Fernandes

Faculty, H.V.P.S. College of Law
3. Some basic logical concepts – Form,
Content, Truth, Validity, Inference,
Implication
❑ Inference
 In an inference the thinker passes on from the premise(s) to the conclusion.
 (i) The act or process of reaching a conclusion about something from known facts.
(ii) A conclusion or opinion reached based on known facts. (Definition of Inference
by Merriam-Webster)
 E.g.:
1. Premise 1: Arun is the brother of Meera
Conclusion: Therefore, Meera is the sister of Arun.

2. Premise 1: This wall is white.

Conclusion: Therefore, this wall is not non-white.
Prepared by Ms. Eveta Fernandes
Faculty, H.V.P.S. College of Law
3. Some basic logical concepts – Form,
Content, Truth, Validity, Inference,
Implication
❑ Implication
(contd.)
 Implication is a logical relation between propositions.
 Implicans is the statement(s) which implies some other
statement.
 Implicate is the statement which follows from the implicans.
 E.g.:
1. A is red implies A is coloured.
2. If I study and practice logic, then I shall find the subject
interesting.
3. If I attend online lectures, then I shall grasp knowledge.

Prepared by Ms. Eveta Fernandes

Faculty, H.V.P.S. College of Law
Important point to remember:

 If the relation between the premises and the conclusion

is that of implication, then it could not be the case that
the conclusion is false when the premises are true.

Premise 1: A is B (True)
Premise 2: B is C (True)
Conclusion: A is C (True)

Valid argument.
Prepared by Ms. Eveta Fernandes
Faculty, H.V.P.S. College of Law
3. Some basic logical concepts – Form,
Content, Truth, Validity, Inference,
Implication (contd.)
❑ Truth & Validity
 Propositions are either true or false.
 Arguments are either valid or invalid.
 An argument is valid when its conclusion is implied by its
premises.
 Sound argument- An argument is sound if and only if it is
valid and contains only true premises.

Prepared by Ms. Eveta Fernandes

Faculty, H.V.P.S. College of Law
3. Some basic logical concepts – Form,
Content, Truth, Validity, Inference,
Implication (contd.)
❑ Truth & Validity (contd.)
 Validity of an argument depends upon its forms and its truth
depends upon its content.
 Logic is a formal science, it is concerned with validity & not
with truth.
 E.g.
Premise 1: All fruits are nutritious (True)
Premise 2: All apples are fruits (True)
Conclusion: Therefore, all apples are nutritious (True)

 The above argument is valid.

Prepared by Ms. Eveta Fernandes
Faculty, H.V.P.S. College of Law
3. Some basic logical concepts – Form,
Content, Truth, Validity, Inference,
Implication (contd.)
❑ Form & Content
 Form means pattern or structure of the argument
 Ex. Chairs (many patterns and sizes)
 These chairs may be made up of any material like wood, plastic,
metal, acrylic. The material out of which it is made is the content of
the chair.
 Content- Each inference is about a certain subject matter
 Form- Each inference has certain characteristics
*Chair- Form
*Wood- Content
Prepared by Ms. Eveta Fernandes
Faculty, H.V.P.S. College of Law
3. Some basic logical concepts – Form,
Content, Truth, Validity, Inference,
Implication (contd.)
❑ Form & Content
 we may have chairs of the same material but of different forms or
the chairs differing in both form and matter.
 the arguments may differ in the content and have the same form or
 they may have the same content but different forms or
 they may differ both in the content and the form.

Prepared by Ms. Eveta Fernandes

Faculty, H.V.P.S. College of Law
 Indians

Maharashtrian Actor
Maharashtr
Pawar Sunil Dutt
ians

Prepared by Ms. Eveta Fernandes

Faculty, H.V.P.S. College of Law
F F F
I I Artists I Men
Indians
G. G. G.

Actors 3 Indians
1 Maharasht 2
rians

Men

Indians Artists

Sunil Dutt Maharashtr

Pawar ians
 P

S Hardworking Innocent

Students Animals

Ex. 1. Ex. 2.

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Faculty, H.V.P.S. College of Law
All students All animals are
are innocent
hardworking
All elephants are Animals Elephants
Kiran is a Student Kiran
animals
student
Therefore, All
Therefore, elephants are Innocent
Kiran is innocent
hardworking Hardworking

Elephants
Kiran
ALL THE BEST!

Prepared by Ms. Eveta Fernandes

Faculty, H.V.P.S. College of Law