Engine Tribology

Module code ME 824

Dr Riaz A Mufti
(B.Sc, M.Sc Eng (UK), PhD (UK), CEng (UK), MIMechE (UK), P.E (PEC))

Lecture 5

Internal Combustion Engine, Lubrication Regimes & Future Trends

 Engine Tribology

TOPICS
A. Introduction
B. Modes of lubrication
C. Influence of surface roughness
D. The Stribeck curve
E. The frictional elements of ICE
F. Drivers for Tribological design and
innovation

Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
INTRODUCTION
• The continuing trend for automobile engines to have a higher output & yet at the
same time to be more compact, places considerable pressure upon the component
designers.
• This is certainly true of the main frictional components of the engine, the bearings,
the valve train and the piston assembly. It is also important that any improvement in
the ability to operate in a more severe environment of load, speed or temperature,
should not compromise the durability of any machine element.
• In order to achieve a better design of the principal tribology devices of the internal
combustion engine, it is vital to have a clear understanding of the major physical &
chemical mechanism responsible for the load carrying ability & failure mechanism.
The contribution will concentrate upon the lubrication regimes (or different modes
of lubrication) which lead to the ability of lubricated, sliding/rolling contacts to
sustain an applied load.
• Different modes of lubrication are significant in the alternative tribology
components of the engine & that a component may enjoy a range of lubrication
regimes during a cycle.
• A single oil is used to lubricate bearings, valve train & piston assembly & yet
different properties will be desirable to optimize the performance of each.
Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
NATURALLY ASPIRATED VS DOWNSIZED ENGINE

vs

6-Cylinder V 2.8L FSI Naturally 4-Cylinder inline 2.0L TFSI

Aspirated Gasoline Engine Turbocharged Gasoline Engine

147kW 154kW

Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
Modes of Lubrication
Fluid Film Lubrication:
• In Fluid Film Lubrication (also known as Hydrodynamic Lubrication), the
lubricant film is sufficiently thick to prevent the opposing solids from
coming into contact.
• This lubrication condition is often referred to as the ideal form of lubrication
since it provides low friction & a high resistance to wear.
• The behavior of the contact is governed by the bulk physical properties of
the lubricant, notably viscosity, & the frictional characteristics arise purely
from the shearing of the viscous lubricant.

Engine bearing, wear due to dry Dr Riaz A Mufti

start Engine Tribology
Fluid Film/Hydrodynamic Lubrication

Main Feature
Complete separation of moving
surfaces by fluid film
Friction low and wear
theoretically nil
Operating Conditions
Factors Affecting
Normal load and speed
conditions Performance
Viscosity
Examples
Viscosity Index
Engine main bearings
Shear rate
Con-rod bearings

Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
Modes of Lubrication
Boundary Lubrication:
• If the surface of the solids are not separated by the lubricant & contact takes
place over an area comparable to that which develops in dry contact, the
condition is called ‘boundary lubrication’.
• In this case it is the physical & chemical properties of thin surface films of
molecular proportions which govern the contact characteristics.
• The properties of the bulk lubricant are of minor importance & the
coefficient of friction is essentially independent of viscosity. The surface
action which determines the behavior of boundary lubricants can be
described in order of film strength’ in the following terms:
− Physically absorbed layers of gaseous, liquid or solid lubricants.
− Chemically absorbed layers.
− Films formed by chemical reaction.

Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
Boundary Lubrication

Main Features
Load carried by surface contact
Performance depends on boundary
film
Operating Conditions
Antiwear and EP additives important
High load and Low speed
Factors Affecting Performance
Examples
Chemical reactivity
Gears
Reaction film firmness
Engine Valve Train
Reaction film shear strength
Reaction film compressive strength

Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
Boundary Lubrication

At extremely high loads there is no liquid film all the load is carried on
the chemical film. The viscosity of the lubricant is now of little
consequence, performance is based on the reactivity of the chemical
species in the additives together with the firmness, shear and
compressive strengths of the film.

Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
Boundary Lubrication
Physical Absorbed Layers:
• A layer of lubricant one or more molecules thick becomes attached to the
surfaces of the solids and this provides a modest protection against wear.
• An interesting feature of physically adsorbed layers is that they are important
to ‘fluid film’ lubrication. In fluid mechanics we assume that the fluid
adjacent to a solid moves with the velocity of the solid- the condition of ‘no-
slip’.
• The molecules offer little protection to the solid bearing surfaces in the
absence of fluid film lubrication.

Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
Boundary Lubrication
Chemisorbed Films:

• These are generally produced by adding animal and vegetable fats/oils

to the base oils.
• These additives contain long chain fatty acid molecules which show
great attraction for metals at their active ends.
• The usual representation of these polar molecules is like that of a
carpet pile with the molecules standing perpendicular to the surface.
• These fatty acid molecules form thin layer having low shear strength
giving rise to coefficients of friction in the range 0.1 to 0.15

Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
 Boundary Lubrication
Films Formed by Chemical Reaction:
• These provide the greatest film-strength and are used in the most severe
operating conditions. If the loads and sliding speeds are high, significant contact
temperatures will be developed. At high temperatures additives start to react and
form chemical layers. For example sulphur will start to react at about 1000C to
form sulphides.
• It is worth noting that oxygen from the atmosphere or free oxygen in the bulk
lubricant is a valuable EP lubricant. It forms oxide layers which generally
provide a low shear strength surface film capable of reducing friction and wear
between bearing materials.
• The coefficient of friction between chemically clean and dry metals is extremely
high (at least unity). Oxidation of the surfaces normally brings the coefficient of
dry friction down to about 0.5. A good boundary lubricant might bring the value
down to about 0.08 through chemical reaction at the surface.

Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
Modes of Lubrication
Mixed Lubrication:
• In the past it was acceptable for engineers to distinguish between the well
known ‘fluid film’ and ‘boundary’ lubrication regimes, but it is clear that
there is an important ‘mixed’ lubrication regime between the two.
• In full fluid lubrication separation of the opposing solids is complete.
• In boundary lubrication the laws of dry friction apply since the coefficient
of friction is independent of speed and apparent area of contact.
• The actual value of the friction coefficient does, of course, depend upon
the nature of boundary lubricant.
• In the mixed lubrication regime the contact characteristics are determined
by varying combination of fluid film & boundary lubrication effects.
• Physical properties of the bulk lubricant & chemical properties of the
boundary lubricant are important.

Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
MIXED FILM LUBRICATION
Main Features
Load carried partly by fluid film
and partly by boundary film
Antiwear and EP additives
become important
Operating Conditions
Factors Affecting
Increased load causes
reduced fluid film formation Performance
Increased temperature Viscosity
causes reduced fluid film VI
formation
Chemical reactivity
Examples
Valve stems and Rocker arms Reaction film tenacity
Ring / Liner at TDC
Reaction film shear strength
Reaction film compressive strength
Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
MIXED FILM LUBRICATION

At higher loads still the contact is now carried partly by the liquid film
but partly on the asperities. It is under these conditions that the
chemical additives start to play their part. Chemical films are laid
down which help to protect the surfaces by reducing or controlling
the wear process. The nature of the film laid down affects the
performance in this regime.

Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
Modes of Lubrication
Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication:
• This action occurs as a result of local
elastic deformation of the bearing
materials & it is thus most readily
generated in highly stressed nominal
point or line contacts like gears, rolling
bearings & cams & tappets.
• In these situation the viscosity of the
lubricant rises very considerably due to
high contact pressures and this further
assists the formation of effective fluid
films.
• The viscosity in a typical gear or rolling
bearing contact may rise to several
thousand times the atmospheric viscosity
of the lubricant.
Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication

Main Features
Complete separation of
moving surfaces by fluid
film
Elastic deformation of non-
conforming contacting
surfaces

Factors Affecting
Performance
Examples
Ball / Roller bearings Viscosity
Cam and Tappets Viscosity Index
Operating Conditions
Pressure Coefficient of
Higher load and speed conditions
Viscosity
Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
TYPICAL THICKNESS

100

80

60

40

20

0
Human Hair Hydrodynamic Elastohydrodynamic Boundary

Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
INFLUENCE OF SURFACE FINISH

Hydrodynamic

Mixed

Boundary

Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
Lubrication Mode in Terms of Surface Roughness

• It is convenient to relate transition from one lubrication regime to another

through a dimensionless film thickness ratio defined as:
Film thickness = (effective film thickness)/[surface roughness(Ra)]
Fluid Film Lubrication:
• The lubricant films are normally many times thicker than the surface
roughness as measured on the Ra scale.
• The film thickness normally exceeds 1.0um and the film thickness ratio is
in excess of 10 and may even rise to 100.
Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication:
• Local elastic distortion of the solids provides coherent fluid films and
asperity interaction is prevented. For normal engineering contacts the film
thickness is between 0.1um and 1.0um and the film thickness ratio is greater
than 4 or 5.

Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
Lubrication Mode Terms of Surface Roughness
Mixed Lubrication:
• The behavior of the contact is governed by a mixture of ‘boundary’ and ‘fluid
film’ effects.
• If the effective film thickness is calculated, it is found to be in the range
0.05um to 1um with film thickness ratios between 1and 5.

Boundary Lubrication:
• Fluid film effects are negligible and there is considerable asperity contact.
• The surface films vary in thickness from 5nm to 10nm.
• The film thickness ratio is less than unity.

Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
The Stribeck Curve

Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
 The Stribeck Curve
.150
Mixed
Boundary

Coefficient of Friction, 
The Stribeck curve plots
the coefficient of friction
of a system versus the
lubricant function. This is Elasto-
hydrodynamic
a function of the viscosity
Hydrodynamic
of the lubricant, the
velocity of the moving
.001
parts and the load.

(Viscosity) (Velocity) , ZN
Load P

Increasing viscosity or velocity results in a movement to the right and

into the hydrodynamic lubrication regime, reducing the load has a
similar effect.
Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
 The Stribeck Curve

Boundary Mixed Elasto- Hydrodynamic

.150 hydrodynamic

Coefficient of Friction, 
Conversely increasing the
load or decreasing
viscosity (either by
increasing temperature or
by changing the lubricant
for a lower viscosity grade)
or slowing the equipment .001
down all move the
lubrication regime towards
(Viscosity) (Velocity) , ZN
the boundary condition. Load P

Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
 The Stribeck Curve
.150 Boundary Mixed Elasto- Hydrodynamic
hydrodynamic

Coefficient of Friction, 
High friction does not
automatically equal
high wear nor does low
friction automatically
equal low wear. High
friction can equal high
wear and low friction
.001
can equal low wear.

(Viscosity) (Velocity) , ZN
Load P

The Stribeck curve shows that for certain coefficients of friction it is

possible to be in the hydrodynamic (theoretically zero wear) or in the
mixed regime where some wear will almost certainly take place.

Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
 The Stribeck Curve
.150 Boundary Mixed Elasto- Hydrodynamic
hydrodynamic
Different equipment parts operate

Coefficient of Friction, 
in different lubrication regimes:- Piston rings

Gears
Piston rings during the middle of Piston Skirt
the stroke operate in the
hydrodynamic regime but at each Engine Bearings
end of the stroke where the
Valve Train
velocity = zero then the most
likely regime is the mixed.
.001
Piston skirts and bearings
typically operate in the
hydrodynamic or
(Viscosity) (Velocity) , ZN
elastohydrodynamic (EHD) Load P
regimes.
The valve train (cam and followers) together with gears tend to operate
mainly in the mixed and boundary regimes

Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
 The Stribeck Curve
.150 Boundary Mixed Elasto- Hydrodynamic
hydrodynamic

Coefficient of Friction, 
Oil Viscosity

Energy loses in the

hydrodynamic regime Traction
are mainly influenced
Friction
by the viscosity of the
lubricant, in the EHD
regime the traction of .001
the lubricant is the
most important factor
while in boundary it is (Viscosity) (Velocity) , ZN
Load P
friction.

Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
LUBRICATION SUMMARY

Film Thickness, Common Important

Regime Microns Examples Lubricant Properties
Hydrodynamic 2.5 - 75 • Engine Main Bearings • Viscosity
• Engine Connecting • VI
Rod Bearings

Elasto- 0.25 – 1.25 • Ball Bearings • Viscosity

hydrodynamic • Roller Bearings • VI
• Pressure Coefficient of
Viscosity

Boundary 0.002 – 0.01 • Gears • Chemical Reactivity

• Engine Valve Trains • Reaction Film Tenacity
• Reaction Film Shear
Strength
• Reaction Film
Compressive Strength

Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
The Frictional Elements of
The Internal Combustion
Engine

Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
The Frictional Elements of The Internal Combustion
Engine
• The typical distribution of fuel energy is shown below.
• In the broadest terms, some 60% of the energy is uselessly dissipated in the
form of heat to the environment, either from the surfaces of the engine & it
auxiliaries, or down the exhaust pipe.
• A further 15% or so may be lost
in mechanical actions, leaving
about 25% of the original energy
in terms of brake power
available to the transmission and
hence, after further significant
losses, 12% to 15% available at
the wheels.

Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
The Frictional Elements of The Internal Combustion
Engine

• Some 80% of mechanical losses are

generally accepted to be associated with
the main frictional components; the engine
bearings, the valve train & the piston
assemblies, with the latter often credited
with about half the total.
• The auxiliary losses, including pumping
fluids are not small at about 20%.

Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
The Frictional Elements of The Internal Combustion
Engine
Engine Bearings:

• In the design perspective the

bearings are taken to operate with
hydrodynamic lubrication.
• It is recognized that at start-up and
shut down some element of surface
interaction may occur and indeed
high speed rub situations may
develop.
• Operational experience does,
however, indicate that for the large
majority of situations the journal &
bearing surfaces are effectively
separated.

Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
The Frictional Elements of The Internal Combustion
Engine
Cam & Follower:
• The cam & follower contact has proved to be the most difficult component of
the automobile engine in terms of lubrication.
• All modes of lubrication can take place on the cam/follower interaction from
boundary to hydrodynamic.
• For the boundary to mixed lubrication, solid materials and lubricants
additives are seen as of paramount importance in ensuring that satisfactory
reaction films are being continuously formed on the interacting surfaces.
• Typical mean pressures are much higher for the cam and follower and film
thicknesses are lower. In this context the mode of lubrication is clearly seen
as being more severe mainly at the cam noise area.

Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
The Frictional Elements of The Internal Combustion
Engine
Piston Rings:

• In the case of the lubrication of piston

rings it is immediately evident that the
relative sliding speed between rings and
liner is substantial at mid-stroke and
zero at the dead centers.
• Thus at mid-stroke satisfactory
thickness of lubricant film exists
between the compression rings and
cylinder liner resulting in hydrodynamic
lubrication conditions.
• At the dead centers, with zero entraining
velocity of the lubricant into the contact,
squeeze film action and mixed to
boundary lubrication exist in this
vicinity.
Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology
 Engine Component Friction, 800rpm
450
450
425 425
400 400
375 375
350 350
325 325
Power-loss (w)

300

Power-loss (w)
300
275 275 Piston assembly
250 Piston assembly 250 Valvetrain
225 Valvetrain 225 Bearing
200 Bearing 200 Total
175 Total 175
150 150
125 125
100 100
75 75
50 50
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85
Oil temperature (°C) Oil temperature (°C)

SAE 0W20 SAE 5W30

R.A. Mufti and M. Priest, “Effect of engine operating conditions and lubricant rheology on the distribution of losses in an Dr Riaz A Mufti
internal combustion engine”, American Society of Mechanical Engineering, Journal of Tribology, 131(4), 2009. Engine Tribology
 Engine Component Friction under fired conditions

800rpm, SAE 0W20

2000rpm, SAE 0W20

R.A. Mufti and M. Priest, “Effect of engine operating conditions and lubricant rheology on the distribution of losses in an Dr Riaz A Mufti
internal combustion engine”, American Society of Mechanical Engineering, Journal of Tribology, 131(4), 2009. Engine Tribology
Thank you
End of Lecture

Dr Riaz A Mufti
Engine Tribology