Theoretical Application Outline

Psychoanalysis (Neukrug, 2018, p. 32-69)

I. Founder of theory and current leaders
a. Sigmund Freud (Neukrug, 2018).
b. Current leaders:
i. Not many current followers, but there were a few Neo-Freudians who
continued Freud’s legacy (Neukrug, 2018):
1. Anna Freud, Karen Horney, Melanie Kline, Margaret Mahler, D.
W. Winnicott, Franz Alexander, Heinz Kohut, and Otto Kernberg
ii. Further, psychoanalysis impacted many counseling theories, such as
Object Relations Theory and Brief Dynamic Therapy (Neukrug, 2018).
II. Major philosophical and antecedent influences of the theory
a. Philosophical Stance
i. According to the textbook, “Freud was immersed in the world of
modernism, where science, objectivity, and the search for knowledge and
truth took precedence over mystical beliefs and religious dogma”
(Neukrug, 2018, p. 38).
ii. Free will vs. Determinism
1. Deterministic: “Since the template for personality is developed at a
very young age and is largely unconscious, making personality
changes later in life is a monumental task” (Neukrug, 2018, p. 39).
a. Believed that personalities are set and are very hard to
change.
iii. Holistic vs. Atomistic view of humans
1. Freud viewed humans as a whole composition; however, he was
very interested in the individual aspects that compose a person’s
conscious and unconscious being (Neukrug, 2018).
iv. Phenomenological vs. Objective reality
1. Freud not only prioritized phenomenological reality, he coined a
term for this view, psychic reality, which “is external to the person
yet difficult to ‘know’ as each person lives mostly within his or her
psychic reality. It is only through psychoanalysis that one could
gain a slightly greater understanding of one's motivations and
perhaps operate a little more from a stance that knows objective
reality” (Neukrug, 2018, p. 39).
III. Personality Development
a. Nature of humans
i. Human nature comprises the conscious and unconscious, which are
motivated by our instincts/drives and are made from psychic energy,
which can be divided into the id, ego, and superego (Neukrug, 2018).
1. Id – the primitive mind which works through impulses (primary
processes) and the pleasure principle (Neukrug, 2018, p. 41).
2. Ego – partially conscious, unconscious, and preconscious. Works
through secondary processes (needs/impulses formed after the id).
Tempers the id, works from the reality principle, and best reflects
the person’s inner character (Neukrug, 2018, p. 41).
 3. Superego – social morality and conscience internalized from
parents that controls the id and ego. (Neukrug, 2018, p. 41).
b. Role of the Environment
i. We have the id inherently, but the ego and superego develop from the
environment (Neukrug, 2018).
c. Major developmental, personality, and learning constructs
i. Psychosexual stages (Neukrug, 2018):
1. Oral stage – from birth to 18 months old, pleasure is found through
mouth. If stuck here, may become focused on verbal maladaptive
behaviors.
2. Anal stage – 18 months and three years old, involves controlling
one’s bowels. If not handled properly, the personality can form into
being anal expulsive or anal retentive.
3. Phallic stage – between 3-6, children focus on bodily functions, the
Oedipus complex, castration anxiety, and penis envy can occur.
4. Latency stage – between 5-6, where sexual desire is repressed.
5. Genital stage – during puberty, reemergence of sexuality. Getting
stuck here can result in neuroticism.
ii. Defense mechanisms
1. When the ego works to protect itself from anxiety (realistic, moral,
or neurotic anxiety). According to Freud, these serve a function,
but they are ultimately harmful and must be dismantled. Some
examples are as follows: Displacement, Denial, Humor,
Identification, Projection, Reaction Formation, Regression,
Rationalization, Repression, Splitting, Sublimation, and Undoing
(Neukrug, 2018).
IV. Nature of Maladjustment
a. Maladjustment occurs when our desires and drives are unrecognized and driven
too deep into our subconscious. When this happens, maladjustment can manifest
as maladaptive defense mechanisms. Also, if a client gets stuck in one stage of
psychosexual development, they can get trapped in fixation, which is a form of
maladjustment (Neukrug, 2018).
V. How clients change according to the theory
a. According to Freud, clients change by confronting inner drives and unconscious
desires and moving on from them. Also, change can come from using
psychoanalysis to determine objective reality (Neukrug, 2018).
VI. Role and activity of the Counselor
a. The therapeutic focus is primarily on the past.
b. Relationship with client
i. The counselor is the expert, and change doesn’t happen without the
analyst/therapist (Neukrug, 2018).
c. Major techniques used (Neukrug, 2018):
i. Empathy and listening skills – create a trusting atmosphere
ii. Analysis of Transference – confront client’s projected thoughts and
feelings
 iii. Free Association – client expresses unfiltered thoughts/feelings/desires
and are interpreted
iv. Dream Analysis – dreams' manifest (obvious) and latent (underlying)
meanings are interpreted.
v. Interpretation of Parapraxes – examine hidden meanings behind jokes and
‘Freudian slips’ as symbolic of repressed desires
vi. Hypnosis
vii. Catharsis – talking for extended periods of time to release emotional
blocks
viii. Maintaining Structure
d. Use of diagnosis and appraisal (Neukrug, 2018)
i. Appraisal is not a focus of psychoanalysis as the emphasis is more on
delving into the unconscious of any client regardless of how their drive
and defense mechanisms may present.
ii. Psychoanalysis could use some appraisal methods of various free
association assessments.
e. Evaluation of client progress (Neukrug, 2018)
i. The therapist uses the therapeutic process to gauge client's progress. The
psychoanalyst begins by using empathy to establish a trusting relationship,
then the analyst challenges and interprets client resistance (often client
progress is measured based on how open they are to accepting these
interpretations), and then the relationship is ended when the analyst feels
that the client has examined and integrated insights from their unconscious
enough that their symptoms are reduced.
VII. Populations for which the theory is and is not applicable
a. Because of his lens as a Western, white male, Freud’s theory is likely most
applicable to his fellow population. Also, psychoanalysis could be most helpful to
populations who seek guidance into the unconscious. However, as a theory, it is
most applicable to other theories because it is too outdated to directly help many
populations and is better served as a foundational school of thought for later
counseling theories (Neukrug, 2018).
b. Freud’s theory was criticized for its poor treatment of women and is likely not
applicable to women (Neukrug, 2018).
VIII. Research on the theory
a. Research has shown that because of the limited ability of the unconscious to be
scientifically studied, using the scientific method for psychoanalysis is very
difficult. However, some research has shown that psychoanalysis can be effective
for those aware of its limitations/drawbacks and seek a better understanding of
their inner desires (Neukrug, 2018).
IX. Limitations and Criticisms
a. Psychoanalysis is criticized for its long, drawn-out, and expensive process. Also,
psychoanalysis is very limited in that the unconscious is not anything that can be
studied concretely (Neukrug, 2018).
X. Personal Insight
a. Freud's psychoanalytic theory does not align well with my values and beliefs for
several reasons. I disagree with the power imbalance between the client and the
 counselor and the excessive emphasis on sexual aspects in developmental stages.
Furthermore, the notion that clients primarily grow by confronting their inner
drives seems overly simplistic to me. However, I do acknowledge the existence of
conscious and unconscious aspects in humans, although I find them more
complex than Freud's id, ego, and superego models. While I don't resonate with
Freud's theory, I recognize its foundational role in shaping subsequent theories
related to the unconscious mind.
Analytical Therapy (Jungian Therapy) (Neukrug, 2018, p. 70-110)
I. Founder of theory and current leaders
a. Carl Jung (Neukrug, 2018).
II. Major philosophical and antecedent influences of the theory
a. Philosophical Stance (Neukrug, 2018)
i. Philosophical stance influenced by his personal history, such as his
relationship with Freud, mysticism/mythology, religious theology, ethical
philosophers, Hinduism, and Buddhism.
ii. Free will vs. Determinism
1. Jung believed that our childhood experiences influence our lives
the most; therefore, free will is less important. Also, he believed
we each have an inherent set of predetermined mental functions
(Neukrug, 2018).
iii. Holistic vs. Atomistic view of humans
1. Jung balanced the holistic and atomistic view of humans by
emphasizing the individual's unconsciousness while seeing the
collective identity of groups of people as important (Neukrug,
2018).
2. Jung believed in the collective unconscious, which is “the
depository of ancient images which all people hold in common”
(Neukrug, 2018, p. 72).
iv. Phenomenological vs. Objective reality
1. Jung uses phenomenological and objective reality throughout his
theory. However, Jung may have thought that many aspects we
think of as objective reality are found within the collective
unconscious (such as symbols, stories, and archetypes).
2. Also, Jung considered extroversion as “oriented one to the outside
objective world” (Neukrug, 2018, p. 79)
III. Personality Development
a. Nature of humans (Neukrug, 2018)
i. For Jung's view of human nature, there exists a natural tendency to grow
toward wholeness, where individuals seek to integrate all aspects of their
psyche into a harmonious and complete self.
ii. Humans are born whole, but our psyche can become fractured because
mental functions can be used unequally.
b. Role of the Environment (Neukrug, 2018)
i. Jung recognized that the environment offers a social reality to test inner
perceptions, emphasizing the importance of how individuals interact with
 and adapt to their surroundings to validate and refine their understanding
of themselves and the world.
c. Major developmental, personality, and learning constructs
i. Developmental constructs (Neukrug, 2018)
1. As one develops, the goal is to become one’s truest self by moving
past opposite parts of your personality so that all is expressed at the
same time
ii. Psychological Types (Neukrug, 2018):
1. Jung believed that personality comprises two attitudes
(extraversion and introversion) and four mental functions
(thinking, feeling, sensing, and intuiting). We have all these
aspects, but each person has a tendency to rely on one over the
other
iii. Archetypes: inherited groups of characteristics that help categorize similar
characteristics within a person that aids in comprehending people and the
world around us (Neukrug, 2018).
iv. The principle of opposites (Neukrug, 2018):
1. Within the psyche, opposing forces are constantly at play. This
principle suggests that every wish or desire we have immediately
brings to mind its contrasting counterpart.
v. Principle of equivalence (Neukrug, 2018):
1. The tension between opposites results in a balanced allocation of
psychic energy, contributing to the overall functioning of the
individual's psyche.
vi. Principle of entropy (Neukrug, 2018):
1. Even as energy is equally distributed, over time, that allocation
decreases as we become more comfortable with ourselves and no
longer need to change.
vii. Individuation: the process of becoming aware of our unconscious parts
and integrating them so we become whole (Neukrug, 2018).
viii. Symbols: a term for something that represents something else that may
have important meaning for the client (Neukrug, 2018).
ix. Synchronicity: when two events have a significant relationship with each
other than being causal (Neukrug, 2018).
IV. Nature of Maladjustment
a. According to Jung, maladaptive symptoms “represent a desire to regain parts of
self that have been lost to the unconscious” (Neukrug, 2018, p. 76).
b. Maladjustment comes from internal disharmony, developing clusters of repressed
thoughts/feelings (complexes), and using defense mechanisms.
V. How clients change according to the theory
a. According to Jung, change occurs through the client “discovering parts of the self
that have never been experienced, aspects of self that have become repressed, and
portions of self that have been split off” (Neukrug, 2018, p. 78).
b. Furthermore, we change by recognizing and changing archetypes within us,
confronting complexes, better understanding of our whole selves, and integrating
 parts of ourselves so we can have a stronger sense of self that balances conscious
and unconscious.
VI. Role and activity of the Counselor
a. Relationship with client (Neukrug, 2018)
i. While less strict in hierarchy than Freud, Jung still saw the counselor as a
guide to help clients understand themselves.
ii. Jung believed the therapist’s job was to create an open dialogue and
demonstrate acceptance and introspection. Also, the counselor was to deal
with their own integration of the unconscious to help the client and avoid
countertransference.
b. Major techniques used (Neukrug, 2018)
i. Active imagination: client lets mind drift unconsciously and then
conscious mind observes without judgement.
ii. Dream analysis: Find deeper meaning about oneself through dreams.
iii. Amplification: draw attention to hidden meanings in symbols/dreams.
iv. Other than these specific techniques, the following are also used: empathic
listening, process facilitator, transferences, body movement,
dramatization, art, and sand tray. Most of these use free association so
client can make unconscious conscious.
c. Use of diagnosis and appraisal (Neukrug, 2018)
i. Assessment and diagnosis played a pivotal role in Jung's theory, serving as
crucial tools for understanding the psyche. Various free association
appraisal methods such as Rorschach tests and word association were used
to reveal hidden patterns of thought and emotion. Further, Jung’s work
influenced other assessments like the Meyers-Briggs Type Indicator and
the Grey-Wheelwright Typology test that standardized Jung's
psychological functions and attitudes diagnoses.
d. Evaluation of client progress (Neukrug, 2018)
i. The therapist evaluates client progress through the process of diving
deeper from external to internal and the unconscious is revealed
progressively. The client should move from limited consciousness to
awareness of psychological type, and then to considering their external
persona. From here, the client moves deeper into the personal unconscious
as the therapist guides them deeper until repressed parts of themselves are
revealed and examined. Eventually, the client will integrate all parts of
themselves together so that archetypes and complexes are redefined. The
final stages of progress involve examining the collective unconscious so
that the client understands how external archetypes are integrated into the
client’s experiences.
VII. Populations for which the theory is and is not applicable (Neukrug, 2018)
a. Applicable to individuals seeking deep self-exploration, especially those
interested in exploring their psyche's symbolic and archetypal aspects.
b. Not as suitable for those seeking short-term, symptom-focused interventions.
VIII. Research on the theory (Neukrug, 2018)
a. Research for Jung’s theory is difficult because of the difficulty in measuring
intangible consciousness. Also, Jungian therapy is lengthy, making research hard
 to track over time. However, some studies believe Jungian therapy could
effectively reduce symptoms.
IX. Limitations and Criticisms (Neukrug, 2018)
a. Limited ability to research its efficacy.
b. Criticized for his various archetypes being sexist. Further, his collective
consciousness concept is criticized that not all cultures share the same archetypes.
X. Personal Insight
a. Jungian analytical therapy aligns more with my values and beliefs than Freud's
psychoanalytic theory, but I still have some differences in perspective. While I see
the concept of psychic balance as potentially helpful, I don't consider it the sole or
primary goal of healing, as it may overlook individual uniqueness. I find many
aspects of Jung's theory, such as complexes and defense mechanisms, valuable for
understanding behavior, though I view them as potential explanations rather than
exclusive ones. Overall, I appreciate Jung's theory but find it somewhat
philosophical and less concrete than what fully aligns with my personal beliefs.
Individual Psychology (Adlerian Therapy) (Neukrug, 2018, p. 111-156)
I. Founder of theory and current leaders
a. Alfred Adler (Neukrug, 2018)
II. Major philosophical and antecedent influences of the theory
a. Philosophical Stance (Neukrug, 2018)
i. Adler’s overall stance was in seeing the importance of equality in
understanding human behavior, the presence of power dynamics, and the
tendency for striving within the psyche.
ii. Teleology: the study of goal-directed processes
iii. Free will vs. Determinism (Neukrug, 2018)
1. Complete focus on free will and our capability to choose to strive
toward our end goal.
2. Adler is known as anti-deterministic in that he firmly believed
people can choose to change.
iv. Holistic vs. Atomistic view of humans (Neukrug, 2018)
1. Adler believed that humans always strive for wholeness and
therefore saw humans holistically.
a. “(Holism) All apparent psychological categories, such as
different drives or the contrast between conscious and
unconscious, are only aspects of a unified relational system
and do not represent discrete entities and quantities”
(Neukrug, 2018, p. 120).
v. Phenomenological vs. Objective reality
1. Focused on personal phenomenological experiences.
a. Private logic – we all develop beliefs unconsciously that
drive us toward our subjective final goal (Neukrug, 2018).
III. Personality Development
a. Essentially, what we do with what we have is more important than what we have.
b. Nature of humans
 i. Adler believed that we are born neutral, neither good nor bad. It is our
early life and socialization that shape our nature. Still, human nature is
fundamentally teleological (Neukrug, 2018).
1. Ultimately, every person uniquely has their own characteristics and
abilities shaped by their childhood experiences.
c. Role of the Environment
i. A child’s experiences in the environment can shape their internal private
logic and subjective goals. Also, the environment of our family is critical
for lifestyle development (Neukrug, 2018).
d. Major developmental, personality, and learning constructs
i. Social interest (gemeinschaftsgefuhl) – all humans are fundamentally
interested in connecting with others, and our lives cannot be divided from
our social context without serious repercussions (Neukrug, 2018).
ii. Schemas – the way each person perceives themselves and their
environment in all areas of their lives (Neukrug, 2018)
iii. Birth order construct:
1. Children’s behavior is influenced by the timing and order of birth.
It can influence self-perception, child/parent relations, social roles,
personality traits, feelings of inferiority, final goal/private logic,
and even style of life (Neukrug, 2018).
IV. Nature of Maladjustment
a. “Every neurosis can be understood as an attempt to free oneself from a feeling of
inferiority in order to gain a feeling of superiority (Adler, 1925/1963a, p. 23)(qtd.
in Neukrug, 2018, p. 119).
i. Primary inferiority – the universal inherent reactions to struggles in life
ii. Secondary inferiority – psychological strain that developed as a result of
social and familial development deficits (Neukrug, 2018)
iii. Private logic – “Maladjustment is characterized by increased inferiority
feelings, underdeveloped social interest, and an exaggerated uncooperative
goal of personal superiority. Accordingly, problems are solved in a self-
centered "private sense" [private logic] rather than a task-centered
"common sense" fashion” (Neukrug, 2018, p. 121)
iv. Compensation – the conscious or unconscious masking of feeling
inferiority by doing more than necessary in other areas of their life
(Neukrug, 2018).
b. The following also contributes to maladjustment: decrease social interest and
inappropriate/inadequate self-guarding and compensations (Neukrug, 2018).
V. How clients change according to the theory (Neukrug, 2018).
a. Change primarily works by modifying thought processes, involving identifying
and correcting fundamental errors, patterns, and themes in their thinking. This
process also entails exploring their private logic and acquiring improved and more
effective thinking strategies to enhance their overall well-being (Neukrug, 2018).
b. Clients can also change through courage, which is looking at their feelings of
inferiority, facing their compensatory behaviors, and taking responsibility for
style of life all so they can be ‘courageous’ enough to make a change
VI. Role and activity of the Counselor
 a. Relationship with client
i. Egalitarian relationship – client and counselor participate equally and
cooperate in developing goals. However, the counselor is still the modeler
of behavior for the client to follow even if they are active in the process
(Neukrug, 2018).
b. Major techniques used (Neukrug, 2018)
i. While not every technique will be detailed in the following list (some are
self-explanatory), all of them share the general goal of building a
counselor/client relationship that allows them to examine how childhood
inferiorities build into compensations and how they interact with the
client’s style of life.
ii. Empathy, building a trusting relationship, deep and caring involvement,
active listening, responding (reflecting,) genuine enthusiasm, support, and
encouragement
iii. Teaching and interpretation – essentially psychoeducation about Adlerian
principles like compensation and inferiority.
iv. Wellness assessment
v. Family constellation – an important Adlerian intervention, similar to a
genogram, that organizes family systems based on family interactions,
roles, and events.
vi. Early recollections
vii. Dream exploration
viii. Personality priorities
ix. Catching oneself – involves being attentive to one’s inner voice and being
mindful in order to understand our behavior.
x. Visualization
c. Use of diagnosis and appraisal (Neukrug, 2018)
i. Rather than use a specific set of diagnostic appraisals, Adlerian therapy
uses a thorough assessment of past experiences and how the related
thoughts and feelings have contributed to their subjective final goal. This
assessment can look like “checklists, open-ended questions, and responses
to specific structured questions” (Neukrug, 2018, p. 129)
d. Evaluation of client progress (Neukrug, 2018)
i. Client progress is determined by how they progress through stages of
therapy. Starting with establishing the counseling relationship and
examining the client's lifestyle. Then, the counselor helps the client
interpret their lifestyle goals and then adapt to a new style of life if
necessary.
ii. All of this is kept in mind that it is not always a sequential set of events
and the counselor must stay in-tune with their client to assess progress.
VII. Populations for which the theory is and is not applicable (Neukrug, 2018)
a. The theory has benefits toward marginalized populations and would be applicable
if used by these populations. The Adlerian emphasis on empathetic relationships
with the client would be very beneficial to minority clients.
b. However, the theory is not very compatible with dogmatic and rigid religious
beliefs, because of his areligious views.
VIII. Research on the theory (Neukrug, 2018)
a. Research shows that Adlerian therapy is overall effective because of its emphasis
on the working therapeutic alliance. Also, research shows that fostering hope and
positive expectations leads to better client outcomes. Research also shows that the
Adlerian orientation toward the future and its shorter, more psychoeducational
method is more effective.
IX. Limitations and Criticisms (Neukrug, 2018)
a. Criticized for being too subjective and vague in describing a client’s inner
experiences.
b. Like other psychoanalytic theories, it is criticized for its limited ability to measure
the intangible concepts within the theory. Therefore, objective research is more
difficult to perform.
X. Personal Insight
a. Adlerian individual therapy aligns relatively well with my beliefs among the first-
force theories, but I still find some differences in perspective. While I agree that
childhood experiences significantly shape us, I don't entirely subscribe to the
notion that we are born neutral. Birth order, although interesting, may not be as
central as Adler proposed. I appreciate the concept of inferiority and the
exploration of subjective life goals, as they shed light on how individuals
construct their life narratives. The emphasis on an equal relationship between the
client and counselor resonates with me, but I believe the client should be regarded
as the expert. Overall, while I see the value of Adlerian therapy techniques and
their evolution into modern approaches, I am doubtful about practicing strictly
Adlerian therapy in my own practice.
 References

Neukrug, E. (2018). Counseling Theory and Practice (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.