07AMASW21 - Introduction To Social Work

MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK
INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL WORK
M.S.W
I YEAR
SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

BHARATHIAR UNIVERSITY
COIMBATORE – 641046
1
2
SYLLABUS
MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK- INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL WORK
UNIT I
Social work – Definition, Objectives, History, Philosophy and scope, Concept of
related terms: Social welfare, Social service, Social reform, Social Security, Social
Justice and Introduction to the Methods of Social Work.
UNIT II
Trends of Social Work profession in India – Traits, Principles, Values, Ethics and
Goals. National and International professional organizations in Social Work.
UNIT III
Development of Social Work Education in India. Fieldwork and Profession –
Importance of Fieldwork and supervision. Problems faced by the social work
profession in India Need for social science knowledge for professional social
workers. Functions of Professional Associations.
UNIT IV
Fields of social work – Family and child welfare, Correctional social work, Industrial
social work. Medical and Psychiatric social work, youth welfare, Community
development (Rural and Urban)
UNIT V
Emerging Areas of Socail Work-Environmental Protection, Disaster management.
HIV/AIDS Gerentological Social Work and Human Rights.
3
. UNITS PAGE NOS
UNIT-I 5
UNIT-II 59
UNIT-III 82
UNIT-IV 111
UNIT-V 161
4
UNIT I
CONTENTS
1.0 AIM AND OBJECTIVES
1.1 SOCIAL WORK – DEFINITION
1.2 OBJECTIVES
1.3 HISTORY OF SOCIAL WORK:
1.3.1 HISTORY OF SOCIAL WORK IN UNITED STATES OF
AMERICA
1.3.2 HISTORY OF SOCIAL WORK IN ENGLAND
1.3.3 HISTORY OF SOCIAL WORK IN INDIA
1.4 PHILOSOPHY AND SCOPE
1.5 CONCEPT OF RELATED TERMS:
1.5.1 SOCIAL SERVICE
1.5.2 SOCIAL REFORM
1.5.3 SOCIAL SECURITY
1.5.4 SOCIAL JUSTICE
1.6 METHODS OF SOCIAL WORK
1.6.1 CASE WORK
1.6.2 GROUP WORK
1.6.3 COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION
1.6.4 SOCIAL ACTION
1.6.5 SOCIAL WELFARE ADMINISTRATION
1.6.6 SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH
1.7 LET US SUM UP
1.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit you will learn the fundamental concepts of
social work such as Social Service, Social Reform, Social Security and Social Justice.
Along with this you will also have an introduction to history, philosophy and
various methods of social work which is much required for social work students.
5
1.1 SOCIAL WORK DEFINITION
STROUP:
Social Work is the art of bringing various resources which bear on individual,
group or community needs by the application of a scientific method of helping people to
help themselves.
SOCIAL WORK YEAR BOOK, 1945:
Defines social work “as a professional service to people for the purpose of
assisting them, as individuals or in groups, to attain satisfying relationship and
standards of lie in accordance with their particular wishes and capacities and in
harmony with those of the community.
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF SOCIAL WORK

Generally, social work has the following objectives:
1. To solve psychosocial problems.
2. To fulfil humanitarian needs.
3. To solve adjustmental problems.
4. To create self-sufficiency.
5. To strengthen and make harmonious social relations.
6. To make provision of corrective and recreation services.
7. To provide opportunities for development and social progress.
8. To develop democratic values
9. To conscientize the community.
10. To change the environment in favour of individual's growth and development.
11. To bring changed social system for social development.
12. Provide socio-legal aid.
SOCIAL WORK, SERVICE SYSTEM
Above mentioned areas are the fields of social work in which it provides its
services to the individual group and community as a whole.
Singh has mentioned the following goals and objectives of social work. To
alleviate the pains of suffering humanity and secure the minimum desirable quality
6
of life to people belonging to weaker and vulnerable sections of society is the
mission of social work.
THE OBJECTIVES OF SOCIAL WORK ARE:
1. To help people dealing with their psychological and social problems.
2. To promote the realization of potentials which people have and qui often are
not able to actualize because of non-availability of require opportunities and
varied kinds of impediments natural as well, fan made.
3. To conserve the health- physical, menial, social and moral to enable people to
perform the roles and responsibilities assigned to them.
4. To create awareness among people of the rights which they have are duties
which they are supposed to perform in various walks of life
5. To empower people by enhancing their capacity to the optimum level to
enable them to deal with their problems and difficulties at the own level in an
effective manner.
6. To strengthen the existing social Institutions conducive for promotion
people's well being.
7. To create new Institutions required in the wake of fast changing situations for
ensuring fulfilment of felt and unmet needs of the people
8. To introduce structural changes for equitable redistribution of resources
available in society such that inequalities may be as far as possible reduced
and equality of opportunity for weaker are vulnerable section may be
guaranteed
9. To eradicate such social evils as are against human dignity and a disapproved
by existing laws and moral standards that prevail in society
10. To curb the abuse and exploitation of the underdogs by the privilege sections
of society by getting the suitable statutory provisions ma for punishment of
the exploiters and abusers.
11. To organize the oppressed and suppressed in society! conscientizing them
and breaking their culture of silence and enable them to raise their voice
7
against the forces obstructing the realization of their potentials, depriving
them of the rights which they are entitled to and perpetrating various kinds of
atrocities against them and
12. To conserve and develop environment by directing development efforts in
such manner that the need and not greed of every one may be satisfied and
enough resources are left for the future generations to lead a minimum
desirable standard of living.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1
A) Define Social work
B) Mention any five objectives of social work
Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below
b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this unit
A………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
B………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………
1.3 HISTORY OF SOCIAL WORK
1.3.1HISTORY OF SOCIAL WORK IN UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

'Social work' is an outgrowth of earlier forms of social activities going back to
the centuries. Though social work in its present form seems to have no roots prior to
1860, yet the period from colonisation to the civil war played a large role in the
development of social work. For our purpose to understand the historical
development of social work in USA we have divided it into the following stages.
1. The Colonial Period (1620-1776)
2. Civil War and Industrial Revolution (1776-1860)
3. Industrialism-The Human Side (1860-1900)
4. Social Work seeking Professional Characteristics (1900-1930)
5. Highly Professionalised Discipline (1930)
8
Social welfare services have existed in USA since the establishment of the
original thirteen colonies on the eastern sea board in the seventeenth and eighteenth
century. The English people, who settled here, brought with them their customs,
laws and ideas. Elizabethan Poor Law served as the basic pattern for extending
financial assistance to persons in need. Assistance to the poor in their own homes
(outdoor relief) was the initial method followed in the growing colonial towns. This
assistance was provided to the persons who were in need of temporary of partial
public support, generally temporarily unemployed and disabled members. The
assistance was provided the families to look after them.
The first aim house was established in Massachusetts in 1662. It started
functioning in 1685 both as an aim house for the disabled and as a work house for
the able-bodied paupers. These alms and work houses also took care of their health
problems. Most of the specialised and advanced general hospitals of USA like
Bellevue Hospital in New York and Philadelphia General Hospital were in the form
of aim houses in its original forms. The former hospitals were for the poor with
physical or mental ailments; for example, the Pennsylvania Hospital, completed in
1756 and planned primarily to house the sick poor, admitted the mentally ill who
were confined in the building. After the settlement of New Amsterdam several
"Sieck entroasters", minor ecclesiastical functionaries whose duty was to visit sick
persons in their own homes, were sent to the colony.1 Orphan masters were
appointed to protect the interest and properties of widows and orphans. The first
'overseers of the poor' were appointed in 1691 in the city of Boston.
Associations for the function of charitable aid or mutual benefit were also
formed on the basis of national origins and church affiliations. Scots Charitable
Society was the first such association which was established in 1657 in Boston to help
the sick aided the poor and to provide burial for deceased countrymen. The
outstanding Association with welfare activities was the Society of Friends in
Pennsylvania, and other colonies which cared for members of its own sects but later
on extended its services to others.
9
The system of poor relief during colonial period in USA reflected the
Elizabethan Poor Laws. The town, the smallest unit of government like the Parish
was responsible for its inhabitants. The primary motive of the town was to protect
itself against the poor and destitute, it was not uncommon to auction the poor to the
neighbouring farmers or to send them to privately run aim houses.
Another development during this period was the broadening of the base of
responsibility from the town to the province in Massachusetts for a special category
of the poor. By 1701 there was provision for reimbursement to the town for relief in
all cases of unsettled dependent persons ill with dangerous infections of contagious
diseases.
The rapid growth of manufacturing industries after the civil war intensified
the complexities of social need. People came in large number to the urban areas and
faced the wrath of poor wages, poor housing, unemployment etc. but on the other
hand a wealthy class of industrialists emerged which stimulated voluntary relief
efforts through their contribution to private charities.
To solve the problems of social maladjustment in the cities and of the labour
class, there developed a settlement movement that had great influence on the
evolving pattern of the social services. Beginning with the establishment of
'Neighbourhood Guild' (it is known own university settlement) in the lower east side
of New York City in 1880, the Movement spread rapidly through the larger
industrial centres. The most important settlement was Jane Addaxns' Hull House in
Chicago and Mary Simkhovitch's Greenrich House in New York city. These
settlement houses provided direct service to people living in the neighbourhood and
also concerned with neighbourhood planning and improvement. An early result of
the settlement house movement was the development of the playground movement
in American cities.
By the last decades of II c nineteenth century thousands of immigrants were
reaching the eastern seaport, mainly from the countries of southern and eastern
Europe. Several new social agencies were established to help these immigrants
10
adjust to American ways and to protect them from dangers always prevalent for a
stranger in a new country. The Hebrew Sheltering and Immigrant Aid Society, with
many branches in many cities and one of the most influential of these agencies was
founded in 1884 in New York City. By the turn of the century scores of relief-giving
and service centres and societies were founded in most of the metropolitan cities. For
the care of the children and patients, the state government also established mental
hospitals, orphanages and schools.
There were three important developments in social welfare during this
period. The first was the gradual recognition of the social needs of people with
particular handicaps. Special institutions, both public and private, were developed
for children, for the handicapped and for the mentally ill. Child labour legislation
was enacted. A law was passed in 1813 in this connection to press the mill owners to
have the children in their factories taught the three R's. Massachusetts passed a law
in 1836 requiring the children under the age of 15 years working in factories attend
school for three months in a year. In 1842 both the States, adopted a law which
established 10 hours a day as the maximum work for children under 12 years.
Children under 12 years were prohibited from working in textile factories.
In 1797, Massachusetts legislature passed a bill holding that "When it appears
that a person is lunatic and so furiously mad as to render it dangerous to the peace
and safety of the good people, for such lunatic persons to go at large, he may be
committed to the house of corrections". The less serious and less dangerous were
sent to the alms-houses, mixed with the paupers, the children and the criminals.
A second important development was the assumption of greater
responsibility by the States when local units could not provide adequate relief to
these special groups. State government opened the first juvenile reformatory in New
York in 1825, the first school for deaf was opened in 1817 and the first school for the
blind, was opened in Boston in 1830. Soon after other States also provided such
facilities. Dorothea Lynde Dix contributed greatly during this period to the
11
recognition of the need of mentally handicapped. She popularised institutional care
and treatment for mental patients.
A third important development was the emergence of the private agency.
People with humanitarian interest could not remain unmoved from the experience
of shock and agony of poor people living in urban slums. Many organisations and
associations were founded for the welfare of the children, handicapped and the sick.
Around 1850 several maternity homes for unmarried mothers were established by
various groups. The motivation for these programmes was highly moralistic. YWCA
movement was also started during this period.
The Charity Organisation Society (COS) was one of the important forerunners
of modern social work. They were first organised in London in 1989 as an attempt to
eliminate indiscriminate aim giving by the existing relief agencies and to organise
the resources for the maximum benefits for the needy persons. The Charity
Organisation Society Movement was also started in the United States. The first
Charity Organisation Society was organised in Buffalo in 1877. Later on, Boston,
Philadelphia, New Haven had established societies in 1878. The Charity
Organisation Society operated on the following four general principles: (1) Detailed
investigation of the application; (2) A central system of registration to avoid
duplication; (3) Cooperation between the various relief agencies; (4) Extensive use of
volunteer friendly visitor. The main functions of the Charity Organisation Society
were three fold: "first and basic, the rehabilitation of families which for any reason
fail to be self-sufficient; second, the education of the community in correct principles
of relief, and third, aid in the elimination of the causes of poverty.
In the early efforts of the Charity Organisation Society one sees the roots of
many present-day programmes and practices. Among these are the Social Service
Exchange, the Case Conference, social action, and planning. the first Social Service
Exchange was organised by the Associated Charities of Boston in 1879. The objective
of the Exchange was to serve as a clearing house in order to prevent duplication of
services and to save the clients from unnecessary investigation. The Case Conference
12
Method was applied in which representatives of various agencies participated to
share their views about a particular family and to discuss a possible plan of action.
Social reforms were also made through the C.O.S. in the form of prevention of
poverty. Watson while commenting on the period of 1896-1904, pointed out that the
outstanding characteristic was the emphasis placed by Charity Organisation
Societies upon the prevention of poverty, as reflected in the various movements to
change social conditions. In the report of committee on Organisation of Charily in
1893 the chairman presented an impressive list of charity organisation endeavours in
the area of social action including among others like housing, health, child labour
and sanitation.
By the end of nineteenth century the Charity Organisation Societies began to
employ paid workers. Many of these societies established training courses for their
workers. The New York Charity Organisation Society established the first school for
Training social workers in the country in 1898. It was called the New York School of
Philanthropy and now it is known as the New York School of Social Work, Columbia
University.
Charity Organisation Society and Settlement House Movements differed in
certain ways. "The social settlement never accepted the traditional idea that
leadership was a divine right of the upper classes. At a time when such an idea was
widely prevalent, the social settlement set themselves firmly against attitudes of
condescension in their relations with the poor sought to break down the
undemocratic cleavage between social classes." "The settlement could not cooperate
with charity if it were nothing more than a relief society, but could cooperate with it
if charity offered a friendship that could change life.... The settlement worked from
within while the Charity Organisation Society, with its voluntarily friendly visitors
and paid agents, was the force coming from the outside into the neighbourhood.
1.3.2 HISTORY OF SOCIAL WORK IN ENGLAND
In the medieval period in England like other European countries, it was the
pious duty of the church to help and protect the poor. People were helping and
giving alms to the destitute, handicapped, blinds, and poor out of religious
13
sentiments. The basic objective behind this charity was the purification of soul of aim
givers- and therefore, there was no relationship between them with the result that
churches did not make any effort to provide any permanent remedy for improving
the conditions of the poor.
In the beginning of the fourteenth century, poor were divided into two
categories: able-bodied and destitute. In 1349, King Edward III issued the Statute of
Labourers which compelled the able-bodied to work for their livelihood. Under this
statute, the provision was made that able-bodied labourers having no means of
livelihood must take up job from any master who should be willing to employ them.
They were directed not to leave the parish to which they belonged. Rigorous
punishment was given to those who violated this law.
The first creative work in the direction of assistance to the poor was done in
1531 when Henry VIII made a law known as Statute of Henry VIII. The law directed
the judges and parish incharge to scrutinise the applications of poor and the aged
who were unable to do any work. Under the law these destitute had to register
themselves and take the licence to beg is certain specified areas. In 1563 Parliament
passed a resolution which was made compulsory for householders to provide funds
weekly for the relief of the poor. In 1572 Queen Elizabeth signed on a statute which
levied a general tax for the financing of poor relief programme. It also made
provisions for the appointment of overseers of the poor. Through this statute, it was
made clear that the government was totally responsible for the maintenance of poor.
THE ELIZABETHAN POOR LAW, 1601
The Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601 also known as "43 Elizabeth", which was to
remain in the basis of handling relief for the next 233 years, spelled out the existing
practices in a more logical system of poor relief. The law divided the poor in three
categories:
1. The able-bodied poor. There were sturdy poor who were forced to work in the
House of Corrections or in Work Houses People were not allowed to give
them alms.
14
2. The impotent poor or unemployable poor: They were placed in alms houses or
given outdoor relief for their livelihood. There were sick, old, blind, deaf and
dumb, orthopaedically handicapped invalid and mentally sick.
3. The dependent children: Orphans and parentless children and such children
who were deserted by their parents or children from very poor families
whose parents were unable to bring them up, were known dependent
children. These children were given to persons willing to take them without
any charge. If such persons and 'free have' were not available, they were
given to the lowest bidder for whom they bad to work up to the age of 24
years in case of male and up to 21 years in case of female. Apprentice was
given to those dependent children. "Overseers of the poor' were responsible
for the execution of Poor Law. The finances were collected by imposing poor
tax which was assessed on the basis of property.
The Law of 1601 has been very significant because it made the government
accept positive obligations for the help of people who could not provide for
themselves and realise the presence of destitution among the poor that punishment
could not abolish it and that could be relieved only by the application of public
resources to individual need.
Charles II passed the Settlement Act in 1662 which empowered the justice of
the peace to return to free place from where he had come and any such new comer
who in the opinion of the overseers of the poor could become a liability in future. In
1696, the Work House Act was passed which made provision for the training of
inmates of the work houses.
CHARITY ORGANISATION SOCIETY, 1869
The middle of the nineteenth century was a period of scientific and
humanitarianism awakening. Thomas Chalmers, a Scottish minister, and his
associates criticised the methods and the administration of Poor Law. He suggested
that the investigation should be made of each case under the direction and
supervision of non-governmental agencies. His efforts did not go waste though it
took time to implement such scheme. London Charity Organisation Society was
15
formed in 1869. The leading ideas of that organisation at the lime of its initiation
were such: the giving 'of doles should be stopped, relief giving should be
coordinated, and each applicant for assistance should be carefully studied to
determine what he needed to put him on his feet. The Charity Organisation Society's
particular part in the work would be to interview the applicants, draw up plans for
the treatment of their social disabilities, and secure the needed funds from already
established organisations. Historians of social work generally agree that in the
scheme lie the beginnings of the present system of organised social work activities.
Community organisation and Social Case Work Methods were applied in the
Charity Organisation Society's activities (COS). Charity Organisation Society’s
workers helped the poor for assistance to utilise the existing relief services
effectively. Nobody was getting assistance without investigation. This followed from
the COS to study carefully the needs of each applicant in order to try to find a way of
putting him in the position in which he could dispense with charity. Attempts were
made to find (i) a job, (ii) medial treatment, (iii) education, (iv) counselling for
financial gain and (v) encouragement for creative plans.
Public welfare administration was represented by the efforts at establishing order
and efficiency in the distribution of relief. Social action was contemplated and to some
extent carried out in attempts to influence poor relief legislation and otherwise to alter
social and economic conditions that handicapped the poverty-stricken classes.
SETTLEMENT HOUSE MOVEMENT
Edward Edison was the first volunteer who in 1867 thought that the
distribution of aim or relief had no meaning in the context of the solution of the
problem. Cannon Samuel Augustas Barnet put this idea forcefully with his effort
and in his memory his friends founded University Settlement House which was
named as Toynbee Hall. It has three objectives (i) Education and cultural
development of poor, (ii) to provide information to the students and other inmates of
the settle house regarding the poor for the improvement of their conditions for social
reform, (iii) to develop consciousness towards social and health problems and the
need for enacting legislation.
16
THE POOR LAW COMMISSION OF 1905
In the beginning of twentieth century England faced a big unemployment
problem. Most of the workers of coal mines became unemployed and started begging
for relief. Thus, it became difficult, rather impossible to solve the problem of poverty
through the existing Poor Laws. Royal Commission on the Poor Law and Relief of
Distress was appointed in 1905 to solve the present crisis. Lord Gorge Hamilton was its
chairman.
The Commission made four recommendations:
1. Country councils should be established in place of poor law union and Board
of Guardians, so that the local administration could be reduced up to three-
fourth.
2. To abolish the punishable nature of poor welfare and beginning of public
welfare programmes on humanitarian basis.
3. Mixed orphanages should be stopped. Mentally retarded and sick should be
treated in hospitals. Children should be kept in foster homes or in local
schools.
4. National pension for the aged, free treatment facilities for the poor in the
hospitals, public employment services and insurant e for the unemployed and
invalids be started.
On its recommendations, very important acts were enacted. The provision of
Meals Act was passed in 1906. The facility of free school benches was provided under
the Act The education Act was passed in 1907. Provision for medical examination of
school children was made under the Act. Prevention of Crime Act was passed in 1908
which made provision for the establishment of special courts for children. The Children
Act was passed in 1912 which led to the creation of special courts for the trial and
probation services for reformation of juvenile delinquents. The Juvenile Court
Metropolis Act was passed in 1920 which empowered the secretary to select qualified
and experienced magistrates to deal with the cases in the juvenile courts. Labour
Exchanges Act was passed which led to the establishment of employment exchanges to
help the unemployed in getting employment. National Insurance Act was passed in
17
1911 to provide for compulsory health insurance of workers of lower income groups.
The Widows', Orphans' and Old Age Contributory Pension act was passed in 1925.
Local Government Act w, s passed in 1925 which abolished the Poor Law Unions and
Board of Guardians and gave responsibility of administration of poor relief to the
county councils. In 1931, National Economy Act was passed which made provision for
the payment of unemployment assistance. Old age Pension Act was passed in 1940
which made provision for the payment of need-based additional pensions to the aged,
especially for medical treatment.
THE BEVERRIDGE REPORT
An Inter-Departmental Commission on Social Insurance and Allied Services was
appointed under the chairmanship of William Beverridge in 1941. The objective of this
commission was to make survey of the structure and efficiency of social services of
England and to recommend the proper course of action. The commission found that
there were five giant evils viz; physical need, disease, ignorance, squalor, idleness;
which were responsible for all the human miseries. The commission recommended (i)
social insurance (ii) public assistance (iii) Children's allowance (iv) Comprehensive free
health and rehabilitation services (v) maintenance of full employment. The Report laid
down 6 basic principles for these programmes (i) united administration (ii)
comprehensive coverage, (iii) flat rate of contribution (iv) Flat rate of benefits (v)
adequacy of all benefits to meet basic needs of recipients (vi) Classification of
population.
British social insurance programmes are based on Beverridge Report. Various
legal enactments were made after the submission of the report. Disabled Persons
(Employment) Act was passed in 1944 which made provision for the employers of
commercial or industrial enterprises to compulsorily employ the disabled persons. In
1945, The Family Allowance Act was passed. National Insurance Act was passed in 1946
which provided a scheme of health, invalidity and old-age insurance. The Industrial
Injuries (workman's compensations) Act was enacted in 1946. The National Assistance
Act was made in 1948.
18
DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL WORK IN INDIA
Social work is no new thing; it has always been done, as it still is, as an act of
friendship and in the ordinary course of duty by the priest, the teacher, the doctor
and the lawyer. The systematic study of development of social work in India may be
seen in different periods.
1.3.3 HISTORY OF SOCIAL WORK IN INDIA
SOCIAL WORK IN ANCIENT INDIA

In ancient India, the nature of social service was that of charity. 1 he earlier,
reference to charity is to be found in the Rigveda (chap. I, XIII, 2) which encourages
charity by saying "May the one who gives shine most." Upanishads like
Brihadaranyaka, Chhandogya and Taittiriya, prescribe that every householder must
practice charily. In Mahabharat we find that when Bhishma talked to Yudhishthir, he
described the essence of eternal religion, non-violence, truth, the conquest of anger
and charity.
In ancient India, the social welfare activities were performed by Yagnas,
Yagnas being the most popular mass rituals known in Vedic days. In a great grand
shed erected for the purpose on the banks of a flowing river, people assembled in an
utter spirit of dedication. Each tried to contribute his bit towards the Yajna. Their
intention was the common welfare of all. There was no personal desire to be
fulfilled. Yagnashalas were class rooms where men and women were taught the spirit
of working together without the ego and egocentric desires. The spirit underlying
the most popular vedic rituals is brought to bear in all actions, not only in the
Yagnashalas but also in the home, the market place, the factory,, and the field.
Bhagwatgeeta enunciates the principle by saying "Cherish the Devas with the Yagna
spirit and that Devas shall in turn cherish you"; thus cherishing each other, you shall
gain the highest good. When men in a community strive cooperatively without ego
and egocentric desires, the cosmic forces that constitute the environment shall
cherish them in turn. Bhagwatgeeta advises that when any profit accrued as a result of
the total dedicated efforts of the many, is misappropriated by a man, than he is a
19
thief. No single member has a right for a larger share. The community is sure to
succeed in progress and welfare when it has learned to live and strive as one entity.
The privileged class has moral duty to serve the poor, such persons who served the
society with all their ability are freed from all sins (Geeta Chapt. 3-13), but those who
cook for themselves or produce for their own gains, they are eating sin.
The Aswalayana Griha Sutra says that one must daily perform Pancha Yagnas —
giving service to God, ancestors, animals, one's own self and one's fellowmen. The
Chhandogya Upanishad says that life is a succession of Yagnas or services for others.
Charity is not merely a social duty but it is like prayer. One does it for its own sake,
because one feels it is a privilege, because one is serving the Lord through it. The
habit of giving alms was common and no householder turned away a beggar empty
handed as to do so was considered a sin. According to Manushutrci, it was his duty
to feed his guests first and then his servants, he and his wife might eat last of all.
Hindu scriptures say that the man *who helps other or gives charity does not
show the sense of superiority. The Taittiriya Upanishad declares that it is better not to
help at all rather than help without showing due respect to the recipient of charity.
28 An Introduction to Social Work
Shastri has depicted the communitarian republics of the early Vedic period.
"In this communitarian society which functioned like an extended family,
everybody's needs were catered to by everybody. There was a life of complete
mutuality and reciprocal assistance whether the needs were basic or special, generic
or arising out of vulnerable situations like disease and external danger. In
knowledge and skill people differed only in quantity and everybody did for others
in need what others did for him in similar circumstances. The whole business of
helping people in need was everybody's business mainly handled in a collective
way. Thus everybody was client and agent both on different occasions and for
different purposes.
With the development of agrarian society with private group ownership of
land, the concept of charity came into existence. "Earlier when there was common
20
ownership of property by the tribe, dana was a protection as of right, against
starvation, for the sick, the aged, and the weak, who had the first claim on social
property. But when private property and class rule came across (during the late
vedic period and after), dana was converted from an instrument of social insurance
to a privilege of the ruling class and became now a voluntary virtue and charity of
the kings and Kshatriyas.
By the later Vedic period, dana became institutionalised and acquired the
characteristics of charity with religious ideology. Dana was given to acquire puny a
(merit). It was no longer given merely in celebration of an event or a heroic
personality or in connection with a ceremony.
The evolution of Buddhism during the Magadhan empires changed the
character of Indian society. It was changed from tribal agricultural settlement to a
class-based agrarian economy. Buddhism accepted the Karma theory which served
the purpose of explaining the origin of social inequality. Buddhism laid great
emphasis on punya and dana (charity). Charity was. Seen not only as a means of
alleviating the sufferings of the materially poor, but also as the giving of gifts (dana),
especially to the Sangha. Sanghas were the centres of shelters and learning and were
responsible for the spread of literacy.
Guilds were important corporate organisations which performed a variety of
economic and welfare functions in ancient India. Guilds were playing important role
during Buddhist period. Apart from economic and political functions, these guilds
were providing social security to the first class of the society, "some part of the funds
was utilized for the relief of deserving persons such as the distressed, the diseased,
the blind, the idiotic, the infirm, the orphans and helpless women.
With the development of agrarian society, a new type of polity developed in
the form of early Kosala and Magadha States. Bimbsara became the king of Magadha
about 300 B.C. He was the earliest of Indian kings to lay the foundation of an
efficient administrative system. He paid special attention to the development of
roads and development of agriculture. Severe punishment was inflicted on cruel and
21
corrupt officers. His son Ashoka succeeded him in 273 B.C. Social and political
activities of the king during Maurya's period have been recorded by Kautilya in his
book.
Kautilya in his book Arthasastra had mentioned the duties of the king towards
his subjects. "In the happiness of his subjects lays his happiness, in their welfare his
welfare, whatever pleases himself he shall not consider as good; but whatever
pleases his subjects he shall consider as good. It was the duty of the king to provide
help for maintenance to the minor, aged, afflicted, and helpless and women.
A wide range of social welfare activities were undertaken during the reign of
Ashoka. Superintendents of women (Ithighaka Mahamattas) were appointed to look
after the welfare of the women including prostitutes. High commissioners of Charity
(Dhammamahamatas) were appointed for the recording of charitable donation by the
royal family and regulation of charity. The commissioners of equity were to look
after the welfare of the prisoners. The welfare programmes were under the overall
charge of Dhamma Mahamattas.
Ashoka developed a comprehensive system of social welfare which included
women's welfare, rehabilitation of prisoners, rural development, free medical care,
regulation of prostitution and provision of public utilities like roads, rest houses for
traveller, wells, etc. The creation of separate cadre of state officials to implement
these programmes is an accomplishment that compares very favourably with the
social welfare system of some of the modern social democracies of Europe.23
Kanishka ascended the throne in 78 A.D. Like Ashoka, the Great, he took an
active interest in the welfare of the society. He gave liberal donations and grants for
the construction of Buddhist vihars, monasteries, stupas etc. These were the centres
for learning, and help to the needy people.
The period of the Gupta rule is one of the brightest in the history of India. The
Gupta dynasty included a succession of brilliant rulers like Chandra Gupta,
Samudra Gupta, who established a well-governed empire and people were happy
22
and prosperous. 'Welfare of the people' was the main task of the king who devoted
his like for the same.
Harsaverdhan who occupied the throne in 606 A.D. was an enlightened and
benevolent ruler. The welfare of his subjects always dominated his thoughts and
actions. He established hospitals, dispensaries, orphanages and homes for the
destitute. He distributed presents among men of religion, the poor and the needy. In
one of the five-yearly assemblies at Prayag (Allahabad) he is believed to have given
everything he had in charity and had to borrow clothes from his sister.
SOCIAL WELFARE DURING SULTANATE
The Sultanate was an Islamic state. The duties of the king included
maintenance of peace, perfection from external attacks, levying and realisation of
taxes, providing justice to the subjects. Besides, the ruler did little for the general
welfare of the masses-Malik AH, a noble of Balban, was more generous in giving
alms. He always gave a gold or silver coin to the beggar. Ghias-ud-din Tughlak was
a charitable king. Mohammad Gawan spent all his wealth on the poor and himself
ate the coarse food of a peasant and slept on the ground with a straw mat for a bed.24
Sufi Sheikhs use to distribute gifts to the needy Muslim masses that came to their
Khanqnahs. Usually one of the disciples of the Sheikh was appointed as the manager
to look after the needy.
SOCIAL WELFARE DURING MUGHAL RULE
Humayun was the first Muslim king who made a bold attempt to prohibit the
Sati system. Akbar was the great ruler who, not only brought many reforms in
Indian society but also abolished slavery in 1583. He introduced equality among the
people irrespective their class and religion. His was a policy of religious equality and
he granted full freedom to the subjects in matters of religious beliefs and practices.
He was liberal in granting money and land for the benefit of Hindus, Jains, and
Parsees etc. Akbar had a comprehensive system of poor relief. Relief for the poor
was of two types. The first was granting relief in cash and kind to any and every
needy person who appeared before him at his daily court. The second type was a
23
systematic and organised assistance which was provided regularly. VJazifas
(stipends) were also given to the student. He constructed three houses for the poor in
order to control beggary.
CONTRIBUTION OF INDIVIDUALS
Raja Ram Mohan Roy was the greatest Indian of the nineteenth century who
sowed the seeds of religious and social reforms. He invested most of his talents and
power towards the abolition of Sati. He was in favour of widow remarriage and
female education. Raja Ram Mohan Roy's opinion was that only by freeing women
and by treating them as human beings Indian society would free itself from social
stagnation. Iswar ChandraVidyaSagar was the second great social reformer of the
nineteenth century. He advocated for widow remarriage, economic self reliance,
women's education and prohibition of polygamy, it was with the joint efforts of Ram
Mohan Roy and Vidya Sagar that the Widow Remarriage Act was passed in 1856.
Bal Shastri Jambhekar, who was the first professor at Elphinstone College, Bombay,
condemned the evil customs of Sati and female infanticide as well as trafficking in
female children. He tried for the framing of laws to abolish these customs. But he
believed that these evils could be removed only through social reforms and by
searching for some sanction in the Shastras so that they would be acceptable to the
people. Gopal Hari Deshmukh of Bombay promoted modem education for the
establishment of dispensaries, maternity homes, orphanages, etc.
Sasipada Banerjee was a notable reformer of Bengal who worked for the cause
of women's education and widow remarriage. He himself married a widow when
his first wife died. He arranged several marriages of widows and gave shelter to
widows in his home. He was pioneer in taking up the welfare work for labourers.
Jotirao Phule, contemporary of Iswar Chandra Vidya Sagar, was an active reformist
in Poona. He was working for the cause of female and low caste people education.
He also worked towards improving the condition of Maharashtrian peasants. He
established the Satya Shodhak Samaj in 1868 for the social and economic uplift of the
low caste people. Ranade, Telang, Lokahitawadi Deshmukh, Bhandarkar and D.K.
24
Karve were the prominent leaders of social reform movement in the west, especially
in Poona. Tilak and Gokhale also worked for the cause of upliftment but they were
more engaged in political activities. V.R. Shinde initiated welfare work among the
tribal people N.M. Joshi and N.G. Chandavarkar established Bombay Social Service
League which organised night classes and recreational programmes among mill
workers in Bombay.
Gandhiji became active in political as well as social field in 1920. He
symbolised the integration of political reform with social reform. He worked for the
upliftment of women, Harijans and fought for the equality between men and
women. Gandhiji always argued that for the development of the country was not
only essential that it should be free from foreign rule, but it should also be free from
many social evils which hinder and sometimes block the process of development.
CONTRIBUTION OF ORGANISATIONS
The important organisations which played significant role in the development of
social work are Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Arya Samaj, .Theosophical Society,
Ram Krishna Mission Muhammedan Literacy Society, The Bombay Widow Remarriage
Association, Bengal Hindu Widows Association, Indian National Social Conference and
the Servants of India Society. Brahmo Samaj was founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, who
started the Atmiya Samaj in 1815 which grew into the Brahmo Samaj. It worked for the
abolition of Sati, widow remarriage and women's welfare. Arya Samaj was founded by
Swami Dayanand Saraswati in 1875. He opposed the caste system and child marriage.
Theosophical Society was founded 1881 in Madras by Madame Blavastsku and Colonel
Olcott. Swami Vivekananda founded Ram Krishna Mission in 1897, started its
programmes with education, treatment and general help. Indian National Social
Conference came into being in 1887 for the thorough discussion and implementation of
social welfare programmes. Gopal Krishna Gokhale, who had deep interest in the work
of social services, established the Servants of India Society in 1905.
MODERN SOCIAL WORK
Modern Social work was introduced in India by Christian Missionaries at the
beginning of the nineteenth century when they started making houses for orphan
25
children and destitute men and women. Indian social reformers like Sasipada
Banerjee, Phule, Karve, etc., started building homes for the widows. Some social
organisations like Arya Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, and Ram Krishna Mission began to
provide a variety of social welfare services to the needy. Religious associations also
played significant role in providing institutional welfare services in India. The role of
State in the field of social welfare commenced during the second and third decades
of the twentieth century though earlier measures were taken like that of the
Apprentices Act of 1850 for the employment of orphans and destitute. Reformatory
School Act of 1870 which provided the training to destitute children and treatment
of juvenile delinquents. Children Act 1920 (Madras) Abolition of Sati 1829, Abolition
of Slavery 1843, Abolition of Female Infanticide and Human Sacrifice 1870, Widow
Remarriage Act 1856, Factory Act, 1881.
The year of 1936 marks a watershed in the history of professional social work
in India when for the teaching and training of social work, the first school of social
work was established in Bombay. It was named Sir Dorabji Tata Graduate School of
Social Work. Now it is known as Tata Institute of Social Sciences'. After
Independence many Universities in India have social work as a subject in their
courses.
A) Briefly Explain the History of Social Work in England and in India
b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this unit (pp.
A…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
1.4 PHILOSOPHY OF SOCIAL WORK

Herbert Bisno has described the philosophy of social work in detail in his
book "The Philosophy of social work" He has narrated the philosophic tenets of
social work in 4 areas:
1. The nature of the individual
26
2. The relations between groups, groups and individuals and between
individuals
3. The functions and methods of social work, and
4. Social maladjustment and social change.
1. THE NATURE OF THE INDIVIDUAL
Bisno has explained the following basic tenets of the nature of individual,
which are the basis of the foundation of social work.
I. Each individual, by the very fact of his existence, is of worth. It is the firm
conviction of social work that life in itself is socially desirable. The most
fundamental premise of all which permeated social work is, for belief in the
inherent worth of the individual is the focus of several cardinal principles:
equality of opportunity, the rights of minorities, the right of free expression.5
II. Human suffering is undesirable and should be prevented or at least alleviated
whenever possible. Social work rejects the doctrine of the value of 'suffering
for suffering's sake.' Social work believes that sufferings are the result of
weaknesses of the social system and therefore man should be helped in
alleviating and preventing sufferings whatever from it appears.
III. All human behaviour is the result of interaction between the biological
organism and its environment. Social work, conceived personality as a unit in
which both emotional and physical factors are inextricably involved in some
malfunctioning of the organism. No particular behavior can be attributed to
any single factor because the behavior results from the interaction of original
nature, unique experiences and the culture. It is also acknowledged that
human choices are always limited and conditions by psychological, physical,
economic, social and other factors.
IV. There are both individual and common human needs. The existence of certain
physical and emotional needs which human being has in common is well
recognized. However, in addition to these needs, every individual also has
other needs and desires which are uniquely his. The social worker believes
27
that it is essential for individuals to have an opportunity to express these
needs and desires are a satisfying and socially useful manner. The failure to
provide these motivating forces with such an opportunity is irrational and/or
anti social behavior.
V. There are important differences between individuals and they must be
recognized and allowed for. The present practice of social work acknowledges
both similarities and differences. Social work places paramount importance to
individualization. Recognition of difference is the fundamental equipment for
the therapeutic relationship in casework.
VI. Family relationships are of primary importance for early development of the
individual. The importance of the family relationship in the development of
the personality has been stressed by psychoanalytical psychologists and
accepted by social workers. The type of family, its atmosphere and emotional
maturity, all have direct impact on individual's personality. Ridicule,
suppression and the lack of realistic outlets may turn the normal behavior
into an unstable and destructive one.
VII. Experiencing is an essential aspect of the learning processes. An individual
develops social traits by experiencing in social world that starts within the
actual experience of the group and encourages the growth of a sense of social
responsibility to the larger whole.
2. THE RELATION BETWEEN GROUPS, GROUPS AND INDIVIDUALS
AND BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS
I. Social work rejects the doctrines of laissez-faire and survival of the fittest.
Social work believes that each individual, by the very fact of existence, is of
worth. The unfit person has the same fundamental needs and desires as do
his more fit fellow men. Each person should be given fullest opportunity to
cope with his environment in the best possible manner.
II. The rich and/or powerful are not necessarily 'fit' while the p and/or weak are
not necessarily 'unfit'. Acquisition of wealth e power are considered as
28
symptoms of fitness but the researches show that relatively few member of
the present upper class have achieved their status through their own industry.
Social work has rebel against the acquiring of power with fitness and
superiority.
III. All classes of persons in the community have an equal right to ' social
services, there is a community responsibility to relieve adequately and
without discrimination all members of t community. The philosophical
foundation of the belief in assistance as a ‘right’ are embedded in the theory of
community responsible and in the assumption, about the nature of man and
the individual relation to society, that underline it.
IV. Public assistance should be based on the concept of need. Soc work believes
that needs should be scientifically examined and aft finding their validity,
assistance should be given.
V. Organized labour makes a positive contribution to community life and should
be accepted as a constructive rather than destructs force. It is a new
philosophical orientation that has recognized the role of organized labour in
the process of development.
VI. Freedom and security are not mutually exclusive security an freedoms are
part of the same problem. Freedom with security is freedom to starve, the
freedom to be homeless, dependent, or sick Security without freedom is the
security of the prison and the concentration camp.
3. THE FUNCTION AND METHODS OF SOCIAL WORK
I. Social work has a functionally dualistic approach. It has distinct; two
methodologies." the casework on the one side and the social action on the
other. Social work operates to assist individuals ii adjusting to the
institutional framework of society and also attempt to modify the institutional
framework itself in required areas Community organization and group work
operate as a mediating 'third force' between the above-maintained polarity of
functions.
29
II. The social worker relies on the 'development of insight and/or environmental
manipulation' for the purpose of modifying behavior or furthering social
growth rather than on 'ordering', 'forbidding' or 'exhortation'.
III. Social work service should be provided by professionally trained workers in
both public and private agencies. iv. Social work accepts democracy as 'the
method'. Social work is so interwoven into the fabric of its democratic matrix
that it can hardly be understood if viewed apart from it. Social workers have a
peculiar responsibility to tend their supports to the attainment and full
maintenance of all civil rights. Their basic professional concepts are founded
on a belief in the value of the individual, his right to the opportunity for
employment, self-maintenance and self development and his right to hold
and to express his own opinions and beliefs and to act upon them, so long as
by doing so he does not infringe upon them, so long as by doing so he does
not infringe upon equal rights of others or abuse his professional relationship
to those he serves or supervises.
4. SOCIAL MALADJUSTMENT AND SOCIAL CHANGE
I. There are serious political, economic and social maladjustment in our culture.
The co-existence of serious social- psychological maladjustment and such
permeating social myths implies that there is an urgent need for new ways of
social thinking, that the gap between social fact and social values must be
bridged.
II. Evolutionary type 'reform' is both possible and desirable in our society. It is
based on the belief that our institutions are, potentially possessed of enough
flexibility so as to allow for necessary adaptations to changing needs and
circumstances.
III. There is a need for social planning. Social worker believes in the possibility of
the intelligent direction of social change. In other words, they recognize the
need for and feasibility of social planning, which is essential with two
fundamental purposes of social work;(l) to stimulates people to use their
30
power for the cooperative improvement of group life, and (2) to assist in the
development to the process by supplying the technical service required. But
planning for welfare must include planning for freedom.
GANDHIAN PHILOSOPHY OF SOCIAL WORK
Gandhiji had his own vision of the new society and visualized that with
genuine lead and guidance, young men and women can fruitfully be employed for
eliminating the social evils and re-installment of higher moral values in the society.
Tracking of dowry menace, elimination of age old caste taboos and other
discriminatory practices, discouraging child marriages and other discriminatory
practices, discouraging child marriages and ill-treatment of widows are some of the
glaring examples to be tackled for proper social development.
Mahatma Gandhi suggested and practiced two fold strategies t resolve
community problems. The first component is non-violence. It means non-
appreciation and abhorrence or power for domination, control a forfeit. It
concentrates on the development of the majority. Through non-violence all the
problems of the society can be solved. H stressed that truth and non-violence are not
matters for individual1 practice but for the practice by groups, communities and
nations. The second component is Satyagrah, which means the use of truth as a fore
to achieve one's goal. Satyagrah is a long protracted struggle, persuasion setting
examples through suffering for one's convictions. These qualities are necessary for
social workers.
A) Explain the Philosophy of Social Work
A…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
31
SCOPE OF SOCIAL WORK
The functional philosophy of our modern century has been manifested in
terms of social work. Its principal aim is to solve the psycho-social problems which
abstract the individual and social advancement. But its scope is gradually
expanding. |ft is now international and inter-racial in scope. Its
methodology is useful in solving the human problems of the unhappy. In the present
society, social work provides many services for the people, especially children,
women, disabled, handicapped, destitute and dependents. The various programmes
of social work are carried out through the following services:
(I) PUBLIC ASSISTANCE
Public assistance is kind of help which is provided in accordance to economic
and social needs of the applicant. It depends upon certain conditions and legalities.
Therefore, public assistance is granted on the basis of means test. In some countries,
certain amount of public assistance is given to old, blind, disabled and destitute
persons. Some times, institutional care is also provided to the needy persons.
(II) SOCIAL INSURANCE
Like public assistance, social insurance also covers certain
contingencies such as old-age, unemployment, industrial accidents and
occupational diseases. It does not insist upon means test. Benefits are granted to
only those persons who pay a certain amount of contribution. It is partly faced by
the state. In its practical shape, social insurances covers certain risks such as medical
care and in times of illness, medical care and cash allowance during employment
injury, pension in old-age after retirement, cash allowance to wife and children or
dependent in case of death and allowances during the period of employment.
Under social insurance, the benefits of applicant are pre-determined. They are based
on legal provisions.
(III) FAMILY SERVICES
Family represents both an institution as well as an association. It is the oldest
as well as enduring among all social institutions. As a primary group, the family is
the first and most universal of all forms of associations. Social work render a great
32
role in the sphere of family organisation. It gives assistance and counselling towards
family and individual relations, marriage, health and economic problems. In this
field, the social worker bears the responsibility of establishing harmonious
relationship between the individual and his family. Thus, by the way of assistance
and advice, the social worker has to play a very important role in the sphere of
family organisation.
(IV) CHILD WELFARE SERVICES
Social workers also provide many welfare services for children. These include
residential institutions for the care, protection, education and rehabilitation of
socially handicapped children, viz. orphans, destitute, founding’s, waifs and strays,
children of unmarried mothers. Child welfare also includes temporary homes for
children, day care centres, recreational and cultural centres and holiday homes for
children of low income family.
(V) WELFARE SERVICES FOR WOMEN
Under these services, residential institutions and reception centers are
established for the care and protection, training and rehabilitation of destitute
women and those in distress and rescued women. Further, women welfare services
also include maternity centres, condensed course of training, hostels for working
women and family counseling agencies.
(VI) WELFARE SERVICE FOR THE HANDICAPPED
These services includes institutions for the care and rehabilitation of
physically and mentally handicapped, hostels for the working handicapped, a small
production units for the handicapped, special schools for mentally retarded and
infirmaries for the chronic ill. Now-a-days handicapped persons are also called as
differently able persons.
(VII) COMMUNITY WELFARE SERVICES
The community welfare services include establishment of urban services of
community centres including welfare aspect of slum improvement, clearance,
employment dormitories and night shelters, holiday homes for children and
community welfare services in rural areas.
33
(VIII) MEDICAL SOCIAL WORK
Under the medical social work, welfare services are provided to patients in
hospitals and medical institutions. Medical social workers help in such services to
their families in clinics, hospitals and other health care centres. These workers assist
doctors by providing information about the social and economic background of
patient. Many medical social workers specialize in a particular type area. These
includes child care, the care of dying patients and counseling, victims suffering from
certain diseases, such as cancer or kidney failure, etc.
(IX) INTERNATIONAL SOCIAL SERVICES
Social work is also international in scope. At the international level it includes
the direction, supervision and administration of welfare services. The organisations
rendering social services at the international level are, The World Health
Organisation, The U.N. Technical Assistance Programme, The International
Conference of Social Work, The World Federation of Mental Health and The
International Red Cross Committee. Besides, the I.L.O. supervises the welfare
programmes for industrial labours.
A) Explain briefly about Scope of Social work
A………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
1.5 CONCEPT OF RELATED TERMS:
1.5.1 SOCIAL WELFARE

Welfare services are provided by a wide range of agencies at different
levels including local authorities in urban and rural areas. Local government may be
loosely defined as a public organisation authorized to decide and administer a
limited range of public policies within a relatively small territory which is a sub-
division of a regional or national government. "The local authority is at the base of
34
the pyramid of government institutions, with the national government at the apex
and the intermediate governments in states, regions or provinces occupying the
middle position." Local authorities are broadly classified as urban and rural. "It is
noteworthy that while organisation of village panchayats is one of the Directive
Principles of State Policy (Article -40), under the constitution urban local government
does not find a place therein." Local authorities are creatures of state statutes except
for such authorities in the Union Territories without legislatures and Cantonment
Boards which have their origin in Union laws.
1.5.2 SOCIAL SERVICE
SOCIAL SERVICES AND THE PLANNING
After independence, India has adopted the process of planned living
standards and opening up to the people new opportunities for a richer and more
varied life. A specific aim: our planning is to make social services available to the
people. Therefore, efforts have been made towards the development of social
services. It is the people who in the final analysis are the architects of progress, even
as they are the beneficiaries of necessity, investment in the building up of the social
capacity and this social capital has to be on massive ale in a country of the size like
India. Investment yields nits over a long period of years by adding to the quantity id
excellence of the things done. Substantial ground has been covered in the five year
planning like welfare of backward classes and tribes, houses for industrial workers,
low income earners and so on. A few illustrative programmes of social services are
given below:
EDUCATIONAL SERVICE
Marked progress has been achieved in the extension of educational services
through the constitutional directive, guarding free and compulsory education up to
the age of 14, numbers of steps have been taken to fulfil this obligation, most State
Governments have enacted legislation for compulsory education but the emphasis is
on providing incentives. At the present movement the primary education is in all
states, middle and secondary education is also free some states.
35
HEALTH SERVICES
There has been steady improvement in the general health services. This
improvement has been reflected in the expectation of life at birth and death rate. In
1950, the expansion of life at birth was 32.5 years for males and 31.7 years for
females. But the present expectation has been changed entirely. The union
government has sponsored major schemes for improving the standard for the health
of the nation under the plans. The broad objective of health Programmes have been
to control and eradicate communicable disease to provide curative and preventive
health services in rural areas through the establishment of a primary health centre in
each community development black and to augment the training programmes of
medical and paramedical personnel. The main programmes under the health
services are as follow:
(A) MALARIA
The national malaria control programme launched in 1953, was converted
into the national malaria eradication programme from April 1958, the programme is
being implemented by the Union Government with the active participation of the
State Government as well as with the assistance of the United States Agency for
International Development and the World Health Organisation. The National
Institute of Communicable Diseases, Delhi is responsible for research and field
investigations and for the training of unit medical officers and district health officers
in methods of malaria eradication.
(B) LEPROSY
The number of leprosy cases in India is now estimated at 25 lakhs of which
about 5 to 6 lakhs are of the infectious type. The prevalence rate in some parts of the
country is as high as 40 per thousand of population. The problem is acute in Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Adequate coverage of population at risk has now been
secured through the national Leprosy control scheme started in 1955. The Mission to
lepers started in 1875 in a voluntary organisation engaged in anti-leprosy work.
Important among other such voluntary organisations are Hind Kusht Nivaran
36
Sangh, Maharogy Seva Mandal, Gandhi Memorial Leprosy Foundation,
Ramakrishna Mission and Vidarbha Maharogy Seva Mandal.
(C) VENERAL DISEASES
Twenty years ago it was estimated that about 5 percent of the population
suffer from syphilis and an equal percentage from gonorrhea. Yaws is prevalent in a
few districts of Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Orissa. A
demonstration team established by World Health Organisation in Himachal.
Pradesh m 1949, carried out an extensive survey and a mass treatment
programme and trained several teams deputed b the State Governments. Medical
and paramedical personnel are given refresher training in the modern treatment of
genera diseases at the training and demonstration centre at Safdarjang Hospital in
New Delhi and the Institute of Venereology) Madras. Post-graduate training is also
offered in these institutions.
(D) NUTRITION
Surveys conducted in India since 1935 have revealed quantitative as well as
qualitative deficiency in the diet of the people. The Average Indian diet lacks
essential food elements like proteins, fats, minerals and vitamins due to deficiency of
protective foods like vegetables, fruits milk and eggs.
The general raising of dietary standards is largely an economic problem and
is linked up with the development of the economy. Several measures have been
taken to meet the nutrition deficiency of certain vulnerable section of the population,
such as expectant and nursing mothers, school children and Industrial workers. The
measures taken include. School feeding programmes, distribution of schemed milk,
protein supplement to the diet of the vulnerable groups, opening of canteens in
industrial concerns and offices and manufacture and population of cheap and
nutrition foods including protein-rich bread made by the state owned modern
Bakeries.
FAMILY PLANNING AND WELFARE
Family planning was adopted in 1952 as an official programme starting with a
cautious approach in the first five ' year plan. A more vigorous action-cum-research
37
programme has taken up for implementation during the second five year plan. In the
formulation of the third five year plan, this programme; received a clear and
emphatic recognition. It was stated that the objective of stabilizing the growth of
population over a reasonable period must be at the very centre of planned
development. The programme aimed at substantial leveling down of the population
growth rate as soon as possible and for that purpose to reduce the annual birth rate
from 40 to 25per thousand of population within the next decade. The operational
goals were adoption of family planning by the people as a way of life through
growth and group acceptance of a small family norm, personal knowledge of
family planning methods and ready availability of supplies and services. The
programme for its success must cover 9 crore couple in the reproductive age group,
to motivate them to adopt family planning. The necessary organisational set-up at
the centre and the state levels down to the village communities has been
increasingly extended as a part of the normal health service.
NATIONAL EMPLOYMENT SERVICE
The employment service started in 1945 consists of a network of employment
exchanges, each started by trained personnel. The employment exchanges
provide placement facilities to all categories of employment seekers and discharge
certain special responsibilities such as providing employment assistance to
physically handicapped, ex-servicemen, scheduled caste/tribes, university
professional and executive personnel through a network of employment
exchange, professional and executive office and university employment information
and guidance bureaus. In addition to this placement activity the employment
service also carries on other functions such as collection and discrimination
of employment concluding surveys and studies in the field of employment and
occupational researches. In order to divert the educated youth to channels of gainful
employment, the service rendered vocational guidance and career advice to such
work seekers.
38
1.5.3 SOCIAL REFORM
Social reform had played great role in all the religions. Through the social
reform all the religious community has improved a lot.
(A) SOCIAL REFORM BY CHRISTIANS
During the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, protestant
missionaries with the support of allies in India and England took the initiative in
advocating a number of social reforms in Hindu society. They drew attention to
practices such as infanticide, child marriage, the deplorable, conditions of widows,
the exposure of the sick and drying of the banks of holy rivers, hook-swinging at
Hindu festivals, the practice of sati, the prevalence of caste that dehumanized a great
part of the society. Many agrarian problems in Bengal and Madras created slavery,
bonded labour and exploitation of I he poor.
Missionary involvement in social protest and agitation hiring the period from
1850 to 1900 took place in a more complex situation. There was the growth of
nationalist feeling and increased sensitivity on the part of educated Hindus wards
the interference of outsiders in socio-religious matters, these attitudes of the
educated Hindus and the reluctance of e government affected the views of the
missionaries and their attempts to tackle questions of social reform but the
missionaries welcomed and encouraged the growth of Indian social reform
movements during this period.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy, 1772-1833 emerged as the first modern Hindu
exponent of social reform. The fundamental aspect of Ram Mohan’s approach to life
was humanism. For him social customs, religious practices or rituals had to stand the
test of human welfare or else be discarded. His English translation of the Hindu
scriptures represented the first message of India to the west in modern times. He
was the founder of the Indian press, the maker of modern Bengali prose and the
initiator of educational reforms that had profound influence on the course of
India's history. He held reason against superstition and welfare of man as the true
aim of religion. He spearheaded the fight for religious reforms.
39
The missionaries applauded Ram Mohan Roy's efforts to find out an end to
idolatry among the Hindus and social evils like the burning of widows and child-
sacrifice. He established the Brahmo Samaj. The Brahmos distinguished themselves
from the Hindus. Following his example, a number of associations were
founded revolting against existing customs and devoted wholly or in part to the task
of social reform. The rise of these modern social reform movements was widely
acclaimed by missionaries as a clear sign of progress.
(B) SOCIAL REFORM BY HINDUS
The Arya Samaj and the Ramakrishna Mission introduced the idea of social
service along with social reform. The Ramakrishna Mission under "the
leadership of Swami Vivekananda concentrated attention on social services such
as education, social and medical relief work, and the service of the poor in general."
Since at that time no distinction was made between social reforms and social service,
the work of Swami Vivekananda is also considered as part of the social reform
movement. Pandit Ramabai also undertook social service work in the form of
spread of education, particularly education of women.
Social reformers resorted to both education of public opinion and legislation
for achieving their goals. There were three methods adopted by social reformers for
bringing about social reforms. These were—the interpretation on the Shastras in
support of social reforms, the appeal to reason and humanity, and the enforcement
of penalties by the state after it passed the necessary legislation. The first method
was advocated to prove that social reform was nothing but revival or renewal of the
essence of the original faith. The majority of social reformers approved of the second
and third methods for bringing about social reform.
After the inauguration of the constitution in 1950, the social reform movement
as separate movement has ceased to exist. Social reform has become a part of the
bigger task of reconstruction of Indian society in the light of the provisions of the
constitution. Hence, Nehru urged that socialism gave an answer to many social
reform problems. Similarly, the dream of some of the political thinkers, that with the
40
advent of political independence, all social evils would be removed has remained a
dream. Though the constitution of India aims at the establishment of a secular,
casteless society, the interplay of various political forces has strengthened religious
and caste sentiments. But the religions had played a great role to remove those
things of caste systems.
(C) SOCIAL REFORM BY JAINS
Among Muslim, Christian, Buddhist, Sikh and other religious minority
communities of India, the Jain community occupies an important place. The Jains
have the smaller population of 26.05 lakhs among the six major religious
communities listed by the Government of India in their census report of 1971 and
constituted only 0.47 percent of the total population. Jains are concentrated largely in
Western India like Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh.
Accounting for three-fourths of the total population of Jains in India live in urban
areas. Jain's community helped to bring social reform in various aspects, e.g.:
(1) SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORMS
Leaders of different sects among Jains launched several reform movements
pertaining to issues and problems which they considered imminent and pressing
both from religious and social points of view.
(2) CHILD MARRIAGE
Adult marriage was the order of the day among Jains from ancient times.
But during the medieval period; the practice of child marriage became prevalent
among Jains, as among Hindus. Later the practice became so deep-rooted that it was
believed by common people that it was obligatory on their part to get their sons and
daughters married at an early age as the practice had the sanction of religion. Even
children below five years were married. Stern opposition to this undesirable
practice came from Jain leaders in Southern Maharashtra as they strongly
denounced the practice in the very first conference of their representative social
organization, the Dakshin Maharashtra Jain Sabha, held in 1899. This
progressive attitude was not liked by the Jains from North India and they opposed
the movement against child marriage.
41
(3) BRIDE-PRICE AND DOWRY
Among the preliminaries to marriage, the practice of one party giving
property or money to the other party figures prominently. In marriage by purchase,
a wife is obtained for money paid to her father's family by the husband or his father,
while the Jain law-givers did not approve of this method as a right form of
marriage to be practiced by the people, the practice was sometime resorted to by the
lower classes among Jains. As early as in 1904, the Dakshin Maharashtra
Jain Sabha started a campaign against the irreligious custom of bride-sale.
(4) WIDOW REMARRIAGE
Like the problem of inter-caste marriages, the problem of remarriage of
widows also attracted the serious attention of intellectuals and social workers among
Jains in the beginning of the twentieth century. It is true "the Jain religion did not
advocate the remarriage of widows and that in ancient Jain literature not even a
single instance of widow remarriage could be traced." The real position was that the
question of allowing widow-remarriage was relegated to cast
organizations and it was determined on the basis of caste and local customs.
Accordingly, widow remarriage was neither allowed nor practised by Jains in
ancient times. But from medieval times, it is allowed.
(5) EDUCATION
In the field of education also, several efforts were made by Jains from the
beginning of the twentieth century, so that they did not lag behind other
communities in the race for advancement started under the impact of Western
culture. In the early stages, a protruded controversy raged as to whether to continue
the orthodox system of religious education through Pathsalas or to adopt the new
system of secular education imparted through schools and colleges specially started
for the purpose by the government or by the other public bodies. The leaders of the
community ultimately decided to popularise and spread secular education but, at
the same time, to continue to keep the base of religious education to the maximum
extent possible.
42
1.5.4 SOCIAL SECURITY
The unprecedented rise in population growth and unbalanced
development of industries has created certain implications. Insecurities of life have
increased to a large extent. Therefore, in order to protect the individual and society
from the uncertainties of future social security has been / adopted as an
indispensable national programme. In essence, any measure of social security
strikes at the root of exploitation. Its ultimate aim is to create and sustain a
welfare state for social justice in addition to economic and politics. It is thus a
welfare programme in which security is provided to the individual members against
the uncertainties of future.
The term social security is very complex and comprehensive. Its meaning and
scope differ from country to country in accordance to the prevailing legislation
traditions and ideals. In some of the countries it includes only income security while
in other countries it covers a wide field of social life.
(I) SCOPE OF SOCIAL SECURITY
Social security is viewed with reference to the various activities of state.
Therefore, any state where provisions regarding social security exist is called a
welfare state. Social security provides protection against social contingencies.
Therefore, it covers both social assistance and social insurance. Social assistance is a
kind of help which depends upon certain conditions and legalities between the
worker and the state. It is purely a government affair. It is granted only if certain
prescribed conditions are fulfilled. On the other hand, social insurance involves the
setting aside of sums of money in order to provide compensation against loss
resulting from particular emergencies. Social insurance aims at granting adequate
benefits to the insured on the compulsory basis in times of unemployment, sickness
and other emergencies with a view to ensure a minimum standard of living out of a
fund created out of the tripartite contribution of the workers, employers and the
state. Thus, social assistance and social insurance are the two methods or devices
which give practical shape to the social security scheme.
43
(II) ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL SECURITY
The preliminary form of social security is based on the poor relief system. In
past, the work of social security was performed by religious and voluntary
institutions. It was inspired by religious and humanitarian principles. ‘But gradually
people realized the need for a compulsory system of social security. Therefore,
legislations regarding social security were enacted in many counties. In some
countries poor houses were set-up which was managed by the voluntary
organisations. The main sources of their income were charity. The poor relief system
only solved the problem of want. It neglected to other problems such as disease,
ignorance, squalor and illness. Therefore, the schemes of social insurance and
assistance came into existence. Historically, social security was first originated in
Germany in 1881, when the Emperor William I urged upon the Reichstag to adopt
social insurance schemes. As a result, the first compulsory Insurance Act was passed
in 1883 in Germany which provided the old age security to the working classes.
Similarly, unemployment insurance was also initiated in the year 1925. The
intervention in the matters of social welfare also greatly increased during the present
century. It was mainly because the policy of laissez faire was abandoned and as a
result many schemes of social welfare and social security were introduced. The
international labour organisation played a vital role in the field of social security.
This organisation encouraged the industrial workers to organise themselves. The
I.L.O. also adopted conventions on maternity benefits, workmen, compensation,
sickness insurance, minimum wages, unemployment insurance, income security and
medical care. These conventions have been ratified by member countries. The
preparatory Asian Regional Labour Conference which held in New Delhi in 1947,
also adopted a resolution regarding the progressive acceleration of social security
schemes in various Asian countries.
(III) DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL SECURITY IN INDIA
The Second World War period witnessed the world-wide progress of social
security. Various schemes of social insurance and social assistance were initiated in
44
different countries. But India could not get the benefits of such schemes; India was
suffering from social diseases, economic disintegration and widespread poverty.
Villagers were disintegrated and the towns and cities were disorganised.
Death and diseases, ignorance and squalor starvation and poverty have been
rampant in the country. But the British rulers were not in favour of introducing any
of the social security plans. They were not ready to introduce social security schemes
mainly because there was absence of permanent industrial population in
the country. Even the Royal Commission Labour did not permit the introduction or
a permanent social security scheme, although various committees, commissions
and officials were in favour to implement some aspect of social security for the
industrial workers.
(IV) EXPANSION OF SOCIAL SECURITY MEASURES
The social security measures which have been confined to industrial workers
are being expanded to cover the other sections of population also; old-age has been
regarded as the age when a worker is considered unfit for playing an effective part
in the productive process. Therefore, at this age a worker retires from his
employment. After retirement the worker is paid fund or pension or gratuity as the
case may be. But these measures are confined to industrial workers only. Therefore,
efforts have been made to cover the other sections of population also.
1.5.5 SOCIAL JUSTICE
Social justice is based on the laws and regulations, and jurisprudence is that
branch of knowledge which deals with the scientific study of law and its enactment.
It includes within its scope the process of making laws, of violating laws and the
punishment towards the braking of laws. Besides, jurisprudence also provides the
scientific analysis of laws and enactment of laws in accordance to the nature and
type of crime. Crime and punishment are also within the scope of social work.
Social work in its modern form, deals with the problems of individual, social,
family and community disorganisation. It also studies to those conditions which are
considered to be responsible for social problems. Here jurisprudence provides
suitable laws for the prevention and control of social problems. Further since the
45
very beginning of social work, law has been made as the principal base of social
reform. Law has always provided protection to the individual, family and
community. The development of social legislation has served the cause of many
social work programmes, viz. social- insurance, social security and correctional
services.
A. Explain briefly the concepts social welfare, social service, social reform, social
security, social justice
A………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
1.6 METHODS OF SOCIAL WORK
1.6.1 CASE WORK

Social case work is primarily related with the psycho-social problems. It
consists of the study of mental, emotional and social factors. In social case work an
individual group situation or phenomena is recognised as a unit of study and /
various aspects of the unit are studied properly. In case work the social object
preserves the unitary character.
DEFINITION
The process of social case work involves the study of individual problem in its
total setting. It is concerned with the understanding of individuals as a whole
personality and with the adjustment of these individuals to socially healthy life. As
a method of work, it involves a very careful observation of a problem.
According to Marry Richmond— Social case work may be defined as the art of doing
different things for and with different people by co-operating with them to achieve
at one and the same time their own and their Society's betterment.
Aim of case work is to enable an individual in solving his problem through
self-efforts. In this regard the social worker provides him adequate help and
46
guidance. In the basic assumption individual and society are complementary to each
other. They are interdependent. There are various influencing forces to the human
behaviour and attitudes.
Every problem is not psychological in nature. Many problems related to the
social case work are interpersonal in nature. During the process of social case work
conscious and controlled relations are established between the social worker and his
client, and the social worker acquits the client with his internal capacities so as to
enable him in solving the problem. The social case worker is oriented towards the
principle of social justice. Social justice provides every one equal right to progress.
Hence, social case work does not believe on the survival of the fittest. Social case
work is based on the assumption of human welfare. It provides help to every needy
and disabled person. Its ultimate aim is to establish armonious relationship between
the client and the society to which he" belongs.
Thus, in the social case work individual client is treated as a total unit. His
internal and external forces are motivated in such a manner so that he may solve his
individual aspect of assistance as such. The method adopted in it is purely psycho-
logical. But side by side the social worker has also to understand the various aspects
of human behaviours.
PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL CASE WORK
There are several principles which have been formulated regarding the
relationship of social worker and his client. The social case worker is expected to
utilize these principles while dealing with his clients.
1. PRINCIPLE OF ACCEPTANCE
The relationship between a social worker and a client emerge under two
diverse conditions. After the first introduction, the client attempts to weaken the
interview due to his psychological tensions. On the other hand, the social case
worker tries to strengthen the interview with the help of his experience and the
professional skill. At the time of preliminary interview the client suffers from
inferiority complex. Under such condition the social worker provides him full
47
sympathy and dignity. He takes keen interest on his problems. Consequently, the
client reveals many facts which help to understand the solution of his problem.
Thus, the principle of acceptance is based on the basic assumptions of
humanitarianism.
2. THE PRINCIPLE OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is a process through which the ideas and thoughts of one
person reach to another person. Throughout the ages communication has served
to bring man and men together and has helped him to understand his fellow being
and to sense the feeling of oneness. The process of communication acts in two-fold
ways. It guides man and makes him more susceptible to suggestion. In the field of
social work, when social case worker and client, meet to each other, they begin lo
interact each other. They communicate their ideas and views to each other.
At the preliminary level of communication, the client reveals his present
difficulties. But he does not provide his secret in formations so long as he is not able
to know their proper utilization. When he realizes the sympathy and interest of the
social case worker, he discloses many facts with regard to his problem. Thus, the
principle of communication reveals to that situation in which the client and the
social worker are attached with a professional relationship.
3. THE PRINCIPLE OF INDIVIDUALIZATION
In the social case work, the client and the social worker enter into a close
relationship. But all clients do not face similar problems. They differ from each other
in respect of their problems and circumstances. Besides in some cases the problems
of clients are similar but the factors involved in their causation entirely differ from
each other.
Similarly, the individual capacity of a client is different from each other.
Therefore, each client requires differential treatments. In fact, a common and general
treatment is not sufficient for all types of clients. Thus, the principle of
individualization is based on the treatment of each client as an individual.
48
4. THE PRINCIPLE OF PARTICIPATION
Social case work is oriented towards the establishment of adjustment between
a client and his social environment. In this reformatory process the participation of
client is very essential. The client should participate in the efforts which are
undertaken with regard to the solution of his problem. This the principle is
undertaken with regard to the solution of his problem. Thus, the principle of
participation gives the due recognition to client's individual efforts.
5. THE PRINCIPLE OF CONFIDENTIALITY
In the process of social case work the client discloses many of his secret facts.
These facts are very useful for his treatment. But the revealed secrets should always
be treated as confidential. In other words, the client must have a firm faith that the
facts disclosed by him will remain confidential.
6. THE PRINCIPLE OF AWARENESS
Like a client the social worker himself is a product of a particular environment.
He has his own faiths, beliefs, attitudes and emotions. Therefore, the social worker
should not be guided by his own emotions and attitudes. Therefore, the social worker
should not be emotionally immature. The principle of self-awareness is thus based on
the assumption that the social worker should be aware about his own convictions. In
dealing with the client's problem, his approach should be objective. The principle of self-
awareness provides practical guidance to the social case worker.
1.6.2 GROUP WORK

Social group work is a method which is connected with a group constituted
by individuals. Its Central focus is a group rather than individual. In other words,
social group work is very useful devise for serving the group or collective interest.
The principle aim of this method is to develop the entire group. Therefore, during
the process of social group work emphasis is given on social adjustment of
collectivity. The group has played a vital role in the development of v individuals. It
is the group where emergence of inter-personal relations becomes possible.
It is because by virtue of circumstances and habits man lives in groups. The
group for him constitutes an entity of two or more persons in a mental symbolic
49
interaction. The family, the playmates, the class-fellows, the nighbourhood are the
collection of human beings which constitute groups in which man lives during the
early period of his childhood. Social groups play a virtuous role in the development
of social maturity. Various groups in society furnish different aspects of man's social
nature. In other words, man is a biological individual who acquire social nature due
to the influence of social groups.
PRINCIPLES OF GROUP WORK:
a) Principle of Planned Group formation
b) Principle of Specific Objectives
c) Principle of Purposeful worker group relationship
d) Principle of continuous individualisation
e) Principle of guided group interaction
f) Principle of democratic group self determination
g) Principle of flexible functional organisation
h) Principle of progressive programme experience
i) Principle of resource utilisation
j) Principle of evaluation
1.6.3 COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION
The term, community denotes almost uniformly and permanently shared
lives of a people over a region. It may be considered as a permanent local
aggregation of people having diversified as well as common interests and served by
a constellation of institutions. Community organisation refers to the adjustment of
the needs and resources of a community. As : a process, community organisation
implies those welfare measures which are undertaken by the members of a
community in accordance to their needs and resources. In other words, the process
of community organisation is taken in terms of a single unit. Community
organisation is meant to be applicable to the community as a whole.
Community organisation is one of the main methods prevalent in the field of
social work. From the analytical point of view community possesses a distinctly local
character. It has a definite pattern of relationships. From the practical point of view,
50
we do not find any community entirely integrated and organised. Therefore, in
social work our first task is to evaluate the needs and resources of the community.
This work is done with the help of scientific social surveys and research. After
collecting such information the needs of the community are arranged in order.
1.6.4 SOCIAL ACTION
Human behaviour is manifested in terms of actions. Therefore, analysis of
social action occupies a central place among all the social sciences. The economist
seeks to analyse the system of allocation of goods and services while apolitical
scientist concentrates his attention on the allocation of power and responsibility.
Similarly, a criminologist attempts to analyse anti-social action. However, the subject
matter of all these sciences represents the abstraction of social action. Action is a
process in the actor or in the case of collectively, its components are individuals. In
social work, social action is an important aspect of study.
All social Action is a subject of study so long as it forms the part of an
individual or group problem. But along with these aspects social action is an
organised group process which is used to solve the social problems under this
process.
All social action movements do have in other words a common goal a main
theme, and a hard core of thought that they subscribe to those who lead such
movements believe, that there is a certain power centre with a vested interest which
controls the policies and administration of welfare services in each country and
which needs to be bridled. The positions that could be automatically derived from
such a hypothesis are three-fold. One-welfare is a power game. It represents today a
definitive process by which the rich and the powerful exercise control over the weak
and the poor. Secondly, the gains of welfare are monopolized by a handful of the
rich at the cost of the poor. It is the poor who pays for the services that the rich use.
Thirdly, there is no other means to alleviate the situation unless one socialise welfare
and the clients of the system take over its administration.
51
If the goal of the social action movement is to transfer power to the poor and
to destabilise the establishment, the goal can be achieved. Social action leaders
would agree only by a straight hard hitting conflict with the establishment.
There is yet another model of social action which was introduced in the west
in the 1960's by western people but had its roots in India. It is the method of non-
violent social action about which some references have been made earlier. The
culture of social action that the non-violent school represents is totally different from
that of the other model. Although nonviolent social action also uses conflicts and
struggle as its weapons, its purpose is not to defeat an enemy but to win him over.
The aim is not to crush an individual or to destroy an opponent however
importantly placed he may be in a system, but to change the system and to protect
the body and the psyche of the so-called enemy both for his own good as well as also
for the good of those whom the person opposes. Its aim is not to win only a struggle
but to establish new values and norms, which may pioneer the way to a new society.
Means are ends in the non-violent battle and the ends are means.
1.6.5 SOCIAL WELFARE ADMINISTRATION
By social welfare administration we mean that process which is used in the
organisation and administration of public and private services. It includes those
activities which are undertaken with regard to an individual, group and community.
In other words, social welfare administration is a process of organisation and
direction of a social institution.
Under this process those aims are determined which' an agency or institution
has to achieve. Therefore, a plan is prepared in accordance to the aim and available
resources are utilised.
For a good administration, combination is needed between the various plan
activities. Social welfare administration refers to those activities which are
undertaken with regard the systematic execution of social policy. It includes
planning, organisation, staffing, direction and coordination. It is dynamic art taking
human and physical resources available and bending them to the achievement of
some required goal. In the broader context, the aims of social welfare administration
52
are the progressive achievement of the justice, protection against disease and
insecurity, the adjustment and compromise of conflicting groups and their interest.
In short, it aims at the attainment of good life.
Social welfare administration requires a specialised knowledge. The
administrator should process sufficient knowledge regarding the agency's aims,
programmes, methods of social treatment and social resources. Such knowledge
enables the administrator to perform his tasks.
1.6.6 SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH
Social research occupies a very important place in the field of modern social
work. Social work requires proper collection and analysis of social facts. Social
research is an effective method. We may define social research as the
systematic method of discovering new facts, their sequence, interrelationship, casual
explanations and social laws which governs them. We collect empirical data in fact
social work research is an organised effort to acquire new knowledge about various
aspects of society and social phenomenon. In the field of social work, from the
practical point of view the scope of social work research consist of the various
methods of treatment, discovery of social needs and social resources. In its
theoretical aspects social work research covers the entire range of social philosophy.
A) Briefly explain the various methods of Social Work.
A………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
1.7 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have discussed various aspects of Social work. You are
introduced to History of Social Work in United States of America, History of Social
Work in England, History of Social Work in India, Objectives of Social Work,
Philosophy and Scope of Social Work. We are also now familiar with Important
Social Work terms like Social Service, Social Reform, Social Security, and Social
53
Justice. An overview on the Methods of Social Work like Case work, Group work,
Community Organization, Social Action, Social welfare Administration and Social
work research.
A) Define Social work
B) Mention any five objectives of social work
Answers for check your progress 1
A. STROUP:
Social Work is the art of bringing various resources which bear on individual,
group or community needs by the application of a scientific method of
helping people to help themselves.
B. FIVE OBJECTIVES OF SOCIAL WORK:
¾ To solve psychosocial problems.
¾ To fulfill humanitarian needs.
¾ To solve adjustmental problems.
¾ To create self-sufficiency.
¾ To strengthen and make harmonious social relations.
A) Briefly Explain the History of Social Work in England and in India
Answer for check your progress 2
A. HISTORY OF SOCIAL WORK IN ENGLAND
In the medieval period in England like other European countries, it was the
pious duty of the church to help and protect the poor. People were helping and
giving alms to the destitute, handicapped, blinds, and poor out of religious
sentiments.
In the beginning of the fourteenth century, poor were divided into two
categories: able-bodied and destitute. In 1349, King Edward III issued the Statute of
Labourers which compelled the able-bodied to work for their livelihood.
The first creative work in the direction of assistance to the poor was done in
1531 when Henry VIII made a law known as Statute of Henry VIII.
54
In 1563 Parliament passed a resolution which was made compulsory for
householders to provide funds weekly for the relief of the poor. In 1572 Queen
Elizabeth signed on a statute which levied a general tax for the financing of poor
relief programme.
The Elizabethan poor law, 1601
Charity Organisation Society, 1869
Settlement house movement
The poor law commission of 1905
SOCIAL WORK IN ANCIENT INDIA
In ancient India, the nature of social service was that of charity.
In ancient India, the social welfare activities were performed by Yagnas,
Yagnas being the most popular mass rituals known in Vedic days.
CONTRIBUTION OF INDIVIDUALS
Raja Ram Mohan Roy was the greatest Indian of the nineteenth century who
sowed the seeds of religious and social reforms.
Iswar ChandraVidyaSagar advocated for widow remarriage, economic self
reliance, women's education and prohibition of polygamy, it was with the joint
efforts of Ram Mohan Roy and Vidya Sagar that the Widow Remarriage Act was
passed in 1856.
Bal Shastri Jambhekar, who was the first professor at Elphinstone College,
Bombay, condemned the evil customs of Sati and female infanticide as well as
trafficking in female children.
Sasipada Banerjee was a notable reformer of Bengal who worked for the cause
of women's education and widow remarriage.
Tilak and Gokhale also worked for the cause of upliftment but they were
more engaged in political activities. V.R. Shinde initiated welfare work among the
tribal people N.M. Joshi and N.G. Chandavarkar established Bombay Social Service
League which organised night classes and recreational programmes among mill
workers in Bombay.
55
Gandhiji became active in political as well as social field in 1920. He
symbolised the integration of political reform with social reform. He worked for the
upliftment of women, Harijans and fought for the equality between men and
women.
CONTRIBUTION OF ORGANISATIONS
The important organisations which played significant role in the development
of social work are Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Arya Samaj, Theosophical
Society, Ram Krishna Mission Muhammedan Literacy Society, The Bombay Widow
Remarriage Association, Bengal Hindu Widows Association, Indian National Social
Conference and the Servants of India Society.
A) Explain the Philosophy of Social Work
Answer for check your progress3
PHILOSOPHY OF SOCIAL WORK
Herbert Bisno has described the philosophy of social work in detail in
his book "The Philosophy of social work" He has narrated the philosophic tenets of
social work in 4 areas:
I. The nature of the individual
II. The relations between groups, groups and individuals and between
individuals
III. The functions and methods of social work, and
Social maladjustment and social change.
A) Explain briefly about Scope of Social work
A. SCOPE OF SOCIAL WORK
(i) Public Assistance
(ii) Social Insurance
(iii) Family Services
(iv) Child Welfare Services
56
(v) Welfare Services for Women
(vi) Welfare Service for the Handicapped
(vii) Community Welfare Services
(viii) Medical Social Work
(ix) International Social Services
A. Explain briefly the concepts social welfare, social service, social reform, social
security, social justice
CONCEPTS OF VARIOUS TERMS
SOCIAL WELFARE
Welfare services are provided by a wide range of agencies at different levels
including local authorities in urban and rural areas.
SOCIAL SERVICE
Educational Service
Health service
Family planning and welfare
National Employment and service
SOCIAL REFORM
Socio Religious reforms
Prohibition of child marriage
Dowry prohibition
Child remarriage
Education
SOCIAL SECURITY
Its ultimate aim is to create and sustain a welfare state for social justice in addition to
economic and politics. It is thus a welfare programme in which security is provided
to the individual members against the uncertainties of future.
SOCIAL JUSTICE
57
Social justice is based on the laws and regulations, and jurisprudence is that
branch of knowledge which deals with the scientific study of law and its enactment.
It includes within its scope the process of making laws, of violating laws and the
punishment towards the braking of laws.
A) Briefly explain the various methods of Social Work
A. METHODS OF SOCIAL WORK:
Social case work
Social Group Work
Community Organisation
Social Action
Social Welfare Administration
Social Work Research
58
UNIT II
CONTENTS
2.1 TRENDS OF SOCIAL WORK PROFESSIONAL IN INDIA REMOVAL OF
SOCIAL PROBLEMS
2.2 TRAITS
2.3 PRINCIPLES
2.4 VALUES
2.5 ETHICS
2.6 GOALS
2.7 NATIONAL & INTERNATIONAL PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATION IN
SOCIAL WORK
2.8 LETS SUM UP
In Unit I we have discussed the fundamental concepts of social work such as
Social Service, Social Reform, Social Security and Social Justice, history, philosophy
and various methods of social work which is much required for social work
profession.
In this unit we are going to get introduced to various trends of social work
profession in India, Traits of social workers, principles of social work, values, ethics,
goals of social work and National & International Professional Organization in Social
Work.
2.1 TRENDS OF SOCIAL WORK PROFESSIONAL IN INDIA
The first school of social work was started in 1936 by Clifford Marshal, who
was a protestant missionary. He came to India in 1925 and felt the need of trained
social workers. He established the Sir Dorabji Tata School of Social Sciences in
Bombay which offered professional training in social work. The appointed workers
were not professional workers, they were Gandhian. However, later on
many officially trained social workers emerged and practiced in various
government and nongovernmental welfare offices. Later on different schools of
59
social work came into existence in Delhi, Calcutta, Lucknow, Varanasi,
Baroda, Agra, Indore, Udaipur, etc. which imparts professional training in social
work services. Government has realized the need of trained professional social
workers to work in area of welfare and has also made statutory liabilities to welfare
officers in industries. Thus, in India social work is gradually emerging as a socially
oriented profession.
2.1.1SOCIAL WORK FOR SOCIAL BETTERMENT
In present state, social changes occurred in every society. Along with these
changes also emerge many problems of various dimensions which led to social
action. The process of social action aims to establish adjustment of society with these
changes. Besides, the social action as an auxiliary method of social work is oriented
towards the expansion of democratic values. Its importance may be evaluated as
follows:
(A) REMOVAL OF SOCIAL PROBLEMS
The principal aim of present state of social work is to solve the social
problems. From this point of view, there is large scope for social action in Indian
society. Indian society is confronted by many social problems, e.g. casteism,
untouchability, prohibition of widow, re-marriage, prevalence of women and child
labour, etc. These problems should be solved in accordance to democratic ideals.
(B) SOLUTION OF INDIVIDUAL AND FAMILY PROBLEMS
The problems with regard to individual and family need top priority. In this
direction efforts are being made at the government and private level. These
problems can be solved with the help of social action.
(C) SPREAD OF DEMOCRATIC VALUES
Social work is based on the democratic ideals. Justice, equality, and liberty are
its main pillars. In practice, these ideals should be available to every citizen.
Therefore, in order to accomplish these democratic ideals rapid changes in the
present social structure are inevitable. For this purpose, social action can be used as a
base.
60
(D) ENCOURAGEMENT TO ORGANISATIONAL FUNCTIONS
The present state of social action is a process having various forms and as well
as various modes of execution, further, social process could be integrative or
disintegrative. Therefore, with the help of integrative social process, the speed If
social action can be increased.
E) SOCIAL REFORM
With the help of social action, we can encourage the process of social reform.
It indirectly brings improvement in social conditions. At present, state governments
are giving lore importance to village panchayatiraj, education, health, housing for
backward people, welfare for urban and rural ' people, etc. Government's main aim
is to bring the better life for the people.
F) THE UNINDEGENISED KNOWLEDGE BASE
The basic teaching imparted in India, particularly in respect of intervention
methods: social case work, social group work and community organization is
American. Its unfortunate part is that while every one offers views on the irrelevance
and potentially functional nature he American heritage, little has been done to
reverse the legacy.
A. “Social work is emerging as a socially oriented Profession” – Discuss.
B. Elaborate the importance of social action with suitable examples.
A………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
B………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………
2.1.2 LACUNAE AND PROBLEMS OF PROFESSIONAL SOCIAL WORK
People still do not recognize social work as a profession but they think it in
terms of a valuation social service. Even state Social Welfare sector, which is the
61
biggest employer of trained social workers, also shows ambivalence in granting
statutory recognition to social work as a professional activity. Voluntary sector also
does not attach it any importance
CONFUSION ABOUT THE CONCEPT OF SOCIAL WORK
In six decades, India's social work education and trained social workers have
not been able to clear the confusion about the concept of social work.
INABILITY OF REACHING THE UNREACHED
In a society, like India, where nearly three-fourth people live in the country
side, the urban location of the social work school has little meaning. Trained social
workers are not inclined to go to the rural areas where people really need help. This
raises a basic question as to what extent the present system is suited to the need of
the country. Needy remains Unreached by a trained social worker.
OBSOLESCENCE OF CURRICULA
In recent years, there have been some effects to change the teaching pattern,
but still it is not according to the needs and problems of India conditions. Ranade's
comment is most revealing in this connection. The kind of social work education
given in our schools of social work education given in out misfits in the Indian
situation since they find that there is little scope for the practice of the techniques
they have learnt.
SPECIALIZATION ISSUE
Connected to the issue of training is the contentious question of specialized
versus generic training. The controversy on this question has plagued the profession
for long and still there is no agreement on this issue.
UNCHANGING PATTERN OF FIELD WORK
The second UGC review Committee on social work education, 1980 lamented
the lack of any linkage between the classroom theories and the realities of the field.
INADEQUATE RESEARCH BASE

Though a number of researches have been done and are being done but there
is hardly any research and techniques to be used in actual fieldwork practice.
62
THE DECLINING QUALITY OF STUDENTS
When social work education began in India as a response to the fast expanding
sector of social welfare, better students sought for admission. But due to emergence of
other management courses and privatization, the best students take admissions in other
courses. Social work has become the last resort for boys and girls in search of
economically rewarding professional education.
INEFFECTIVITY OF PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
We do not have strong professional organizations to infuse health and vitality
to the profession. The existing organizations, like the Indian Association of Trained
Social Workers, the Associations of Trained Social Workers and the Association of
the Schools of social work in India are dismal and disillusioning.
2.1.3 INDIVIDUAL AND FAMILY COUNSELING SERVICES
Counseling is essentially a process in which the counselor assists the counselee to
make interpretations of facts relating to a choice, plan or adjustment which be needs to
make. It is a face to face situation, in which social worker helps the needy whether he is
an individual or a family to face, perceive, clarify, solve and resolve adjustment
problems. Counselling aims at enabling individuals/family to solve present problems
to prepare themselves for future tasks, to attain higher standard of efficiency to develop
personal resources for growth. In counselling no solid help is provided, only guidance is
given to solve his problem.
PREVENTION OF DISEASES AND PROMOTION OF HEALTH
The social worker performs the following activities for prevention of diseases
and promotion of health:
1. NUTRITION EDUCATION
He provides the information regarding the selection of food, diet, value of
rich food, food poisoning, diseases due to malnutrition, nutritional needs of children
and pregnant mothers, facilities available for them.
2. WATER SANITATION
He tells them the importance of safe drinking water, types of water borne
diseases, sources of pollution, how to make water safe and chlorinating of water.
63
3. WASTE AND EXTRA DISPOSAL
He tells the methods and importance of disposal of wastes properly He also
makes them aware about the diseases due to water and excreta
4. CONTROL OF INSECTS
He explains the diseases due to biting of insects and how to control these
diseases. He emphasizes to follow the principles of environmental sanitation.
5. PERSONAL HYGIENE
Persona! Hygiene is a science which helps the men in keeping healthy. Social
worker tell them to follow healthy habits like cleaning of teeth and mouth, food,
body, hands, hair, nails, eye?, clothes and keeping the food safe.
6. HEALTH EDUCATION
He provides education concerning diseases and their causes, control methods,
treatment procedures, etc.
7. IMMUNIZATION CAMPAIGN
He educates the mothers about the importance of immunization and
mobilizes resources for the needy.
8. SCHOOL HEALTH SERVICES
He helps in screening of the school going children and provides them
necessary instructions for keeping their health normal.
9. MARRIAGE COUNSELING
He tells the families about the role of heredity, need of marital adjustment,
causes of stresses and strains and effects of family conflict.
10. RECREATION FACILITIES
Recreation is an important factor in maintaining proper health. He organizes
recreational programmes for the children, youth and old persons separately.
2.1.4 ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIAL WORK
Man is living in a highly complicated environment. The environment is defined
as the aggregate of all external conditions and influences affecting the life and
development of an organism, human behaviour or society. Thus environment is a multi-
dimensional field that includes both internal and external factors. The whole
64
environment includes intra-psychic-processes, metabolic and organic functioning,
adaptive capacity and the physical conditions. The entire environment together forms a
dynamic matrix of interaction that shapes an individual's behaviour.
Environment is continuously being exploited by us for the purpose of raising
our material conveniences but this has resulted in (i) change in the physical
constitution of environment; (ii) disturbance in different links in life chain; (iii)
depletion of natural resources; (iv) degradation of life support system; (v) pollution
of different types-water, air, noise, soil, etc.
During the last few decades, a considerable amount of scientific research has
been done to explore various facets of environment and problems that originate from
them. Now it is widely recognized that some mechanisms will have to be evolved to
bring about minimal degree of integration between person and his environment in order
to develop, maintain and even enhance his problem solving capacity and to ensure his
proper growth and development in his own habitat. It requires proper education. Social
work can provide scientific knowledge concerning the delicate relationship of human
beings to the rapidly changing physical and social environment. Social work can enable
people to understand varied kinds of events and behaviours in the context of various
types of influences and variables that play a determining role in the creation of these
event and behaviours; can motivate them to focus on the adaptive balance that may exist
between living beings and their environment; and can assist them to appraise
consistencies, strengths and complementary as also various inconsistencies,
discrepancies and conflicts as they affect the quality of life.
In order to develop a healthy relationship between man and his environment,
social work can play a very significant role by creating and strengthening the right
kind of thinking, attitudes and behavioral patterns among people. The specific
functions that social work can perform in this regard are:
1. Social work can provide information required for correct understanding of
different aspects of environment as also the problems that emanate from it
and the measures that can be adopted to tackle them.
65
2. Social work can present facts before people to enable them to take right
decisions.
3. Social work can develop such attitudes and values in the personality of the
people as may develop and sustain the feeling of respect for environment for
various types of gifts that it has made available to man kind and refrain them
from taking any such action that may lead to exploitation and abuse of
environment.
4. Social work can substitute the existing harmful values of materialism and
hedonism leading to environmental degradation by propagating and
developing the values of plain and simple living.
5. Social work can motivate man to adopt a friendly behaviour towards
environment.
6. Social work mobilizes and organizes people to give a united challenge to
those who indulge in varied kinds of activities detrimental to the conservation
and development of environment.
7. Social work can persuade and prepare people to take all such steps like
promotion of forestation and restraint on deforestation; restriction on
emission of various pollutants that pollute water, air, soil, etc.
8. Social work can impress upon the policy makers to formulate such policies
and enact such laws as may be conducive to promotion of cordial relationship
between man and his environment.
9. Social work can urge and motivate the people associated with enforcement of
various policies and legal enactments to implement their various provisions
sincerely and to ensure that penalties stipulated for their violation are
imposed upon those who glaringly violate them.
10. Social work can help in fixing the responsibility of those employees of the
enforcement machinery who deliberately ignore the infringement of legal
provisions or show slackness in dealing with the law breakers and can ensure
66
that suitable actions are taken against such irresponsible and recalcitrant
employees.
11. Social work can appeal and prepare people in general in the community to
lend their maximum possible cooperation in the task of environmental
conservation and development not only by observing various 'dos' and
'don'ts' in their personal lives but also by initiating all sorts of suitable
organized social actions including specific work-oriented projects in a
sustained manner that may be required in this regard.
12. Social work in collaboration with other disciplines may undertake scientific
researches to explore various unexplored aspects of environment, especially
to highlight its realities and their impact upon mankind and to suggest
measures that ought to be taken to. Recreate a friendly relationship between
man and environment.
A) Briefly explain Trends of social work professional in India
A…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
2.2 TRAITS
PROFESSIONAL TRAITS IN SOCIAL WORK
1. SYSTEMATIC AND SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
Social work is based on scientific knowledge. It views man as a biological,
social and psychological entity and his behaviour can be adequately explained in
terms of certain' needs' natural or acquired which originate in the somatic, social and
psychic aspects of his personality. The role of a social worker is mainly to set a
process of interaction which takes place at the social and psychological level into
motion. His methodology relates to ways by which individuals and groups/societies
can be made self-reliant and self-dependent. The area of knowledge covered in social
work can be grouped as follows:
67
1. Human behaviour and social environment: personality factors, theories, social
aspects, psychiatric aspects, human relations, groups, social institutions,
socialization, social control, environment, technology, etc.
2. Methods and techniques of social work: casework, group work, community
organization, social administration, social action.
3. Fields of social work: medical, psychiatric, child, guidance, health,
correctional, family, youth, labour, rural, development, etc.
4. Social problems: crime, delinquency, alcoholism, drug addiction, gambling,
beggary, prostitution, unemployment, casteism, communalism, corruption,
National Integration, etc.
2.3 PRINCIPLES
This is the principle which differentiates social work and some other
professions like surgery, medicine, law. In these professions a good interpersonal
relationship is desirable for the perfection of the service, but it is not necessary for
the essence of the service. But in social work, a good relationship is necessary not
only for the perfection, but also for the essence, of the service in every setting. The
quality of relationship is the corner stone of helping in social work.
A) PRINCIPLE OF RELATIONSHIP
The relationship is the medium through which the client is enabled to state
his problem and through which attention can be focused on reality problems, which
may be as full of conflict as emotional problems. Within the democratic frame of
reference the professional relationship involves a mutual process of shared
responsibilities, recognition of other's rights, acceptance of difference., with the goal,
not of isolation, but of socialised attitudes and behaviour stimulating growth
through interaction.4 A good relationship in social work is the professional one—one
that serves the purpose (problem-solving) and includes those elements which will
assist the purpose and exclude those elements which will not.
There are five ways in which the professional relationship differs from other
social relationship. Social relationships are open ended in duration but the
professional relationship ends when the problem is solved. The time that is spent
68
with clients emerges from the needs of the clients and the objectives of professional
involvement. Clients are seen in institutions or in their homes; they are not invited
for tea or dinner. The focus of professional relationships is not mutual, but the
client's needs. Wide aspects of client's life and feeling are examined and brought into
pay. Rather than mutual, the relationship in social work is the helper and the helped.
Helping relationship is developed in social work by demonstrating the
interests in client. Client is perceived as a 'real' person with spontaneity and capacity
for responsiveness. He is convinced of the social worker's warmth as an individual,
and conveys respect and caring for him. Social worker tries to understand what is
happening in his mind. He tries to share the situations on an emotional plane. He
helps the client to trust in his objectivity and feel secured as a worthwhile individual.
B) PRINCIPLE OF SELF-DETERMINATION
Social responsibility, emotional adjustment and personality development are
possible only when the person exercises his freedom of choice and decision.6 Today,
one of the basic convictions of the social work profession is the client's right of self-
determination. Under the ethics of the profession, the social worker must learn to
accept others' distinct personalities with their own right of self-realisation and self-
determination. Social Workers have always considered the client's right of self-
determination to be very important, although there has been serious disagreement
among social workers as to the interpretation of this principle. But the general
opinion is that if this principle is not followed in its spirit, the social work practice
will not be effective.
Social work believes that through the experience of the client worker
relationship, the client will become mature and thus be able to deal with his life
situation better. Obviously, when once the client has experienced thinking through a
problem and arriving at a decision, he will become a less dependent individual.
Social worker always tries to stimulate the client to think independently and
rationally about his own problem situation and arrive at a decision for himself. It is
social worker's responsibility to assess each client's ability to understand and analyse
69
the forces operating in his problem situation and, on the basis of such analysis,
determines what course of action he would like to follow. If the client wants stems
from lack of knowledge, then it becomes the responsibility of the social worker to
help the client to change his ideas. The goal and responsibility of the social worker is
to help client move away from superstitious beliefs and primitive concept; worker
must guide the client to avail the facilities and opportunities available to them. He
should not remain inactive and thereby fall to accomplish this task under the guise
of misconceived notion of the principle of self-determination.
Social worker, following the principle of self-determination, helps the client
see his problem clearly. He makes him acquainted with the resources available to
deal with his problem. The client, using his inner resources and the resources of the
community, grow in the potential to work out his own problems, to move along at
his own speed and in his own way.7
C) PRINCIPLE OF ACCEPTANCE
Social work accepts the individual as he is and with all his limitations. Not
out of personal friendship but as a quality of life, it offers warmth, acceptance, and
understanding; in quiet illustration of quality in human relations that might have
values everywhere. Social work believes that acceptance is the crux of all help. It
embraces two basic ideas - one negative and one positive. Social worker does not
condemn or feel hostile toward a client because his behaviour differs from the
approved one. He feels genuine warmth to form a bridge across which help may be
given.
Acceptance is essential for the relationship. Except in social work service, the
client becomes the subject of various social control mechanisms like legal
condemnation, ostracism, avoidance, begetting, nagging by others or by his- own
conscious. These methods have failed. Therefore, social work offers the new
approach of acceptance and it is out of this that a useable relationship grows.
The principle of acceptance implies that social workers must perceive,
acknowledge, receive, and establish a relationship with the individual client as he
70
actually is, not as we wish him to be or think he should be. It means that no matter
how much the client may have distorted reality, no matter how much our perception
of it may differ from him, or how greatly our values may differ from him, we must
acknowledge and accept him as he is if we are to help him. This does not mean that
we do not hope to effect change in him, but rather that the art of helping, like any
other art, depends on accepting the material with which we propose to work as it
actually exists, with its limitations as well as its potentialities. This principle could be
restated by saying that in social work one begins where the client is and, at every
stage in the helping process, relates one self to the client as he is at each given
moment.
D) PRINCIPLE OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is a two-way process. Most of the problems that give pain are
precisely the problems of communication. When the communication is inadequate or
insufficient, the problems appear either automatically or because of
misunderstanding. There are three ways in which social worker conceives that
clients may have problems of communication of feeling
1. The client may be confronted with a difficult practical problem which arouses
such strong feeling in him that he is unable to cope effectively with the
problem.
2. The client may have certain feelings of apprehension or diffidence About
asking for help,"
3. The client's feelings may be the main problem about which he is asking for
help. Social worker always takes the responsibility of letting the
communication culminate wholesomely between himself and the needy
(individual, group or community) Communication of feeling is not only
important to diagnose the problem but most of the maladies which befall a
man may be removed by re-establishing full and goal directed cooinunication
between the sufferer and the social worker.
71
Communication is a royal road to the identification of social worker with his
client. The function of social worker is principally to create an environment in which
the client will feel comfortable in giving expression to his feelings. Client should feel
that he can tell his story in his own way and, he may think that he is given due
importance. The atmosphere includes the client's trust and confidence in the worker
and the worker's acceptance of the client.
Each of the communication for the client depends on his physical comfort but
his emotional comfort will be crucial. Some of the elements of emotional comfort are
(i) time, (ii) warm, (iii) a focus on the client, (iv) skill to meet particular
communication needs. Towle remarks that since tee we deal with people in time of
trouble when they are 'in the midst of emotions that come from the major upheavals
in life' it is important that we help them as they talk to us in express their emotions
and that we try to understand the meaning which their problems have for them with
a two fold purpose; first, that as they give expression to their feelings they may be
relieved of pressures and tensions which have made the problem deeply
disturbing.... Second, through understanding the person's feeling we, as
representatives of an assistance agency, may though by sharing his problem afford
each individual relationship which strengthens him.
E) PRINCIPLE OF SOCIAL FUNCTIONING
The principle of social functioning has been amply elaborated by Bartlett who
thinks that in social work it is frequently used to refer to the functioning of people in
their social roles and relationships,, with emphasis on their relation to the
environment it focuses not on the behaviour of people, but on the exchange between
them and their environment...The concept of social functioning involves two sub-
concepts—task and coping. Task implies the demands made upon people by various
life situations. These demands may pertain to issue of daily living, family life, entry
into the world of work or inability to do so, marriage and divorce, illness or financial
difficulties and so on. The concept of coping 'emphasises the conscious, cognitive,
and rational aspects of behaviour also. In such behavior is usually a direct
72
engagement with the situation and coping can then be descried as relative mastery
of the tasks in the situation. When environmental demands outweigh the coping
capacity of the individual he feels helpless and overwhelmed. Poverty, racial
discrimination, lack of access to job, and other societal problems subject large
segments of the population to stress, anxiety, deprivation, and alienation. Here, of
course, major efforts for social change must be directed at environment.
The common base of social work consists in a central focus on social
functioning, an orientation towards people involved in the situation, use of social
work values and the combined body of social work knowledge for working with
individuals and groups. Social organisations directly and through collaborative
action.
F) PRINCIPLE OF TUNING BEHAVIOUR
Man has body, mind and intellect as three instruments of experiences through
which life constantly pulsates. Through the physical body he perceives the world of
objects; through the mind he experiences the world of feelings and through the
intellects he comprehends his world of ideas. These three instruments have their
own distinct characteristics in each person. Hence each person has unique
personality. There is a need of tuning these instruments regularly so that he may
have the proper experience of the world fully. Medical sciences and other sciences
have gained the proficiency in tuning up the body and intellect of the human being
but our modern society has not developed and popularised the science for tuning
the mind. This is the basic drawback in our scientific developments and
achievements. This vacuum is fulfilled by social work profession.
When one sees a challenge which is too much for him, he has a natural
tendency to run away from facing it but this is not the solution of the problem.
Wherever he will go, the same problem in another form will arise and obstruct him
with a challenge. At such moments of mental agony, he always discovers a set of
defences apparently eloquent and seeing convincing he knows that this action is
cowardice; but his own thoughts supply him with weak excuses, slim reasons and
73
false arguments to justify his actions. Thus, he goes through the convulsions of a
psychologically broken personality.
It is not on one occasion that he misses the chance in life, fails in attempts and
incurs disappointment but after some time every day-to-day problems seem
threatening to him. If on that crucial moment he knows how to remake the inner
personality whole and strong he could with a newly found confidence meet the
problem successfully. He must learn how to unload himself, how to remove these
crushing weights of his conscience. He must find a way to liberate his heart from
unsuited chains gathered from the past, so that he may feel really free to live
courageous life/Social work believes that through the tuning of the behaviour of an
individual his problems can be minimised if not wholly solved and he feels and
realises a new strength running in his body and mind.
G) PRINCIPLE OF SOCIAL LEARNING
Social learning is a pre-requisite to the changes that are inevitably involved in
problem solving. Change in individual, group or community will depend on their
capacity to learn new facts, attitudes and ways of behaving (capacity for social
learning). Social learning is an essential part of social work practice whether the
change is initiated by social action or individual therapy.
Goldstein identifies six stages of problem solving: (i) need of difficulty felt or
observed, (ii) formulating, locating and defining the need or difficulty, (iii) surveying
the information required around the need/difficulty, (iv) formulating possible
solutions, (v) appraising the consequences of possible solution, (vi) testing, accepting
and internalising the solution.
Goldstein suggests that the social learning processes which go with these
stages are:
1. Arousing and focusing attention and concern;
2. Organising and evaluating the problem and planning further action;
3. Searching for and acquiring new information and perceptions;
4. Experimenting with alternative means, behaviours and consequences;
74
5. Rehearsing for action; verifying solutions and gains;
6. Acting, evaluating, incorporating the gains and (if necessary) reformulating
the problem.
The social work contribution at each stage becomes:
1. Assisting the identification of the problem using guidance, raising motivation,
evaluating, informing, defining;
2. Assisting the evaluation of the problem; helping to formulate plans,
contributing to the assessment of capabilities and resources; promoting
motivation, assisting role clarification and evolving commitment;
3. Stimulating an awareness of the salient practical psychological, social and
transaction factors;
4. Enhancing problem solving efforts through sustaining, testing, evaluating,
guiding and motivating;
5. Assisting the reality testing by providing opportunities for this; evaluating
them, reinforcing and confirming the social learning experienced through
them;
6. Assisting the reinforcement of the social learning through validating the
capabilities of those involved, assisting the analysis and implications of the
outcomes of the process and planning for the termination of the process.
H) PRINCIPLE OF CONFIDENTIALITY
Clients have the right of personal information about themselves in their
relationship with a social agency during and following the process of obtaining
service, a right which may be superseded in exceptional situations. Recognition of
this right requires adherence to the following principles.
1. The client should be used as the primary source of information about himself
and information sought from him should be limited to that which is essential
to provide service.
2. Within the agency information regarding a client should be revealed only to
those persons and to the extent necessary to provide service.
75
3. Other agencies and individuals should be consulted only with the client's
consent and within the limits of that consent.
4. Only that information should be recorded and these records maintained that
are essential to provide service and the use of records should be determined
by agency function and the consent of the client.
It is a tribute to the reputation that social work has that clients frequently
assume that they are talking in confidence and do not very often need specific
reassurance about this. Confidentiality is essential for diagnosis and treatment. If
clients feel that they cannot reveal material they think could be damaging, social
worker will never get real picture of the problem. Confidentiality is essential to the
development of truth, which is fundamental to our work and professional
relationship. It is the base of having therapeutic relationship with the client and an
important part of the model social workers offer to the clients. The obligation to keep
confidentiality is stated in the professional code of ethics for social workers in these
words, "Respect and safeguard to the right of persons served to privacy in their
contacts with the agency, and to confidential and responsible use of the information
they give.
There are three classes of confidential information: (i) the natural secret that
information if disclosed, would defame the person, (ii) the promised secret promise
is made not to reveal the facts, (iii) entrusted secret—it implies a contractual
agreement which binds him not to reveal the fact. In Social Work confidentiality
includes all the three types of secrets.
A) List any four principles of social work
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
76
2.4 VALUES
Kohs has categorised the values of social work as primary and secondary. He
described ten values as the primary values of social work. These are:
1. The worth and dignity of man.
2. The capacity of human nature to achieve full human potential.
3. Tolerance of differences.
4. Satisfaction of basic human needs.
5. Liberty
6. Self-direction
7. Non-judgmental attitude
8. Constructive social cooperation.
9. Importance of work and constructive use of leisure.
10. Protection of one's existence from the dangers caused by man and nature.
Konopka has enumerated only two primary values of social work:
1. Respect for every person and the right of each person to the fullest
development of his/her potential.
2. Mutual dependence of individuals and responsibility towards each other
according to their abilities.
Friedlander has enumerated four values of social work:
1. Conviction of the inherent worth, the integrity and the dignity of the
individual.
2. The right to determine himself, what his needs are and how they should be
met.
3. Firm belief in equal opportunity for all, limited only by the individual's
capacities.
4. Social responsibilities towards himself, his family and his society.
2.5 ETHICS
A social worker operates in terms of certain basic assumptions; (1) respect for
human personality (2) dignity of human being, be he a prince or a pauper: (3)
matching resources with needs (4) stimulating change calculated to enhance
77
democratic values; (5) accomplishing change through co-operation both its
intellectual and emotional levels; and (6) serving as a "change -agent" from behind
the scene, so that the individual or the group or the community may emotionally feel
that the change was not imposed from the outside but was autonomously sought by
the individual, group or community. The social worker gives respect to each client
and does not believe in any type of discrimination on the basis of caste, creed,
religion, etc.
2.6 GOALS
The goal of social work is to facilitate social functioning by solving relational
problems and to establish and egalitarian social system characterized by maximum
possible equality, justice and fair play, liberty to lead decent and dignified life and
freely move around the public places and brotherhood based on tolerance and
peaceful co-existence.
2.7 NATIONAL & INTERNATIONAL PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATION IN
SOCIAL WORK
International federation of social work
A) Briefly explain the ethics of social work.
B) List any five professional association of social work
C) What are the values of social work given by Kohs.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
2.8 LETS SUM UP

A. “Social work is emerging as a socially oriented Profession” – Discuss.
B. Elaborate the importance of social action with suitable examples.
Answers for check your progress 1
A. SOCIAL WORK PROFESSION:
78
The first school of social work was started in 1936 by Clifford Marshal,
who was a protestant missionary. He came to India in 1925 and felt the need of
trained social workers. He established the Sir Dorabji Tata School of Social Sciences
in Bombay which offered professional training in social work. The appointed
workers were not professional workers, they were Gandhian. However,
later on many officially trained social workers emerged and practiced in
various government and nongovernmental welfare offices. Later on different
schools of social work came into existence in Delhi, Calcutta, Lucknow,
Varanasi, Baroda, Agra, Indore, Udaipur, etc. which imparts professional training in
social work services. Government has realized the need of trained professional social
workers to work in area of welfare and has also made statutory liabilities to welfare
officers in industries. Thus, in India social work is gradually emerging as a socially
oriented profession.
B. IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL ACTION:
¾ Removal of social Problem
¾ Solution of individual and family problem
¾ Spread of democratic values
¾ Encouragement to organizational function
¾ Social Reform
The unindegenised knowledge base
A) Briefly explain Trends of social work professional in India
Answer for check your progress 1:
A. TRENDS OF SOCIAL WORK PROFESSIONAL IN INDIA
The first school of social work was started in 1936 by Clifford Marshal, who
was a protestant missionary. He came to India in 1925 and felt the need of
trained social workers. He established the Sir Dorabji Tata School of Social
Sciences in Bombay which offered professional training in social work. The
appointed workers were not professional workers, they were
Gandhian. However, later on many officially trained social workers emerged
79
and practiced in various government and nongovernmental welfare offices.
Later on different schools of social work came into existence in Delhi,
Calcutta, Lucknow, Varanasi, Baroda, Agra, Indore, Udaipur, etc. which imparts
professional training in social work services. Government has realized the need
of trained professional social workers to work in area of welfare and has also
made statutory liabilities to welfare officers in industries. Thus, in India social
work is gradually emerging as a socially oriented profession.
A. List any four principles of social work
PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL WORK:
Principle of relationship
Principle of communication
Principle of confidentiality
Principle of social functioning
A) Briefly explain the ethics of social work.
B) List any five professional association of social work
C) What are the values of social work given by Kohs.
A. ETHICS OF SOCIAL WORK:
A social worker operates in terms of certain basic assumptions; (1) respect for
human personality (2) dignity of human being, be he a prince or a pauper: (3)
matching resources with needs (4) stimulating change calculated to enhance
democratic values; (5) accomplishing change through co-operation both its
intellectual and emotional levels; and (6) serving as a "change -agent" from behind
the scene, so that the individual or the group or the community may emotionally
feel that the change was not imposed from the outside but was autonomously
sought by the individual, group or community. The social worker gives respect to
80
each client and does not believe in any type of discrimination on the basis of
caste, creed, religion, etc.
B. Five professional associations of social work:
1. NASW
2. CSWF
3. AAPCSW
4. AASW
5. EASSW
C. Values of social work:
1. The worth and dignity of man.
2. The capacity of human nature to achieve full human potential.
3. Tolerance of differences.
4. Satisfaction of basic human needs.
5. Liberty
6. Self-direction
7. Non-judgmental attitude
8. Constructive social cooperation.
9. Importance of work and constructive use of leisure.
Protection of one's existence from the dangers caused by man and nature.
81
UNIT III
CONTENTS
3.1 DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION IN INDIA
3.1.1 GROWTH OF PROFESSIONAL TRAINING IN INDIA
3.2 FIELD WORK PROFESSION
3.3 NATURE AND STRUCTURE OF FIELD WORK
3.4 FIELD WORK SUPERVISION
3.4.1 OBJECTIVES OF FIELD WORK SUPERVISION
3.4.2 FUNCTIONS OF THE FACULTY SUPERVISORS
3.4.3 METHODS OF FACULTY SUPERVISION
3.4.4 METHODS OF AGENCY SUPERVISION
3.5 NEED FOR SOCIAL SCIENCE KNOWLEDGE FOR PROFESSIONAL
SOCIAL WORKERS
3.6 FUNCTIONS OF PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS
3.6.1 ROLE OF PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS
3.6.2 PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS OF SOCIAL WORK
3.7 LETS SUM UP
3.1 DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION IN INDIA
3.1.1 GROWTH OF PROFESSIONAL TRAINING IN INDIA

In India, professional social work is of recent origin. Prior to this, social work
was done by individuals and voluntary organisations on the humanitarian grounds.
But the problems accompanied with the expansion of industrialisation, growth of
cities and industrial towns have increased the need for professional social work.
Besides professional social work has been favoured in connection of comprehensive
planning. In India, professional social work owes its origin to a short-term training
course on social service organised by the social service league at Bombay. The
training course included those men and women who were willing to volunteer them
for social service. Till that time social workers did not get any salary or remuneration
for their work. It was simply a social service to the needy people guided by the
principle of humanity. Later on, the Tata School of Social Sciences was established in
82
the year of 1936 in Bombay. The institute started a course of professional training in
social work. In the year 1947 another school of social work known as Delhi School of
Social Work was established. In the same year Kashi Vidyapeeth, Varanasi and in
Baroda similar schools were started.
Thereafter, the University of Lucknow, Baroda, Patna, Gujarat, Agra,
Udaipur, Indore, Gorakhpur and Cochin included social work in its syllabus. The
Indian federations of social workers were founded. The general purpose of this
institution is to promote standards of training for professional social work.
3.2 FIELD WORK & PROFESSION
Professional training in social work education started in India in 1936 with the
establishment of Sir Dorabji Tata Graduate School of Social Work at Mtimbai (today
it is (he Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai). Later other schools of social work
came into existence under the auspices of the Christian missionaries.'
Universities and colleges located in different parts of the country followed and
introduced similar courses in due course of time. In this way professional training in
social work education has spread to all parts of the country today. Initially this
training started in labour welfare and correctional administration and later on it has
covered the other fields of social work like family, child and youth welfare, rural and
urban development, medical and psychiatric social work, etc.
In the beginning, professional training was introduced as generic
training but different specialisations developed in due course. Even today both these
training methods, i.e., generic and specialized are available in the country. In generic
training a specialized theory paper and practicals are included for introductory
studies. That is why both generic and specialised trained social workers are absorbed
in any field of social work. Today 65 years of professional training have been
imparted in India but unfortunately neither have the generic and specialised courses
in social work earned professional recognition, nor do they generate professional
values as is expected in the market of professional services. Besides, the pioneer
institute, i.e., Tata Institute of Social Sciences Mumbai, has dropped the
popular and job-oriented specialisation, viz., labour welfare and personnel
83
management courses from its syllabus in social work and has allowed all
graduates to be admitted to the course of social sciences. However, other universities
have continued the specialisation of personnel management and labour welfare.
In the last six and half decades, professional training in social work education
has not been developed as it should have been. In fact, it should have earned the
status of an independent profession because of its specialty, i.e., concurrent
fieldwork training. Fieldwork training is the back bone of social work education but
unfortunately professionally trained persons seem to have failed in reaching the core
of the training. Moreover, it seems that sufficient efforts have also not been made by
the concerned to develop it according to the needs of the communities and also for
making the students perfect in their chosen profession. Relevant and sufficient
practical-oriented literature on fieldwork has not been produced either by
theoreticians or by the practitioners. However, some of the theoreticians have made
an attempt to elaborate the concepts, meanings, nature, scope, techniques and the
skills of social work. So far in these 65 years, not a single textbook has been written
on fieldwork training in social work education. The students, therefore, are unable to
understand the use of social work techniques, principles and values in the actual
field of practice. This is more so in the case of students of the moffussil areas. Most of
the time they are confused about the modalities, i.e., how to begin fieldwork active
and how to complete it. They do not understand the nature, scope, extension and
magnitude of fieldwork training. As a result of this even marginally qualified
students are scarce to find in this field. Moreover, the multitudes of under qualified
students are also not easily absorbed in the market. Naturally, such trained
professional social workers are unable to effectively solve the problems of the people
in this changing society as compared to the untrained voluntary social work
practitioners and field activists.
Research scholars working in the departments of social work in different
universities and colleges have made an attempt to study fieldwork training in social
work education and have recorded certain valuable and viable suggestions for its
84
improvements. In spite of this, the necessary and expected change has not taken
place in the nature and scope of fieldwork training. Of course, the universities and
colleges located in the metropolitan cities have tried to develop the field practicum
according to the needs of the communities and the changing concepts of fieldwork
training in the world, but the universities and colleges located in moffussil areas
have not developed it as expected in the fields. Hence, traditional fieldwork training
is practised everywhere with the help of the theory syllabus. The schools and
colleges have still not come out of the traditional framework of institutional training
of social work techniques.
In the two-year professional course, the first year's course is general which
includes all the concerned social sciences along with the theoretical social work
papers, and the specialisation papers have been incorporated in the second year. In
the first year's syllabus, a lot of concurrent fieldwork has been included for learning
the practical aspects of social work techniques in social welfare agencies as well as in
the open communities. The said fieldwork training is being completed in two
phases: (i) orientation, and (ii) concurrent fieldwork. The other methods: (i) study
tours, and (ii) rural camps are also used in some schools/colleges, but in general
these two methods are used commonly together for the first and second year. These
methods are not used to impart training according to the specialisations. Similarly,
fieldwork training is not imparted systematically and scientifically due to a lack of
proper infrastructure facilities and amenities, non-availability of trained persons,
equipment, funds, practical syllabus, literature and manuals, etc., in moffussil
areas.
3.3 NATURE AND STRUCTURE OF FIELD WORK
There seems to be no uniformity in the fieldwork systems being practised in
the schools of social work in India today. The number of days of fieldwork in a week
seems to vary from school to school. There are some schools which have introduced
fieldwork for two days in a week whereas others have stipulated three days and die
students are asked to work for 15 to 20 hours in a week. As far as the number of
visits to the agencies for concurrent fieldwork is concerned, the schools expect
85
minimum 45 visits for casework, 45 visits for group work or 45 visits for community
organisations in an academic year. The students are asked to meet the concerned
faculty supervisors in the respective schools to seek guidance before they proceed to
the agencies on every fieldwork day. To enable students to learn practicals
methodically, they are taught the relevant part of theory in brief prior to their
fieldwork assignments, to ensure conceptual clarity. The necessary points of study
are given to them and the students are supposed to record these points in their
diaries every week on fieldwork days. After seeking guidance from the
faculty/supervisors, the students proceed to their agencies for practical work. Here
again, the agency supervisors guide them in the procedure, methods and practices to
be followed for learning in practical situations. It is always expected that the
students should bridge the gap between theory and practice and learn practicals
quickly to develop their professional skills, knowledge, attitudes, etc. The faculty
supervisors also pay visits to the agencies and help students to learn methodically
and use social work techniques and skills.
It is very important that a consistency be brought into the entire system of
fieldwork training. With this in mind the author suggests the following:
• Fieldwork should be a uniform three days of eight hours each, every week.
• In moffussil areas the approach should be need-based and integrated. In other
word, direct methods, viz., casework, group work, community organisation
and indirect methods, viz., social welfare administration, social work research
and social action should be integrated.
“Field work supervision teaches the students to integrate theory and practice
in the field. It creates an environment in which professional skills for social work
practice can be learnt.
A. Write a short note on growth of professional social work training in India.
B. Narrate the nature and structure of field work in social work.
86
A………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
B………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………
3.4 FIELD WORK SUPERVISION

The concept of fieldwork supervision in social work education is dual:
(i) Supervision by the faculty members, and
(ii) Supervision by the practitioners or agency supervisors.
The faculty members guide the students in understanding the concepts and
techniques of social work, principles and philosophies of social work, procedures
and methods of practicing social work theories and the utility value for social work
practice. They help the students in preparing themselves to be theoretically: sound
and make them "conceptually clear to anchor theories in practice for effective
professional services.
The practitioners or the agency supervisors guide the students in acquiring
professional skills, knowledge, procedure and methods of social work and the use of
techniques in the actual field for rendering welfare services and for solving the
problems of the needy, helpless, poor and sufferers.
To acquire professional skills the following two components are considered
very important: (i) the faculty supervisors, and (ii) the practitioners or agency
supervisors. The former assist in theory and practice and the latter in practical
guidance, assignment of relevant practical work and overseeing the work from die
social work perspective.
In other words, the term 'supervision' in social work education is "an
educational process in which a person, a supervisor, a more knowledgeable and
professionally competent individual imparts designed concepts, skills and attitudes
to students, through various educational tools like supervisory interactions,
supervisory relationships, professional skills and techniques and the supervisory
87
individual and group conferences". The functions of supervision in social work
education are to facilitate, accelerate, smoothen and consolidate the students'
learning in practical situations. It can be said that social work supervision is meant
for an educational partnership of two individuals, viz., the faculty supervisors or the
practitioner supervisors and the students. The supervisors are more experienced,
knowledgeable, and mature and have social perspective and human understanding
while the students are those who have set out to acquire knowledge of theory and
practice, professional skills, techniques and die methods required for a professional
social worker.
The supervisory process in social work aims at the development of field
practicum, integration of theory and practice and creation of an environment
through which the students should be able to learn practical aspects of social work
theories and philosophies. It rests upon democratic values and ideals, which are not
the denial of responsibilities. Hence, social work supervision has incorporated the
following aspects into it:
1. A conscious common purpose to help the students to achieve the desired goal
of becoming professionally trained social workers.
2. A common interest in the welfare of people and the value of social services.
3. A professional contact with knowledgeable persons, with tested skills and
objectives, with whom students can identify.
4. A mutual understanding and agreement as to the respective roles and
responsibilities of the students and both categories of supervisors, viz.,
faculty supervisors and practitioner supervisors.
5. A clarification of the conditions and procedures as to what is expected to be
accomplished, when and why.
6. An opportunity for reciprocal communication, which makes identification
with both the supervisors possible, as a source of learning for the students,
88
7. Both faculty supervisors and practitioner supervisors should possess a sense
of humor, affection for their fellowmen, and an ability to help the students
understand what is happening in the practical field/reality.
3.4.1 OBJECTIVES OF FIELDWORK SUPERVISION
The general and specific objectives of fieldwork supervision in social work
education are as follows:
1. To provide an opportunity to the students to learn social work techniques in
practical situations in different fields and to meet the needs of professional
education.
2. To organise and accelerate the process of learning practical aspects of social
work theories and philosophies in the different fields of social work,
3. To facilitate achievement of learning goals especially practical use of
principles and philosophies, skill and techniques, in social work practice.
4. To enable the students to enhance their practical knowledge and to develop
their art of dealing with humans in various situations.
5. To help the students acquire professional skills and to develop their social
attitudes.
6. To help the students to assess their strengths and weaknesses in proper
perspective,
7. To assist the students in developing their social perspectives and social
outlook for effective social work practice.
8. To enable the students enhance their interest in social work profession,
9. To help the students acquire sound practical knowledge, and help them to build
a career in the field of social work. The specific objective of fieldwork supervision
is to regulate the fieldwork programmes and to bring out the consistency in the
fieldwork process as a whole, through various supervisory functions.
3.4.2 FUNCTIONS OF THE FACULTY SUPERVISORS

The prime responsibility of the faculty supervisors is to teach the students
theory and to orient them to practice, in their respective fields. To carry out these
prime responsibilities they have to take interest in framing the field practicum on the
89
basis of the needs of the profession, the field agencies and the students, and revise it
from time to time.
With the help of the developed field practical and theoretical curriculum the
faculty supervisors have to guide and assist the students, to integrate theory with
practicals and to create an environment for them to learn in practical situations.
Faculty supervisors have to teach the students fieldwork i.e., the meaning of
professional relationship, to develop an insight into their own and others' behaviours, to
help them grasp the techniques of interviewing, recording, conducting home visits and
such other skills, as are necessary for successful discharge of their professional
responsibilities. In other words, the faculty supervisors have to teach three main things:
(i) concepts of social work in fieldwork, (ii) social work techniques and professional
skills, and (iii) social attitudes and perspectives. They find meaning in these three
functions as field administration, fieldwork teaching and professional help. However, of
all these functions, the teaching function occupies a very significant place in the process
of fieldwork training in social work education.
Trained professional social workers have narrated the roles of the faculty
supervisors during the various phases in the workshop
"Fieldwork Training in Social Work Education", organised by the Delhi School
of Social Work Education as follows:
ORIENTATION PHASE
The faculty supervisors have to narrate the fieldwork programmes of their
schools to the students and must explain the process of supervision and their roles
and functions.
A general idea should be given to the students regarding the fields of social
work and explain them their expectations from the students about professional
training in social work.
INDUCTION PHASE
The faculty supervisors have to introduce their students to the social welfare
agencies or communities where they will be placed for concurrent fieldwork. It is
also expected that the client system is narrated to the students and the roles of the
90
students in the client system are explained. Students should be re-conditioned at
different levels and should be told about the supervisor-supervisee relationship.
They must also help the students in establishing this relationship so as to carry out
the functions of guidance on fieldwork and report writing and ultimately achieve the
goals of fieldwork training.
IMPLEMENTATION PHASE
The faculty supervisors have to help the students identify the needs and
resources, and to evolve work assignments. Similarly, they have to help the students
to learn in practical situations. The faculty supervisors have to clear doubts in terms
of solving the problems of the client/needy and sufferers. The supervisee should be
helped to share his/her experiences so as to be able to analyse feelings. The
supervisor should then extend support to die students in achieving faster growth
and awareness. Besides these, the faculty supervisors are expected to conduct on-
the-spot supervision and administration, and develop relations between the agency
and schools throughout the implementation phase.
EVALUATION PHASE
The faculty supervisors have to formulate a pattern of evaluation and help in
the evaluation. They must assist the schools in maintaining records of fieldwork for
inspection by the university or external examiners.
FUNCTIONS OF THE AGENCY SUPERVISORS
The professional responsibility of agency supervisors is to guide the students
on office procedures and methods so that they understand the functions of the
agencies. Instructions have to be given on methods and techniques of social work, in
dealing with individual groups and communities, professional interactions, use of
principles and philosophies of social work in the field, etc. Students must also be
instructed on how to create an atmosphere of work and to render professional
services to solve the problems of the clients.
The agency supervisors have to teach the students on how to maintain
professional relations with individual clients, groups, communities, members and
employees of the agencies. They also have to teach them the expected, mature and
91
polished behaviour in dealing with everyone concerned. Besides this, their
responsibility is also to shape the students' views and to build a personality suitable
for a professional social worker. The necessary guidelines are to be given and their
social outlooks and perspectives are to be enhanced. In other words, it can be said
that the agency supervisors have to teach three main aspects:
a) Principles and philosophy of social work and use of these in practice for
providing solutions to problems of individuals, groups and communities.
These are to be accomplished with the help of all three direct social work
methods namely casework, group work and community organisation, and the
three indirect methods, namely, social welfare administration, social work
research and social action.
b) Professional skills of handling human beings in good and bad situations, to
solve their problems, to enhance their confidence and to make them
capable enough to help themselves in life.
c) Official correspondence especially in relation to preparation of case sheets,
reports, proposals, rehabilitative reports, handling of accounts and
administrative paper work related to conducting meetings, agency
proceedings, decisions, etc., and general letters to make the students
administrative oriented and capable enough to handle an office on their own
in future.
All three functions of the agency supervisors occupy a very significant place
in the process of imparting practical training in social work education because each
in themselves will enable the students to become able professional social work
practitioners. .
3.4.3 METHODS OF FACULTY SUPERVISION
Social work supervision starts right from the orientation period to the end of
concurrent fieldwork training. Throughout this process the faculty supervisor makes
an attempt to help the students acquire professional knowledge and skills, using
different techniques and methods. These methods are very important because they
help in achieving the targets or goals of social work supervision. These methods are
92
based on the functions of supervision which are spread throughout the supervisory
procedure as follows:
1. Individual conference,
2. Group conference,
3. Spot instructions, and
4. Fieldwork seminars.
3.4.4 METHODS OF AGENCY SUPERVISION
Agency supervision starts with the placement of students in their respective
agencies for concurrent fieldwork. The process of agency supervision begins with
the introduction of the students to the agency supervisors, the concerned employees
of the agencies, the social structure and systems of the agencies, their programmes,
beneficiaries, work methods and procedures, and social work techniques used in the
agencies.
The agency supervisors use different methods of supervision to help the
students acquire necessary professional skills, knowledge of different fields and
various social work techniques. These methods help the students achieve
professional training goals. They are spread throughout the supervision procedure
1. Professional interaction with faculty supervisors for processing
fieldwork.
2. Professional orientation of the fields and social welfare agencies.
3. Guidance to the students for observation in the fields or agencies.
4. Guidance to the student for professional interactions with clients or needy
persons.
5. Guidance to the students for collection of field information by using survey
method.
6. Guidance to the students for collection of relevant papers.
7. Professional instructions to the students both oral and written, to work with
individuals, groups and communities.
8. Professional interaction with the students and professional observation of the
actual work
93
9. Help the students to observe and participate in work processes of the
agency.
10. Help the students to observe and organise functions.
11. Help the students to observe and prepare records for the purpose,
12. Help the students establish contact with concerned people to help them in
finding solutions to the problems.
I. THE UNINDEGENIZED KNOWLEDGE BASE
The basic teaching imparted in India, particularly in respect of intervention
methods: social case work, social group work and community organization, is
American. Its unfortunate part is that while every one offers views on the irrelevance
and potentially functional nature he American heritage, little has been done to
reverse the legacy.
II. LACK OF PUBLIC RECOGNITION OF PROFESSIONAL SOCIAL
WORK
People still do not recognize social work as a profession but they think it in
terms of a valuation social service. Even state Social Welfare sector, which is the
biggest employer of trained social workers, also shows ambivalence in granting
statutory recognition to social work as a professional activity. Voluntary sector also
does not attach it any importance
III. CONFUSION ABOUT THE CONCEPT OF SOCIAL WORK
In six decades, India's social work education and trained social rkers have not
been able to clear the confusion about the concept of ial work.
IV. INABILITY OF REACHING THE UNREACHED
In a society, like India, where nearly three-fourth people live in the country
side, the urban location of the social work school has little meaning. Trained social
workers are not inclined to go to the rural areas where people really need help. This
raises a basic question as to what extent the persent system is suited to the need of
the country. Needy remains unreached by a trained social worker.
94
V. OBSOLESCENCE OF CURRICULA
In recent years, there have been some effects to change the teaching pattern,
but still it is not according to the needs and problems of India conditions. Ranade's
comment is most revealing in this connection. The kind of social work education
given in our schools of social work education given in out misfits in the Indian
situation since they find that there is little scope for the practice of the techniques
they have learnt,
VI. SPECIALIZATION ISSUE
Connected to the issue of training is the contentious question of specialized
versus generic training. The controversy on this question has plagued the profession
for long and still there is no agreement on this issue.
VII. UNCHANGING PATTERN OF FIELD WORK
The second UGC review Committee on social work education, 1980 lamented
the lack of any linkage between the classroom theories and the realities of the field.
VIII. INADEQUATE RESEARCH BASE
Though a number of researches have been done and are being done but there
is hardly any research and techniques to be used in actual fieldwork practice.
IX. THE DECLINING QUALITY OF STUDENTS
When social work education began in India as a response to the fast
expanding sector of social welfare, better students sought for admission. But due to
emergence of other management courses and privatization, the best students take
admissions in other courses. Social work has become the last resort for boys and girls
in search of economically rewarding professional education.
X. INEFFECTIVITY OF PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
We do not have strong professional organizations to infuse health and vitality
to the profession. The existing organizations, like the Indian Association of Trained
Social Workers, the Associations of Trained Social Workers and the Association of
the Schools of social work in India are dismal and disillusioning.
95
A. List out any five objectives of field work supervision.
B. Elaborate the roles of faculty supervisors in narrating the Field Work
training in social work education.
C. Explain the methods of agency supervision in the field work training.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
3.5 NEED FOR SOCIAL SCIENCE KNOWLEDGE FOR PROFESSIONAL

SOCIAL WORKERS
Every science is study of one aspect of reality or the other and all emerge from
the common spring of man's eternal suit for the knowledge. From this point of view
all sciences are related to each other. Apart from this common relationship, various
sciences are more apparently united, by certain bonds which often tend to bring
sciences into distinct group of kinship. Various sciences may study a common object
from various angels and perspectives and for various purposes.
It is true that in each science a general class of objects tend to receive more
attention that other classes of objects, but it is also true that the different sciences
may study the same objects but with different points of view. Social sciences may be
regarded as those branches of study which look to man as essentially a social being.
They may be defined as those mental or cultural sciences which deal with the
activities of the individual as a member of a group. However, a study of the
relationship between social work and social sciences is important and useful in
grasping the comprehensive nature of social work itself and also in the
understanding of the multiple branches of human knowledge which come to
contribute in the affairs of man as social being.
(A) SOCIAL WORK AND SOCIOLOGY
Sociology is concerned with the study of human interaction and interrelation,
their condition and consequences and factors which influence to these. Sociology in
96
its broadest sense may be said to be the study of interaction arising from the
association of living beings. In other words, sociology is about social relationship.
The net work of relationship we call as society. But the equilibrium of social relations
is often shaken by social changes. It brings about dissolution of institutional control
which no longer functions effectively. It helps in the development of material
culture, cultivates new culture elements and adds new material object which affect
the life scheme of the group and disrupt old values. This deviation creates many
social and cultural problems.
Social work in its present form deals with the study of social problems and
their scientific solutions. It functions towards establishing the integration between
the various units of society. Social work suggests the means and way through which
accommodation and adjustment is achieved between the various units of society.
Both sociology and social work look to society as essentially a network of
social relationships. But sociology provides a scientific analysis of society and its
problems whereas social work provides the most scientific and suitable means and
methods for scientific solution. Thus, sociology on its parts inspires social work
converts. Social worker attempts to establish adjustment between the individual and
his social environment. In the form of community organisation it makes assessment
to establish adjustment between the individual and its social environment. In the
form of community organisation it makes all the adjustments. In the sphere
of social administration, social work makes coordination and synthesis between the
various programmes of social welfare. In the field of social group work, individuals
in group are guided with regard to their programme activities. In other words, social
work is a socially oriented service.
(B) SOCIAL WORK AND ECONOMICS
Economics deals with the economic aspects of human society. Economics as
observed by Prof. Marshall "Is a study of man's actions in the ordinary business of
life, it enquires how he gets his income and how he uses it. Thus, it on the one side a
study of wealth and on the other and more important side a part of the study of
97
man. It is the study of general methods by which man co-operates to meet his
material needs. Social work also aims at the study of man as an unit of society. It also
tends to study how man satisfies his wants, what problems he faces and what means
and resources he possess to solve them. Social work strives to plan a way so as to
ensure the best course of action towards the solution of the-social problems.
Social problem is not an isolated phenomena. There are various factors which
constitute a social problem. Chief among them are economic factors. In fact,
economic factors constitute the base upon which the complex super structure of
society is erected. The mode of production in material life determines the general
character of social, political and spiritual process of life. This may not be completely
true, but the facts remain undeniable that what man eats, how he lives and what
economical and social gratification he finds around him determine to a large extent
his social reactions and attitude.
Similarly, crime, prostitution, slavery, oppression and exploitation are
evidently social problems. They seriously threaten society itself and impede the
human aspiration. The main causes of these social problems by and large are based
on economic conditions. Even individual happiness which is the first condition of
social harmony, is directly based upon economics are inter-dependent. Both study
the general principles of human relation.
(C) SOCIAL WORK AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
Political science is the science of state. It is the study of organisation of man as
civilized beings and their relationship with Government. That phenomena of state in
its varied aspects and relationships as distinct from the family, the tribe, the nation
and from all associations or groups though not unconnected with them, constitute
the subject-matter of political science. Social work, on the other hand deals with
human society, social groups and associations which precede state in the
development and even extend beyond the scope of state. But to a large extent human
society and its various associations are controlled by the state through laws
98
applicable to the units of society. The structure form and the characteristics of a
society are dependent on their political counterparts.
Social work can not ignore the implications of state's policy if it wants to
understand and remould the society. Revolutions, conquests and wars which are
mostly of political origin, create great unheavels in the social structure. Social work
is not directly concerned with the forms of Government. But the limiting effect, of
state on social behaviour of man, the change which the new organs of the state and
its coercion bring in the general pattern of society are concerns of social work. In the
modern complex society, political science and social work have to play their
respective roles in the solution of social problems. On the contrary, social work
provides the methods and the techniques useful with regard to the solution of social
problems. Besides, the governmental measures have played a great role in the
development of the modern form of social work. The very important aspects of
social services, viz. social welfare, social security and social legislations enacted by
the state have their direct impact on the social problems. These legislations serve the
cause of social work. The democratic philosophy which in the present set-up
guides the state I functions is based on equality, liberty and fraternity.
(D) SOCIAL WORK AND PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology has played a vital role towards the development of social work.
Social work deals with the individual and social problems that prevent the
harmonious functioning of collective life. On the other hand, psychology is: the
scientific knowledge of the phenomenon of man’s consciousness and behaviour,
both the individual and social.
Psychology is a scientific study of the activities of the individual.
Standing between psychology on the one side and the social science on the other, all
these sciences study human activities. Physiology deal with individuals, psychology
with individual and social science with groups composed of individuals. The
level of man's mental development is the mysterious actions, interactions and their
complex outcome in the depth of human consciousness, determine man's behaviour
99
as an individual. Much of his behaviour pattern is projected on his group or social
behaviour.
It is the individual which constitute society. Psychology in special, gives aid
to social towards understanding the background of many social problems. Mental
conflict and mental disorder are also responsible for many social problems. Besides
the relationship between a social worker and a client is purely psychological.
Similarly, the approach adopted with regard to child welfare and correctional
services depends on psychology.
(E) SOCIAL WORK AND ANTHROPOLOGY
Anthropology is the scientific study of the physical, social and cultural
development and behaviour of human being since their appearance in earth. It deals
with man and races of mankind. Anthropology is that branch of science which
comes nearest to being a total study of man. In its study of the various aspects of
man, anthropology throws ample light upon the human factor of social set-up and
its evolution. The various stages of human society, its culture and civilization, as
studied in anthropology occupies a very important place in the study of Social work.
Social work deals with the psychosocial problems of individual group and
community. Therefore, in order to implement the programme of social work on any
group or community it is essential to understand the cultural background of that
respecting community or group. In this way, anthropology provides aid to social
work towards the proper understanding of customs, traditions, faiths and beliefs
prevalent among the members of different groups and community. Thus,
social work and anthropology are dependent on each other.
(F) SOCIAL WORK AND SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY
Like other social sciences social work is also related with social philosophy.
Social philosophy deals with the fundamental propaganda and concept of social life
in their epistemological and axiological aspects with a view to elaborate the higher
synthesis of the social sciences and to define their place in the universe. Social
philosophy consists of two branches, namely, epistemological branch and axiological
100
branch. In its epistemological aspect, social philosophy performs three types of
functions-Ontological, Criteriological and Synthetic.
The ontological function of social philosophy is related with the questions of
fundamental principles and concept of social life. The criteriological function is
concerned with enquiries into the validity of the principles of social sciences. In its
synthetic function, social philosophy seeks to bring together its results with those of
other social sciences. Similarly, the axiological branch of social philosophy is
concerned with the ultimate values of social life and the various means of attaining
them. The ultimate aim of social philosophy is to attain social good and moral
values. This is the meeting point where the aims of social work and social
philosophy coincide with each other.
Like social philosophy, social work also deals with the social values and social
goods. It aims to bring happiness for the individual group and community. Again
the attainment of these aims is related with means. Means should be valid and
appropriate. Any doubt with regard to their validity is likely to reduce the common
aspirations of the individual group and the community.
Social philosophy solves -the problem with regard to the validity of means.
Social work is meaningful only so far as it consists of a philosophical basis.
Otherwise it runs the risk of being reduced to a thing of should and patches where
facts and investigations are piled but no final meaning is achieved. Hence, social
philosophy is closely related with social work. Social work is largely based on the
philosophy of scientific humanism. It is based on the assumption that the individual
goods and social goods are interlinked. So in a way we can say both serve the same
purpose.
(G) SOCIAL WORK AND JURISPRUDENCE
Jurisprudence is that branch of knowledge which deals with the scientific
study of law and its enactment. It includes within its scope the process of making
laws of violating laws and the punishment towards the breaking of laws. Besides
jurisprudence also provides the scientific analysis of laws and enactment of laws in
accordance to the nature and types of crime. Crime and punishment are also within
101
the scope of social work. Social work in its modern form deals with the problems of
individual, family and community disorganisation.
3.6 FUNCTIONS OF PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS
DEFINITION:
A professional association (also called a professional body, professional
organization, or professional society) is a non-profit organization seeking to further a
particular profession, the interests of individuals engaged in that profession, and the
public interest.
3.6.1 ROLE OF PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS:
The roles of these professional associations have been variously defined:
1. "A group of people in a learned occupation who are entrusted with
maintaining control or oversight of the legitimate practice of the occupation;"
2. Acting "to safeguard the public interest;"
3. Organizations which "represent the interest of the professional practitioners,"
and to maintain their own privilege and powerful position as a controlling
body."
4. Many professional bodies are involved in the development and monitoring of
professional educational programs, and the updating of skills, and thus
perform professional certification to indicate that a person possesses
qualifications in the subject area. Sometimes membership of a professional
body is synonymous with certification, though not always. Membership of a
professional body, as a legal requirement, can in some professions form the
primary formal basis for gaining entry to and setting up practice within the
profession.
3.6.2 PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS OF SOCIAL WORK
There are a number of associations for social workers, which exist to provide
ethical guidance and other forms of support for their members and social work in
general. These associations/organizations are distinguished in international,
continental or semi-continental, national and regional. The main international ones
102
are the International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) and the International
Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW).
ROLE OF THE PROFESSIONAL SOCIAL WORKER
The main tasks of professional social workers can include a variety of services
such as case management (linking users/clients with agencies and programs that
will meet their psychosocial needs), counseling (psychotherapy), human services
management, social welfare policy analysis, policy and practice development,
community organizing, international, social and community development,
advocacy, teaching (in schools of social work), and social research.
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SOCIAL WORKERS
The National Association of Social Workers (NASW) is a professional
organization of social workers in the United States. The NASW has over 150,000
members as of January 2008.[1] The NASW provides guidance, research, up to date
information, advocacy, and other resources for its members and for social workers in
general. Members of the NASW are also able to obtain malpractice insurance,
members-only publications, discounts on other products and services, and
continuing education.
The National Association of Social Workers (NASW) was established in 1955
through the consolidation of the following seven organizations: [2]
• American Association of Social Workers (AASW)
• American Association of Psychiatric Social Workers (AAPSW)
• American Association of Group Workers (AAGW)
• Association for the Study of Community Organization (ASCO)
• American Association of Medical Social Workers (AAMSW)
• National Association of School Social Workers (NASSW)
• Social Work Research Group (SWRG)
NASW’s primary functions include promoting the professional development
of its members, establishing and maintaining professional standards of practice,
103
advancing sound social policies, and providing services that protect its members and
enhance their professional status.
NASWF
The National Association of Social Workers Foundation (NASWF) is a
charitable organization created to enhance the well-being of individuals, families,
and communities through the advancement of social work practice.
Founded in 2001, the Foundation's goals are to:
• Identify, develop and respond to social work policy and practice issues.
• Assist with rapid response to social crises.
• Support practice-based research, so that practice and research are directly
linked.
• Raise the visibility of social work and enhance public esteem for the
profession.
• Support the development of cutting edge continuing education that addresses
critical issues.
• Promote the appropriate application of new technology to the practice of
social work.
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF PROFESSIONAL SOCIAL WORKERS IN
INDIA
OBJECTIVES
• Increase awareness about social work profession at various levels
• Promote the highest professional standards and ethics in the practice of
professional social work
• Advance the knowledge and practice base of social work interventions that
enhance quality of life and standard of living of persons, their family and
environment.
• Faster communication and foster support among professional social workers.
• Promote social change, empowerment and liberation of people to enhance
their well-being adhering to principles of human rights and social justice.
104
• Promote research, action and other forms of continuing education for
knowledge up- gradation of members.
Advocate for programmes and policies to meet the needs of social work
fraternity and its various clientele groups.
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOLS OF SOCIAL WORK
The International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW) is the
international association of schools of social work and other institutions of learning.
The IASSW promotes the development of social work education throughout the
world, develops standards to enhance quality of social work education, encourages
international exchange, provides forums for sharing social work research and
scholarship, and promotes human rights and social development through policy and
advocacy activities. They also work in a consultative role with the United Nations.
They host a biennial conference of social work educators called the IASSW Congress
and publish a newsletter.
The IASSW was founded in 1928 at the First International Conference of
Social Work, held in Paris. It initially comprised 51 schools, mostly in Europe, and
was known as the International Committee. Revitalized after World War II, the
organization expanded its membership to include a wider range of countries and
was renamed the International Association of Schools of Social Work. The
association has member schools in all parts of the world; 5 regional organizations in
Africa; Asia and the Pacific; Europe; Latin America; and North America and the
Caribbean are affiliated with the IASSW and represented on the Board of Directors.
Professor Janice Wood Wetzel is the main representative.

OTHER PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS OF SOCIAL WORK
• International Federation of Social Workers(IFSW)
• International Association of Schools of Social Work
• Australian Association of Social Workers (Australia)
• Professional Social Workers' Association (India)
• British Association of Social Workers (U.K.)
105
• National Association of Social Workers (U.S.)
• Hellenic Association of Social Workers (Greece)
A. “Social Science knowledge is need for professional social workers”. –
Justify your answer.
B. Define professional Association.
C. Expand NASWF and write any four objectives of it.
D. Mention any five professional Associations of social work.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
3.7 LETS SUM UP

A. Write a short note on growth of professional social work training in India.
B. Narrate the nature and structure of field work in social work.
Answer for check your progrss1
A. GROWTH OF PROFESSIONAL TRAINING IN INDIA
In India, professional social work is of recent origin. Prior to this, social work
was done by individuals and voluntary organisations on the humanitarian grounds.
But the problems accompanied with the expansion of industrialization, growth of
cities and industrial towns have increased the need for professional social work.
Besides professional social work has been favoured in connection of comprehensive
planning. In India, professional social work owe its origin to a short-term training
course on social service organised by the social service league at Bombay. The
training course included those men and women who were willing to volunteer them
for social service. Till that time social workers did not get any salary or remuneration
for their work. It was simply a social service to the needy people guided by the
principle of humanity. Later on, the Tata School of Social Sciences was established in
106
the year of 1936 in Bombay. The institute started a course of professional training in
social work. In the year 1947 another school of social work known as Delhi School of
Social Work was established. In the same year Kashi Vidyapeeth, Varanasi and in
Baroda similar schools were started.
Thereafter, the University of Lucknow, Baroda, Patna, Gujarat, Agra,
Udaipur, Indore, Gorakhpur and Cochin included social work in its syllabus. The
Indian federations of social workers were founded. The general purpose of this
institution is to promote standards of training for professional social work.
B. NATURE AND STRUCTURE OF FIELDWORK
There seems to be no uniformity in the fieldwork systems being practiced in
the schools of social work in India today. The number of days of fieldwork in a week
seems to vary from school to school. There are some schools which have introduced
fieldwork for two days in a week whereas others have stipulated three days and die
students are asked to work for 15 to 20 hours in a week. As far as the number of
visits to the agencies for concurrent fieldwork is concerned, the schools expect
minimum 45 visits for casework, 45 visits for group work or 45 visits for community
organisations in an academic year. The students are asked to meet the concerned
faculty supervisors in the respective schools to seek guidance before they proceed to
the agencies on every fieldwork day. To enable students to learn practicals
methodically, they are taught the relevant part of theory in brief prior to their
fieldwork assignments, to ensure conceptual clarity. The necessary points of study
are given to them and the students are supposed to record these points in their
diaries every week on fieldwork days. After seeking guidance from the
faculty/supervisors, the students proceed to their agencies for practical work. Here
again, the agency supervisors guide them in the procedure, methods and practices to
be followed for learning in practical situations. It is always expected that the
students should bridge the gap between theory and practice and learn practicals
quickly to develop their professional skills, knowledge, attitudes, etc. The faculty
107
supervisors also pay visits to the agencies and help students to learn methodically
and use social work techniques and skills.
It is very important that a consistency be brought into the entire system of
fieldwork training. With this in mind the author suggests the following:
• Fieldwork should be a uniform three days of eight hours each, every week.
• In moffussil areas the approach should be need-based and integrated. In other
word, direct methods, viz., casework, group work, community organisation
and indirect methods, viz., social welfare administration, social work research
and social action should be integrated.
“Field work supervision teaches the students to integrate theory and practice
in the field. It creates an environment in which professional skills for social work
practice can be learnt.
A. List out any five objectives of field work supervision.
B. Elaborate the roles of faculty supervisors in narrating the Field Work
training in social work education.
C. Explain the methods of agency supervision in the field work training.
A. FIVE OBJECTIVES OF FIELD WORK SUPERVISION:
¾ To provide an opportunity to the students to learn social work techniques in
practical situations in different fields and to meet the needs of professional
education.
¾ To organise and accelerate the process of learning practical aspects of social
work theories and philosophies in the different fields of social work,
¾ To facilitate achievement of learning goals especially practical use of
principles and philosophies, skill and techniques, in social work practice.
¾ To enable the students to enhance their practical knowledge and to develop
their art of dealing with humans in various situations.
¾ To help the students acquire professional skills and to develop their social
attitudes.
108
B. ROLES OF FACULTY SUPERVISOR IN NARRATING THE FIELD
WORK:
The faculty supervisors have to teach three main things:
Concepts of social work in fieldwork,
Social work techniques and professional skills, and
Social attitudes and perspectives.
C. METHODS OF AGENCY SUPERVISION IN FIELD WORK
TRAINING:
¾ Professional interaction with faculty supervisors for processing
fieldwork.
¾ Professional orientation of the fields and social welfare agencies.
¾ Guidance to the students for observation in the fields or agencies.
¾ Guidance to the student for professional interactions with clients or needy
persons.
¾ Guidance to the students for collection of field information by using survey
method.
¾ Guidance to the students for collection of relevant papers.
¾ Professional instructions to the students both oral and written, to work with
individuals, groups and communities.
¾ Professional interaction with the students and professional observation of the
actual work
¾ Help the students to observe and participate in work processes of the
agency.
¾ Help the students to observe and organise functions.
¾ Help the students to observe and prepare records for the purpose,
Help the students establish contact with concerned people to help them in
finding solutions to the problems.
A. “Social Science knowledge is need for professional social workers”. –
Justify your answer.
B. Define professional Association.
109
C. Expand NASWF and write any four objectives of it.
D. Mention any five professional Associations of social work.
A. SOCIAL SCIENCE KNOWLEDGE IS NEED FOR PROFESSIONAL
SOCIAL WORKERS:
Social work and sociology
Social work and Economics
Social work and political science
Social work and Psychology
Social work and Anthropology
Social work and social philosophy
Social work and Jurisprudence.
B. PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATION:
A professional association (also called a professional body, professional
organization, or professional society) is a non-profit organization seeking to
further a particular profession, the interests of individuals engaged in that
profession, and the public interest.
C. NASWF AND ITS OBJECTIVES:
The National Association of Social Workers Foundation (NASWF)
• Increase awareness about social work profession at various levels
• Promote the highest professional standards and ethics in the practice of
professional social work
• Advance the knowledge and practice base of social work interventions that
enhance quality of life and a standard of living of persons, their family and
environment.
• Faster communication and foster support among professional social workers.
D. FIVE PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS OF SOCIAL WORK:
• International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW)
• International Association of Schools of Social Work
• Australian Association of Social Workers (Australia)
• Professional Social Workers' Association (India)
British Association of Social Workers (U.K.)
110
UNIT IV
CONTENTS
4.1 FIELDS OF SOCIAL WORK
4.2 FAMILY AND CHILD WELFARE
4.2.1 FAMILY WELFARE AND SOCIAL WORK
4.3 CORRECTIONAL SOCIAL WORK
4.4 INDUSTRIAL SOCIAL WORK
4.5 JUVENILE DELINQUENCY
4.5.1 MEANING OF JUVENILE DELINQUENCY
4.5.2 CAUSES OF JUVENILE DELINQUENCY
4.5.3 JUVENILE DELINQUENCY IN INDIA
4.5.4 PREVENTION OF JUVENILE DELINQUENCY
4.6 MEDICAL AND PSYCHIATRIC SOCIAL WORK
4.7 YOUTH WELFARE
4.8 RURAL COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
4.9 LETS SUMS UP
4.1 FIELDS OF SOCIAL WORK
Methods of social work are applied in a variety of settings which may be
briefly indicated in this context. As we saw, the methods have in common as their
immediate and main objective the direct enhancing of the well-being of individual
members of our society, either alone, in groups, or in communities. The settings
consist of: (1) services to disadvantaged individuals and groups, the sick,
handicapped, destitute, dependent children and the aged, minority groups, and
new-comers to communities; (2) services that provide protection to individuals and
groups that are exposed to unusual hazards and hardships, such as disabled
veterans; victims of natural disasters, epidemics, or war emergencies; families of
servicemen; and (3) protective, cultural, and developmental services for children and
youth, senior citizens, Indians on reservations, and isolated groups in need of
community integration.
111
The major activities in the field of social work may be classified according to
type of service, as follows:
PUBLIC ASSISTANCE
Social services to persons in financial need, including general assistance or
indigent aid,; categorical assistance of higher standards to the aged, blind, totally
disabled, and dependent children; and institutional care for indigent aged, blind,
and other handicapped persons who cannot live at home.
SOCIAL INSURANCE
Services to provide insured workers, self-employed people and their families
with protection against the loss of income due to old age, unemployment, industrial
accidents and occupational diseases, death of the family breadwinner, and against
certain aspects of other illness through medical care, hospitalisation and
rehabilitation.
FAMILY SERVICES
Casework and counselling on personal and family relations, marriage, health,
economic and budget problems, special services to people away from home,
travelers, and migratory families, the Indians, recent immigrants, prisoners, and
provision of legal aid.
CHILD WELFARE SERVICES
Placement of children in foster care and children's institutions, day nurseries,
and day-care centres; supervision of foster families and adoptions; protective service
to prevent maladjustment and a social behaviour infant and preschool children care,
school social services, and child labour protection.
HEALTH AND MEDICAL
Maternal and child health services, well-baby centres and dispensaries, child
conference, visiting nurse service, medical care for recipients of public assistance and
the self-supporting "medically indigent'" financial and medical aid and rehabilitation
to crippled children, blind and deaf, victims of such diseases; as cancer, tuberculosis,
infantile paralysis, heart disease, and cerebral palsy, under both public and private
agency auspices.
112
MENTAL HYGIENE SERVICE
Services in hospitals and sanatoria for the mentally ill and the feeble-minded;
vocational training; placing-out and supervision of patients suffering from nervous
disease; rehabilitation services; preventive and therapeutic treatments through child
guidance clinics for children, and through psychiatric out-patient departments of
hospitals and mental hygiene clinics for adults.
CORRECTIONAL SERVICES
Probation services in juvenile and criminal courts; diagnostic and treatment
services; casework and group work in detention homes, prisons, penitentiaries,
reformatories, and transition camps, assisting in the adjusting of offender and in
their preparation for return to community life; parole service for juvenile and adult
offenders released from correctional institutions; community services for prevention
of delinquency.
YOUTH LEISURE-TIME SERVICE
Community and youth centres, settlement houses, neighbourhood houses,
and recreation facilities; service with boys' and girls' groups, the YMCA, the
YVVCA, the 4-H associations, children's clubs, Boy and Girl Scouts, and other youth
organisations, summer and vacation camps, and cultural youth activities.
VETERANS' SERVICES
Casework and group work services to disabled veterans and war veterans in
need of medical or psychiatric treatment in hospitals and clinics; casework with the
families of veterans; vocational guidance and rehabilitation; educational aid; special
employment services; priority in civil service positions and promotions, in public
housing; loans for purchase of farms., homes/and business enterprises;
compensations and pensions for disabled veterans and survivors.
EMPLOYMENT SERVICES
Placement of workers looking for jobs; assistance to industry and agriculture
in finding qualified workers; vocational guidance; labour protection and safety
education; service in vocational rehabilitation.
113
HOUSING SERVICES
Family and children services in public housing projects and new housing
developments, particularly in industrial regions and for projects involving racial and
ethnic minorities; special services for aged or chronically ill persons, and families
with numerous children, assistance in protection against exploitation, help in
budgeting and economic management; loans under federal guarantee for home
purchase or building; slum clearance and city redevelopment.
INTERNATIONAL SOCIAL SERVICES
In such agencies as the United Nations, the World Health "Organisation, the
U.N. Technical Assistance Programme, the United Nations Children's Fund, the
International Conference of Social Work, Pan-American Union, the International Red
Cross Committee, the World Federation of Mental Health, International Social
Service, the World YWCA, and World Association of Youth; or in national social
agencies that operate in foreign countries, such as the International Cooperation
Administration, the American Friends Service Committee, Church World Service,
YMCA, Catholic Community Service Council, American Joint Jewish Distribution
Committee, and Unitarian Service Committee, which require competence in
community organisation, planning, supervision and social welfare administration.
COMMUNITY WELFARE SERVICE
Planning, organising, and financing social and health services through such
media as Community Welfare Councils, Planning Boards, Community Chests,
Untied Funds, coordinating and neighbourhood councils.
The basic methods of social work that we analyse in this study—casework,
social group work, and community organisation are applied by all groups that offer
the. types of services we have mentioned. They are not used only by those agencies
which are organised primarily to provide these social work services, such as public
welfare departments, family and children's agencies, adoption agencies, settlement
houses, community centers, youth agencies. The basic social work methods are also
used by organisations that combine services to people with other activities, such as
the Salvation Army, the Red Cross, International Institutes and Immigrants
114
Protective Leagues, recreation commissions and park departments. Social work
methods are also applied by organisations in which social work operates merely as
an auxiliary division, as in hospitals, clinics, schools, vocational rehabilitation
centres, juvenile and criminal courts, housing authorities, research and health
foundations. Finally, the method of community organisation is the core function of
agencies that are not rendering direct service to individuals and social groups, but
that are organised in order to assist in planning and financing social agencies in the
community—for example, community welfare councils, community chests, and
united fund-raising associations.
Recently social work methods have also been used in settings outside these
four categories of social agencies or related institutions. Industrial establishments,
factories and mines, churches, mass recreation centers, consumer and producer
cooperatives, and labour unions employ social workers in order to benefit from
social work methods in the interest of their members, employees, or partners. In this
development, casework, social group work, and community organisation begin to
affect many other organisations and institutions beyond the framework of the
original social welfare agencies.
4.2 FAMILY & CHILD WELFARE
After the declaration of the rights of the child adopted by the U.N. General
Assembly in 1959, which proclaimed that mankind owes to the child the best it has
to give and the child has the rights to enjoy special protection and facilities to
develop in a healthy and normal manner, the Government of India have been
consistently subscribing to the principles enshrined in the declaration, and taken
steps to guarantee these rights in consonance with the availability of resources.
However, due to large percentage of population, 48 percent in rural areas and 41
percent in urban areas living below poverty .line, it was found that there was
more hunger and malnutrition among children in those causing lasting damage
and ill-effects in them. In 1967, the Government of India appointed a committee
under the chairmanship of Sri Ganga Saran Sinha to go into the full extent of the
problems facing the children.
115
The committee observed that a comprehensive national policy for child
welfare was necessary to take an integrated view of the different needs of children
and assign priorities. As a result, the Government of India proclaimed the national
policy for children in August 1974. The declaration said that "The nation's children
are supremely important assets. Their nurture and solicitude are our responsibility.
There are few, if any, countries which do not have some form of state or local
authority child and family welfare service, the scope of which will vary depending
on the extent of more Universalist provisions in the field of housing, income support,
health care, education and local community services. In England and Wales the Chil-
dren Act 1989 requires that local authority social service departments provide a
range of services for children:
who are 'unlikely to achieve or maintain, or have the opportunity of achieving
or maintaining, a reasonable standard of health or development without the
provision of services' by the local authority.
whose 'health or development is likely to be significantly impaired or further
impaired without the provision of such services’; or
who are disabled (Children Act 1989), section 17).
Local authorities have a corporate responsibility to meet she needs of such
children, which means that all the relevant departments (including housing,
education and leisure services), working in partnership with healthy trusts, must
jointly plan and provide services. However, the lead role is given to social services
departments, which are required to work with the other agencies to produce
children's services plans. In the drawing up of these plans the particular
circumstances in any local authority which may lead to children being in need' or a
risk of significant harm have to be researched and strategies and services devised to
help such children and their parents. These services must then be publicized in a
way which makes the information accessible to any parents, carers and children who
may need them.
116
As with other local authority personal social services is encouragement in the
legislation for a 'mixed economy' of child welfare provisions. Services are to be
provided by the voluntary/not-for-profit and private sectors alongside local author-
ity services. However, the more rigid 'purchaser/provider' arrangements developed
for community care services for adults have not taken hold in children's services,
and by far the largest number or child and family social workers still work in local
authority teams. Although the term 'care manager' is sometimes in evidence, it is
most likely that the term 'child and family social worker' will be used for qualified
personnel employed in this area of practice. Child and family social workers mainly
work in one of five settings:
the community child and family social work team (sometimes referred to as
an 'area team and sometimes divided into 'intake', 'assessment', 'family
support' 'long term' or 'child protection' teams);
a family placement team;
a day care resource such as a family centre;
a residential (group care) setting;
service centres set up for a particular clinical or therapeutic purpose and often
as part of a multidisciplinary team.
4.2.1 FAMILY WELFARE AND SOCIAL WORK
Man is becoming the cancer of the whole planet. During the past half-century,
advances in medical sciences, public health, agriculture, and overall improvement in
the general standard of living of the people have outstripped the natural resources.
The problem of population is / socio-economic disease, which has everlasting effect
on the present as well as on the future generations. If we fail in meeting this
challenge, it will be a pathetic jeopardy and the future generation will not excuse us.
Family planning is not synonymous with birth control. A WHO Expert
Committee (1970) has stated that family planning includes in its preview (1) the
proper spacing and limitation of births, (2) advice on sterility (3) education for
parenthood, (4) sex education, (5) screening for pathological conditions related to the
reproductive system (e.g. cervical cancer), (6) genetic counselling, (7) Pre-marital
117
consultation and examination, (8) carrying out pregnancy tests, (9) marriage
counselling, (10) the preparation of couples for the arrival of their first child, (11)
providing services for unmarried mothers, (12) teaching home economics and
nutrition, and (13) providing adoption services.
Family planning at present is the trigger that sets off the new emphasis on
developmental social welfare. It is intrinsically positive in its objectives, as its basic
purpose is to provide an opportunity to every child to become a balanced human
being. Family welfare planning, which is the fundamental source of social
development, come under the preview of social work profession. The major tasks of
a social worker in the field of family planning can be enumerated as follows:
1. Applying the principle of 'individualization', the social worker contacts the
client in such a way so that purposeful relationship can be established and the
client accepts him as his well wiser.
2. He provides the opportunity to the client to express positive and negative
feelings about the family planning.
3. He allows the client to make his own choices and decisions concerning his
own life. The client does not want to be pushed around, 'bossed' or told what
to do.
4. The social worker creates the atmosphere of friendliness.
5. He treats each case as a separate entity and tries to relate according to his
economic, social, religious and educational background. He gives due respect
and to his feelings, sentiments and other related attitudes.
6. He explains various devices with its positive and negative aspects.
7. He removes the misconceptions and misgivings of the couples, which they
express in discussion.
8. He maintains regular contact with the client.
9. Follow-up work is the life of the whole programme. Clients develop various
problems of psycho-social nature before and after the sterilization. The social
worker deals with these problems.
118
In the field of family planning, social group work practice is essential because
the client is not only an individual but he represents a group as a whole. Family
planning is a very delicate programme, which needs social approval and *his can
only be achieved through group work practice. He does the following activities in
the groups:
1. He discusses religious and cultural attitudes towards social and health
problems.
2. He describes population problems including its effects on socio- economic
development
3. He explains the impact of harmonious marital relationship upon the physical,
mental and emotional well being of the family members.
4. He discusses the effects of family size on the social and economic conditions.
5. He tells the methods of natal care and child's protection from major diseases.
The social worker as a community organizer uses films, posters and
distribution of literature, group diocesans, and community meetings for the mass
publicity of the family planning program.
A. Examine the various fields of Social Work.
B. Write a short note on family and child welfare.
A………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
B………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………
4.3 CORRECTIONAL SOCIAL WORK
Work may be undertaken individually or in group settings, and in liaison
with other professionals, such as prison officers, governors, chaplains, psychologists
and teachers, as well as outside community groups and service providers. The social
119
work task has to be juggled with the administrative demands of the prison, and
social work values may at times conflict with the demands of security and risk
management. For these reasons, prison-based social work is best undertaken by
experienced, self confident and committed staff who are equipped to cope with the
role strain involved in balancing the various demands upon their time, and
managing value conflicts in practice.
It could be argued that the prison service is moving closer to social work and
welfare needs, through recent initiatives such as the appointment of 'personal
officers' to inmates involvement of prison officers in the delivery of services for drug
users. The notion of prison as a positive good has been reinforced by the revival of
faith in rehabilitative treatment discussed above, and is clearly evident in the Home
Office review of the working of prison and probation services (Home Office, 1998) ,
which proposes closer collaboration between die two services. However, this
perception of prison remains highly controversial (Nellis, 1999). Juvenile
delinquency is one of the several important problems or. social deviation which the
modern society has to face. Juvenile delinquency however is not a new problem. But
it had emerged on the wake of rapid industrialization and urbanization in the recent
period and has become a menacing problem in some Western societies, including the
United States. In India, too, industrialization and urbanization have brought in its
wake the problem of juvenile delinquency which has assumed serious proportions
as in the industrially advanced countries of the West. ‘The problem, if allowed to
develop unchecked, may eat into the "socio-psychological vitality" of a nation. The
problem can be and should be judiciously and scientifically dealt with; this demands
serious attention on the part of administrators, legislators, educationists, social
scientists and of the community at large.
4.4 INDUSTRIAL SOCIAL WORK
The development of factory system of production with its
1. The labour welfare officer advises and assists management to secure welfare
amenities like canteen, creche, rest room, recreation hall, etc. for the workers.
120
2. He establishes liaison with government agencies on health and safety of
workers.
3. He attempts to provide those facilities which help them in raising the level of
education and standard of living.
4. He sees that various enactments are enforced in the establishment.
5. He tries to strengthen satisfactory and productive relationship between the
management and the workers.
6. He helps workers to adjust to their working environment.
7. He advises them against going on illegal strike.
8. He also advises management against declaring illegal lock-out
1. INDUSTRIAL SOCIAL SERVICES
a) Compliance of various provisions of basic Acts pertaining to health and
welfare of workers, preparation and submission of required reports, returns
and statistical data,
b) management of industrial health services-first aid, dispensary, ambulance and
hospitalization,
c) management of company's schools and workers' education classes:
d) management of canteens and mid day meals, etc.,
e) administration of housing estates and workers housing schemes,
f) promotion and management of recreational measures- sports, tournaments,
welfare centres, cinema shows, tours, etc.,
g) supervision of provident fund and E.S.I. Scheme work: and
h) administration of financial benefit schemes-loans, grants, etc., and cooperative
societies,
2. INDUSTRIAL SOCIAL WORK
a) orientation and induction of new employees:
b) communicating company policies to workers individually and providing
them with correct interpretation, and communicating workers opinions and
feelings to the management:
121
4.5 JUVENILE DELINQUENCY
4.5.1 MEANING OF JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

It is very difficult to define precisely the concept “juvenile delinquency"
because it has both legal and sociological dimensions. There are social scientists who
have attempted to define juvenile delinquency, as says Dr. Sushil Chandra, in the
light of their own experience. "Some have made the concept too wide to incorporate
all problems of juvenile misbehaviour while others have focused only on that
behaviour which amounts to a criminal offence."
The National Probation Association of the United States defined a delinquent
child "as (A) A child who has violated any law of the State or any ordinance or
regulation of a sub-division of the State. (B) A child who by reason of being
wayward or habitually disobedient is uncontrolled by his parent, guardian or
custodian. (C) A child who is habitually truant from school or home. (D) A child
who habitually so deports himself as to injure or endanger the morals or health of
himself or other". Friedlander defines delinquency as juvenile misconduct that might
be dealt with under the law. Cyril Burt defines delinquency as occurring in a child
"when his anti-social tendencies appear so grave that he becomes or ought to become
the subject of official action", whereas W.H. Sheldon calls delinquency "as behaviour
disappointing beyond reasonable expectations". According to Paul W. Tappan, "the
juvenile delinquent is a person who has been adjudicated as such by a court of
proper jurisdiction though he may be no different, until the time of court contact and
adjudication at any rate, from masses of children who are not delinquent.
Delinquency is any act, course of conduct, or situation which might be brought
before a court and adjudicated whether in fact it comes to be treated there or by
some other source or indeed remains untreated."
However, the Second United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime
and Treatment of Offenders held in 1960 declared, "By juvenile delinquency should
be understood the commission of an act which, if committed by an adult, would be
considered a crime." And it is now generally-agreed that juvenile delinquency
122
should be distinguished from other problems of juvenile misbehaviour. In keeping
with this international definition, the Indian Parliament passed the Children Act of
1960, which has simply defined a delinquent child as one who has been found guilty
of committing an offence. A child is defined as a boy under the age of 16 and a girl
under 18.
4.5.2 CAUSES OF JUVENILE DELINQUENCY
Juvenile delinquency cannot be explained by any one single factor. "The
delinquent child", Elliott and Merrill say, "is generally a child handicapped not by
one or two but usually seven or eight counts. A child can overcome one or two
handicaps, such as the death of one parent or poverty and poor health. But if the
child has a drunken unemployed father and an immoral mother, is mentally
deficient, is taken out of school at an early age, and put to work in a factory, and
lives in a crowded home in a bad neighbourhood, nearly every factor in his
environment may seem to mitigate against him. Such children constitute the largest
share of those who get into serious trouble and are brought into court". In addition
to the factors indicated by Elliott and Merrill, hereditary, physical, intellectual and
psychological factors are also considered by some as responsible for juvenile
delinquency. For the sake of convenience, we shall discuss the causes of juvenile
delinquency under two principal heads: (1) psychological factors and (2) situational
or environmental factors.
PSYCHO-BIOLOGICAL FACTORS:
Like born criminals, it has been stated by some, there are born delinquents;
that is to say, crime propensities are inherited. This statement however has not been
proved.
Following Lombroso, the famous Italian criminologist, many criminologists in
Europe believe that boys and girls possessing certain physical and mental traits are
prone to delinquent behaviour. But there is no scientific reason to hold that a
combined mental and physical constitution makes persons prone to delinquency.
Persons possessing the same type of so-called criminal constitution may not be
criminals having different social environments.
123
An important psychological factor in the causation of delinquency is said to
be that individuals turn directly to delinquency in order to get their wishes satisfied
or resort to delinquency since they cannot satisfy their wishes through normal
channels.
SITUATIONAL OR ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS:
It is now generally recognized that the situational or environmental factors are
conducive to delinquent behaviour. The more important situational factors are:
economic factor, education, family conditions, companionship factor, community
conditions, and exploitation of children by adults.
(1) ECONOMIC FACTOR:
Mr. Bonger, the Dutch criminologist, has marshalled statistics to show that
child labour, a by-product of capitalism, has been responsible for the increase in
juvenile delinquency in countries that have become industrialized. Long hours of
work, bad housing conditions, unemployment and economic insecurity—all are the
causes of juvenile delinquency-Bonger also offers statistics to prove that the poorer
classes supply the most of juvenile delinquents. But the role of economic factors in
the causation of juvenile delinquency should not be, overemphasized. "For all those
who are poor", as says Dr. Sushil Chandra, "do not commit crimes and all those who
are criminals are not poor."
(2) EDUCATION:
Most of the delinquents, it is reported, have never been to a school or had
given up their studies before completing even the primary course. The present-day
system of education fails to attract children in the activities of the school; the result
is truancy, running or staying away from school which by steps leads to
delinquency.
(3) FAMILY CONDITIONS:
Family influences and situations are \ of crucial importance in the
development of delinquent behaviour of the child. Lack of parental affections, the
broken home (i.e. break in the family either due to death of either or both parents, or
due to their divorce or separation), the size of the family, demoralised home
124
conditions (such as alcoholism, immorality and criminality), lack of parental
discipline and control—all these are considered responsible for the causation of
juvenile delinquency.
(4) COMPANIONSHIP FACTOR:
Much delinquent activity has been found to be an affair of association of two
or more individuals. Healy (1930), Bronner and S. Glueck and S. T. Glueck (1950) in
their various case studies have found bad companionship as a causative factor in
juvenile delinquency.
(5) COMMUNITY CONDITIONS:
The influence of a good home is "neutralized by incongenial neighbourhood
life, and a decline in norms of social behaviour. Again, overcrowding in urban areas,
particularly in the slum areas, and overcrowded housing semi urban areas tend to
produce delinquency, for it makes family discipline and morality difficult to
maintain and it drives children into unsupervised street play.
(6) CINEMA AND TELEVISION:
Though authorities differ in their estimate of the role of movies in producing
delinquency, it cannot be denied that crime and sex pictures have some demoralising
effect on children and adolescents.
(7) EXPLOITATION OF CHILDREN:
Exploitation of children by adult criminals for stealing, for smuggling, etc., is
also a contributory factor. From the above it is evident that delinquency is caused by
a plurality of factors. However, it is fundamentally related to socio-economic
conditions of groups and individuals.
4.5.3 JUVENILE DELINQUENCY IN INDIA
Along with many other social problems, juvenile delinquency has become a
serious problem in our country recently. In 1964 Mr. G. C. Dutt wrote in Seminar on
Social Defence, "Juvenile delinquency is rapidly becoming a serious menace in India
and with the progressive industrialization of many parts of the country, which were
essentially rural areas until a few years ago, this problem will assume the same
proportions as in many of the Western countries". Mr. Dutt's assertion appears to be
125
supported by facts. During 1966-70 there were 22,853 cognizable cases against
juvenile delinquents—an increase of 21.2 per cent over the previous five-year
average. According to police records (1971) there were 1, 03,419 juvenile delinquents.
Drinking, gambling and theft were found as the major deviant activities, though
violence was quite noticeable. Of the delinquents 70 per cent lived with their parents
and the remaining 30 per cent either lived with their guardians or homeless. More
than 80 per cent of the delinquents came from the lower income group. Juveniles
were responsible for 2.6 per cent of the total cognizable offences in the country. The
maximum number of juvenile offences was reported from Maharashtra, followed by
Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Among the Union Territories, Delhi reported the
maximum number of cases.
Though juvenile delinquency in our country does not stand comparison with
the problem of juvenile delinquency in the West, it is generally admitted that
juvenile delinquency in our country is on the increase. The question is: What are the
causes of juvenile delinquency in India?
All the factors which are enumerated above may be held responsible for the
rise of juvenile delinquency in India as in other advanced countries of the world,
though poverty, acute housing problem and cinema may be more important factors
in India.
4.5.4 PREVENTION OF JUVENILE DELINQUENCY
With the development of sociological and psychological studies and social
surveys, it has come to be recognized that any attempt to prevent and cure juvenile
delinquency must be based on a proper understanding of the underlying causes.
This means that the state should direct its attention, primarily, to the prevention of
potential or predelinquency in the juveniles themselves and provide such
institutional arrangements as to help the young offenders become normal citizens.
Influenced by this new philosophy, various "prevention" techniques and methods
have been applied in different countries of the world. India has also followed suit.
Though the earlier attempt to combat juvenile delinquency in India may be
traced back to the close of the nineteenth century when the Reformatory Schools Act
126
of 1876 and its Amendment (1897) were enacted, the real beginning of juvenile
correction in our country is to be found in the recommendations of the
Indian Jails Committee, 1919-20. The recommendations made by the
Committee, particularly its distinction between a "Child Offender" and the
"Adolescent Criminal", were given effect to by enacting Children Acts in some
provinces and princely states. In the 1920's Children Acts and Borstal Acts for the
correction of juvenile offenders were placed on the statute-book in Bengal, Bombay,
Madras, the Central Provinces and Cochin. In the 30's Bikaner and Hyderabad
enacted Children Acts, while U.P. enacted the Borstal Act. In the 40's Punjab passed
the Children Act, while Mysore and Travancore enacted Children Acts and Borstal
Acts.
However, it was only after independence that the real work in the field of
combating juvenile delinquency began. In 1953 Hyderabad passed its Probation Act,
while West Bengal enacted a Probation Act known as the West Bengal Offenders
(Release on Admonition and Probation) Act in 1954. During the First Plan period
Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bombay and Delhi took
measures. The Bombay Government opened a Remand Home, a Certified School
and a juvenile guidance centre. In some other States various voluntary organizations
working for the correction of juvenile delinquents received financial assistance from
governments.
The Second Five Year Plan period witnessed both Central and State attempts
to combat juvenile delinquency. Three Acts were passed by the Indian Parliament—
Women's and Children's Institutions (Licensing) Act of 1956, the Probation of
Offenders Act of 1958, and the Children Act of 1960. The Children Act seeks to
provide for the care, protection, maintenance, welfare, training, trial and
rehabilitation of neglected and delinquent children in the Union Territories. It
provides for two agencies, viz., the Child Welfare Board to deal with neglected
children and the Children's Court (analogous to Juvenile Court elsewhere) for
delinquent children. The Act is regarded as a model legislation for other States.
127
Besides, with Central aid and assistance, during the Second Plan period, as
many as 37 Remand Homes, 21 Certified Schools, 3 Borstal Schools, and 8 Probation
Hostels were established in many States. The number of Probation Officers
appointed reached 166.
During the Third Plan period the majority of States and Union Territories
undertook schemes to establish 67 Remand Homes, 27 Certified Schools, 20
Probation Hostels and to appoint 170 Probation Officers. However, a Study Group
under the chairmanship of Smt. M. Chandrasekhar, appointed by the Planning
Commission in April 1965, noted that Children Acts were in force in all the
States excepting Assam, Bihar, Orissa and Rajasthan; and that the existing acts
were not uniform and properly enforced. The Study Group recommended that all
the above four States should enact, within the Fourth Plan period, Children Acts on
the lines of the Central Children Act, 1960, and the other States should enforce their
acts properly throughout their territory.
Before we conclude this chapter we propose to discuss a few of the
correctional institutions established in India and abroad.
JUVENILE COURTS:
Juvenile Courts in India as well as in other countries of the world are the
product of this idea that treatment of juvenile delinquents should be separated from
that of the adult offenders; that is to say, juvenile offenders should receive special
treatment. It was in 1899 that the first regular juvenile court in the world was
established in Chicago (U.S.A.). Gradually, many other countries also established
juvenile courts. The essential features of these courts are: (1) Informal or chancery
procedure, including the use of petition or summons rather than indictment and
warrant; (2) Separate hearings for juvenile cases by judges especially qualified for
the job; (3) Regular probation service for investigation and supervision; (4) Separate
detention; (5) Special court records and probation records; and (6) Provision for
physical and mental examination. In India, too, there are several juvenile courts
established in different States for dealing juvenile cases. The Bombay Children Act of
128
1948 lays down : "(i) A Juvenile Court shall hold its sittings at such places, on such
days and in such manner as may be prescribed, (ii) In the trial of a case in which a
child is charged with an offence and is not being tried jointly with an adult, a court
shall, as far as be practicable, sit in a different building or room from that in which
the ordinary sittings of the court are held, or on different days, or at different times
from those at which the ordinary sittings of the court are held." The Act also lays
down that a full-time salaried presidency magistrate with special training and
qualifications shall act as judge in the juvenile court. The Children Act of 1960
passed by the Indian Parliament for the Union Territories and regarded as model
legislation for the country as a whole, proposes for setting up Children's Court
constituted by members having the powers of first class magistrate and possessing
special knowledge of child psychology. The fundamental principle involved in legal
procedure is that the child should not have the stigma of criminality attached to his
behaviour. The legal procedure is prescribed in the Act.
REFORMATORY SCHOOLS:
Reformatory Schools were first established in India under the Reformatory
Schools Act, 1897. In all the bigger States today there are some reformatories. These
schools are meant for the education and vocational training of delinquent children.
They provide for proper food, water, clothing, bedding and other necessities of the
inmates as well as some industrial training.
BORSTAL SCHOOLS:
Borstal Schools are special correctional institutions for adolescent delinquents,
named from the first correctional purpose reformatory of the kind set up at Borstal.
Such schools are functioning in West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Kerala,
Bombay, Mysore and Punjab. Adolescent offenders above the age of 15 but below 21
(above 16 but below 21 years of age where Children Acts operate) are put in Borstal
Schools. Education and vocational training are imparted to the inmates, having
regard to the age, record and character of the inmate. Boys are given training in
mixed farming, building and engineering, while girls in cooking, house-keeping
and laundering.
129
The purpose of imparting such education and training is to deter children
from committing crime again. The inmates are released after 2 or 3 years, the date of
release being determined by the Borstal authorities, who take into consideration the
conduct and progress of the inmate before making such a decision.
REMAND HOMES:
When a young offender is brought before the court, he is kept in the Remand
home until the special investigations in regard to him are complete. The child is kept
in the Remand home where he is observed, for a week or fortnight, by an expert
staff, i.e. Probation Officer or a social worker on whose recommendation the final
disposal is made. Sometimes juveniles convicted are remanded for a few days and
released.
Such homes are mostly run by private welfare agencies and are supported by the
government as well as by the public.
A. Explain the various factors which caused juvenile delinquency.
B. Write a short note on juvenile delinquency in India.
C. Discuss the importance of Industrial social work.
A………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
B………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………
130
4.6 MEDICAL & PSYCHIATRIC SOCIAL WORK
DEFINITION:
To Counsel and aid individuals and families with problems that may arise
during or following the recovery from physical or mental illness by providing
supportive services designed to help the persons understand, accept, and follow
medical recommendations.
NATURE OF WORK:
In the medical field a Social Worker may be involved in rehabilitating
critically ill patients or those who face permanent disability. They are trained to help
people to come in terms with their disabilities and also in counseling and giving
practical assistance to such patients and their families.
Psychiatric Social Workers work in child guidance clinics or psychiatric unit
of hospitals. They work with children and adolescents having behavioral problems,
phobias, withdrawal symptoms etc. In hospitals they work with various kinds of
patients like those suffering with chronic depression or drug addiction and help the
Psychiatrist in finding out the root cause of the problem and thereafter continue to
work as facilitators in the treatment process
TASKS:
1. Counsels clients and patients, individually and in group sessions, to assist in
overcoming dependencies, adjusting to life, and making changes.
2. Counsels family members to assist in understanding, dealing with, and
supporting client or patient.
3. Interviews clients, reviews records, and confers with other professionals to
evaluate mental or physical condition of client or patient.
4. Formulates or coordinates program plan for treatment, care, and
rehabilitation of client or patient, based on social work experience and
knowledge.
5. Monitors, evaluates, and records client progress according to measurable
goals described in treatment and care plan.
6. Modifies treatment plan to comply with changes in client's status.
131
7. Refers patient, client, or family to community resources to assist in recovery
from mental or physical illness.
8. Intervenes as advocate for client or patient to resolve emergency problems in
crisis situation.
9. Plans and conducts programs to prevent substance abuse or improve health
and counseling services in community.
10. Supervises and directs other workers providing services to client or patient.
KNOWLEDGE:
• Therapy and Counseling
• Knowledge of information and techniques needed to rehabilitate physical and
mental ailments and to provide career guidance including alternative
treatments, rehabilitation equipment and its proper use, and methods to
evaluate treatment effects
• Knowledge of human behavior and performance, mental processes,
psychological research methods, and the assessment and treatment of
behavioral and affective disorders
• Knowledge of the principles, practices, techniques and professional standards
in the field of social work.
• Knowledge of community organizations and social service programs.
• Skill in communicating effectively with a variety of people of various socio-
economic and educational backgrounds
DUTIES:
• Interviews client to determine nature and degree of problem, disability or illness
and interprets data for other social or health treatment agencies.
• Assists family members in understanding the clients' needs and aids client and
family in working out realistic functional goals for client.
• Assists client and parents with problems concerning relationships or other
aspects of social functioning effected by disability.
132
• Helps client and family members through individual or group conferences to
understand, accept, and follow medical recommendations.
• Develops and writes informational material for educational purposes; conducts
workshops and educational sessions.
• Provides psychiatric social work assistance to mentally or emotionally disturbed
patients, collaborating with psychiatric team in diagnosis and treatment plan.
• Plans discharge of clients.
• Assists in training university students on field placement as a phase of their
professional social work curriculum and conducts in-service training for mental
health personnel.
• Coordinates referral and evaluation of client to interdisciplinary diagnostic
teams; serves as case manager for referred client.
• Conducts psychosocial screening activities determining required specialized
psychiatric assistance.
4.7 YOUTH WELFARE
The youth population in India is not only large in number (33.5% population
was in age-group of 15-35 in 1981), "but is more vigorous and active, more open and
responsive to new ideas and to change. The vital significance of youth in the process
of nation-building can scarcely be under-estimated. There is need for youth to
come together and present themselves as a potent force to remove inequalities in
our social, political and economic structure.
The country being predominantly agricultural, about 75% of the youth
population resides in the rural areas and most of them are illiterate and engaged in
agriculture. While some young people have opportunities of better education and
had affluent lives, a vast majority of youth had lives of poverty and deprivation due
to lack of good education. Women suffer from greater disadvantage due .to lack of
an ingrained attitude of superiority of males. Following youth ' mobilisation
programmes and policies takes place in India:
133
YOUTH PREPARATION THROUGH NON-FORMAL EDUCATION
Among these are included the National Adult Education Programme started
in 1978-79. Condensed Courses and Vocational Training for women and farmers'
training. Over 150 farmers' training institutes throughout the country imparts
training for a duration of 4 to 7 days, primarily to young farmers.
INVOLVEMENT OF NON-STUDENT YOUTH IN DEVELOPMENT
The programmes in this category include: (i) The Nehru Yuva Kendra (NYK)
started since 1972, where non-student youth are involved in constructive nation-
building activities. All the 410 districts in the country were to have a NYK at a district
headquarter which were to coordinate the activities of the various existing agencies for
providing opportunities to the non-student youth for their own advancement and for
their involvement in various programmes of national development.
PROGRAMMES FOR STUDENT YOUTH
The programmes in this category include: (i) National Service Scheme (NSS),
(ii) National Cadet Corps (NCC), (iii) Student Unions, (iv) Scouting and Guiding,
and (v) Whole-time National Service Programmes. Under this National Service
Volunteer Scheme launched in 1977-78, opportunities are provided to young people
who have completed their first degree course to involve themselves on voluntary
basis in nation-building activities.
SHARING OF SOCIAL WEALTH BY YOUTH
In this all the youth shared their own activities to build up good relation with
each other for examples, physical education and sports, adventure, cultural avenues
which include dancing, music, theatre, etc.
VOLUNTARY YOUTH EFFORTS AND ACTIVITIES

In this category are included voluntary youth organisations which carry on
implementation of youth programmes and national integration activities which are
carried out through interstate youth camps, youth rallies and festivals, and national
integration associations in universities and colleges.
134
THE NATIONAL YOUTH BOARD
The National Youth Board was revived in 1985 in the context of the
International Youth year and also to implement the 20-point programme of
Government especially the IRDP and National Adult Education Programme through
the involvement of student youth.
FAMILY WELFARE
However, there are certain agencies which render family welfare services to
particular groups. Among these five types of agencies are there. For example:
1. Agencies which have economic programme for middle and lower class
women in urban areas,
2. Marriage counselling agencies,
3. Extension agencies in rural areas under the IRD programme,
4. Family Planning Agencies, and
5. Other agencies rendering general family welfare services.
The government of India publication point out, "A ^scheme to provide
employment and financial relief to women 'in lower middle class families with
income ranging from Rs. 60 to Rs. 250 per month, has been worked out" under the
family welfare services scheme.
A. Briefly explain the tasks and duties of psychiatric social workers in counseling.
B. Write a short note on youth welfare programme in India.
A………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
B………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………
135
4.8 RURAL COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
After the introduction of Community Development programme in 1952
certain changes were brought about in it and was discussed in various ways. As
Marandi said, "Rural development was on top of his government's list of priorities
and the work of linking all the blocks of the state with telephones will soon be
initiated”. To develop the rural areas government is trying level best to do it. In
order to remove these defects and deficiencies certain steps were suggested by the
All India Rural Credit Review Committee, 1971 and certain other Task forces or
special committees or commissions are appointed from time to time.
RURAL DEVELOPMENT
Development of the rural areas has been one of the abiding concerns of the
successive Five Year Plans in India. An increase in the productive potential of the
rural economy is an essential condition for finding effective solutions to the
problems of rural poverty. The following antipoverty programmers have been
launched by the government. Integrated Rural Development Programs (IRDP),
National Rural Employment (TRYSEM), Development of Women and Children in
Rural Areas (DWCRA), minimum need programme (MNP), Drought Prone Area
Programme (DPAR), Desert Development Programme (DDP), 20 point Programme,
Jawahar Rozgar Yojan, etc.,
Social worker takes up the following activities in respect of removal of
poverty in rural areas.
1. He disseminates knowledge of various developmental programmes of the

government including actual benefits available under them, their conditions
of eligibility, procedural requirements etc. as also of various social welfare
laws protecting and promoting the interests of weaker and vulnerable
sections of the society.
2. He helps the poor in actually getting the full benefits of these developmental
programmes without any share of the administrative machinery or of the
locally influential persons.
136
3. He persuades and sometimes pressurizes the government to take up such
measure immediately as may be instrumental in controlling the loss to public
being caused as a result of inadequacies of the developmental programmes.
4. He provides sufficient knowledge to the poor with the subtle ways in which
their exploitation is done in the name of providing assistance to them. He
finds out alternative sources of financial and other types of helps, provides
legal aid if required and organizes them to jointly fight against oppressors.
5. He helps in the implementation of laws directly helpful in removal of poverty
such as the minimum Wages Act, The Bonded Labour System (abolition) Act,
etc.
6. He promotes the value of self employment in place of service, makes
provision for their training and assists in mobilizing the required resources
including credit for starting self-employment.
7. He disseminates necessary knowledge regarding new tools, equipments,
methods, techniques, varieties and ways of using them and persuades people
to adopt them for speedier and better economic development.
8. He helps in changing the attitudes and beliefs of rural people to attribute
everything concerning them including poverty to their destiny by convincing
them that without karma (action) nothing can be attained, let alone
betterment in their life and living conditions.
RURAL COMMUNITY
WHAT IS A RURAL COMMUNITY?
The concept of community concerns a particularly constituted set of social
relationships based on something which the participants have in common—usually
a common sense of identity. In sociological literature the term is used to refer
directly to types of population settlements (such as villages or physically-bounded
urban neighbourhoods); to supposedly ideal-typical ways of life in such places' and
to social networks whose members share some common characteristics apart from
or, in addition to a common location (such as ethnicity or occupation). There are two
fundamental bases of a community: locality and community sentiment. A commu-
137
nity must live in a delimited geographical area and "an area of common living." The
people living in the area must have a "we-feeling," a sense of belonging together, a
community sentiment.
A village community may then be defined as a group of people living in a
definite geographical area, characterized by consciousness of kind, common life-
styles, and various intensive social interaction. The people inhabiting that area share
a common mode of consciousness, common life-style, and common economic and
social pursuits. They share a common type of political structure. These features
distinguish village community from other communities. The term "village" refers to
a small area with small population which follows agriculture not only as an
occupation but also as a way of life. The features of a small community, as the great
anthropologist Robert Redfield wrote, are: (a) small size, (b) distinctiveness and self-
sufficiency. But these features of a village community are restricted to time and
space. In modern times, no village can claim all these features, for all communities
are linked to a wider social, economic and political structure. Complete isolation is
only a figment of imagination, not a reality.
CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN VILLAGE COMMUNITIES
Up to the advent of the British in India, as professor Ramkrishna Mukherjee
wrote, her social organisation was predominantly characterised by village
community system. India still lives in the villages. Village is one of the three crucial
institutions of society in India, caste and joint family being the other two. They have
survived not only the onslaught of foreign invasions, but also absorbed new forces
of social and cultural change and adapted themselves to the demands and challenges
posed to them. A village is usually a clear social and territorial entity, not only
in the records and accounts of government administration, but also in the view of its
inhabitants. But the people who take part in the community activities of a village are
not so clearly bounded.
The main social locale is the village, the heart of the inhabitants. The groups
involved are primarily the families and caste groups of the same village and its
vicinity for certain essential goods and services, rather than the whole castes of a
138
region. 'To a villager", Mandelbaum writes, "his village is more than just a collection
of houses, lanes and fields; it is a prime social reality". Precisely because of this
reason M. N. Srinivas has considered "Indian village community" as a vital
component, along with caste and joint family, of India's social structure. The famous
French sociologist Louis Dumant and some others have doubted the significance of
the village as a corporate group. These doubts have come up, in part, because of the
exaggerated notion of village autonomy that once was prevalent. The complexities of
the relationship between multi-caste village and the multi-village caste may have
also produced such reactions. Mandelbaum observes, "The village is clearly an
important and viable social entity to its people, who also take part in the larger
society and share in the pattern of the civilisation." Following Mandelbaum, M. N.
Srinivas, D. N. Mazumdar and S. C. Dube, we may indicate several distinctive socio-
cultural features of Indian village community. These are:
RELATIVE SELF-SUFFICIENCY.
A traditional village in India is self-sufficient in several respects. A village is a
unit of production as well as of consumption. Most of the social interactions take
place between people belonging to the same village. Politically, there is less
interference from the outside world. Conflicts arising from inter-caste or intra-caste
rivalries are resolved through panchayats. Panchayats also act to reinforce the
respective rights and duties of each caste group in the village. Possibly, this relative
and casually observed self-sufficiency of the village prompted Sir Charles Metcalfe,
one of the founding administrators of the British rule in India, to regard the Indian
village a monolithic, atomistic and unchanging entity. Metcalfe wrote: 'The village
communities are little republics, having nearly everything that they want within
themselves and independent of foreign relations." He further wrote, wars passed
over it, regimes came and go, but the village as a society always emerged
"unchanged, unspoken and self-sufficient." This view of Metcalfe got reassertion in
the writings of many notable thinkers like Henry Maine, Karl Marx and Mahatma
Gandhi.
139
Modern anthropological studies however have produced a different picture.
The Indian village was not static, but has changed from time to time: and it clearly
was not and is not self-sufficient. The whole nature of the traditional society
militated against the independent isolation of a village. In earlier days there was a
good deal of coming and going among villages. There were several reasons.
1. A village is usually multicaste, but the number of castes in each village is not
sufficient to carry out the multifunctional roles a village requires, of necessity.
Thus, for instance, Sonarpur village studied by Opler and Singh in Benaras
district has twenty four castes but a family requires the services provided by
thirty-five to forty castes. This compels a village to enter into some sort of
arrangements with the specialised caste groups of other villages.
2. Marriage affiliations take place within the caste group. This rule of caste
endogamy also includes the rule of hyper gamy which prohibits marriage
alliances between members of the same sub-caste. A village, more often
than not, is inhabited by a particular sub-caste of the endogamous caste
group. This necessitates a villager to seek alliance from other village or
villages. Besides a village in North India is exogamous; consequently,
"each marriage would set in train a lifetime of visiting between the two
families by the married couple and at least another generation of such
visiting by their children : such visiting rests on ancient practices and
patterns."
3. Markets are a major reason for travel within a locality. "It is a rare place where
no one is outward bound for market weekly, unless the village itself is the
seat of concourse." People from adjoining areas come to attend weekly
markets and interact with one another. A good many villages of Gujarat,
reported by Srinivas and Shall, have been involved in an inter-
regional market economy for centuries, producing crops that were trans-
ported across regions and states.
4. Village folks, specially the old ones, go on pilgrimage to visit places like
140
Varanasi, Prayag, Dwarka, and Rameswaram and so on. This brings the
villagers- into contact with the town people as well as the people of other
places, Wada.
This type of sagregation is found in other parts of India also. Sometimes this
principle of aggregation and segregation on the basis of caste leads to a "village"
formed of a few discrete hamlets. Everywhere the so-called "untouchables", the
Dalits, live separately from the caste Hindus. A quarter at some distance from other
village neighbourhoods is often marked off for families of untouchable castes. The
members of a ward show a strong sense of unity. This is partly territorial and partly
due to the existence of other ties such as those of caste and lineage. Inter-ward
disputes occur occasionally like inter-village disputes. However, the very division
into wards enforces interdependence because of the caste-wise division of labour.
The weaving of stratified castes into a unity on the basis of division of labour and
common loyalty to the village may be called "vertical solidarity" as distinguished
from "horizontal solidarity", i.e. the solidarity of a caste.
JAJMANI AS A SYSTEM OF EXCHANGE:
The castes living in a village, or a group of neighbouring villages, are bound
together by economic as well as some social and cultural ties. Under the jajmani
system some castes are patrons ('Jajman') and others are service-castes ('Kamin'). The
service castes offer their services to the landowning castes and in turn are paid in
cash and kind. These castes are generally under obligation to serve the patron castes
and their families. Sometimes, particularly on festivals and auspicious
occasions, they also get "gifts” from their jajmans (patrons). The system, though
much weakened due to the influence of market forces, contacts with towns and
migration, is found all over India and is called by different names. Jajman in the
North, Bara balute in Maharashtra, Mirasi in Chennai and Adade in Karnataka. The
relationship between a jajmani and his kamin is unequal, since the latter is regarded
as inferior. Though primarily an economic or ritual tie, it has a tendency to spread to
other fields. It reflects differential rights of every caste in land.
141
VILLAGE SOLIDARITY:
The residents of a village live in very close proximity, meeting each other and
interacting more frequently than they do with people of other villages. "They share
the same familiar life-space and share also common experiences of famine or harvest
bounty, of flood or epidemic, of village feast or festivals." The villages being usually
an administrative and revenue unit, the villagers have some common experience in
the school, in the post office, in revenue collection. A villager's closest economic
associates are within his village. The villagers have, in the words of Mandelbaum,
“separate hearths and common home." Their very life-experiences develop a sense of
unity and identity. This sense of solidarity is reflected in various contexts.
1. People speak of their family village as home. When they are away from
home, villagers identify themselves and those whom they meet as
belonging to their villages.
2. Villages have histories and mythologies. They have reputations, general and
specific to groups, and families partake of their village's good or bad names.
3. Village solidarity is also commonly expressed in village ceremonies. These
ceremonies include both calendrical festivals and festivals of village deities.
Participation of the whole village in the latter is axiomatic, while in the former
it may cut across caste lines. Even the Dalits have important duties such as
beating the drums, carrying messages and removing the leaves on which the
villagers have dined. Jatra festival of West Bengal— a calendrical festival—
draws guests from many villages. The successful organisation of jatra, says
Beals, enhances the reputation of the host village. This reputation can be used
for advantages in establishing marriage alliance as well as in trade
and employment.
4. Ritual occasions, e.g. the life-cycle ceremonies require the cooperation of
several castes. Certain rituals which are common for all the castes occur at
birth, a girl's puberty, marriage and death.
5. The temple organisation itself requires the coming together of several castes: a
priest, a sweeper, a gardener and devotees. Naturally, all castes in a village
142
are participants in one way or another.
6. In many parts of India villagers believe that Kali, Shitala and Mari goddesses
preside over epidemic diseases like small pox, cholera and plague. An
outbreak of these diseases is attributed to the wrath of village goddesses and
their propitiation followed. The priest is usually a member of the non-
Brahmin caste and occasionally even a Dalit. Members of all castes including
Brahmins send their contributions in cash as well as in kind to the ritual
propitiation.
7. The functioning of the village as a political and social entity brings together
members of all castes. There is the traditional village panchayat which,
though run by locally dominant caste, usually included a few representatives
from the other castes. This was in addition to caste panchayat. Every village
has a headman usually belonging to the dominant caste. Besides, every village
has a watchman and a messenger. Thus the village looks like acting as a social
unit.
8. Sentimental unity of the village reaches its height when enters a competitive
tie such as a football match or a wrestling match with other villages. Inter-
village feuds arising, as it does, on such occasions often lead to riots.
FACTIONALISM:
Solidarity apart, every village witnesses elements of factionalism in its daily
round of activities. There are many bases of factionalism such as economic, kinship
ties, caste affiliation, new political consciousness, etc. With the breakdown of
jqjmani relations, many kamin castes have shifted their allegiance to new groups
usually outside the village, namely urban businessmen. Modern politics has led to
the strengthening of what sociologists call "horizontal solidarity", that is, solidarity
of caste. Now castes belonging to different villages come together to act as "pressure
group" and this has special bearing on the traditional power structure. Improved
means of transportation and mass media have further consolidated this trend
towards factionalism. But even a fractious village has a certain unity simply because
it is "a node" for the activities of its inhabitants. Typically, the village is where a man
143
grew up, where his close kin live, where his work partners and helpers are, where
his friends are found, where he worships, where he is known and placed.
CHANGE IN VILLAGE COMMUNITIES
The Indian village has undergone significant changes particularly since
independence as a result of the forces released by the governmental policy of
bringing about social development and progress. The adoption of the Constitution
which proclaims the creation of a democratic, secular and egalitarian society, rapid
industrialisation and urbanization through economic planning, legal reforms in
Hindu marriage and inheritance laws affecting the foundation of the traditional
joint family structure, introduction of land reforms and elective village panchayats
and community development projects in rural areas, planned efforts
undertaken (at the national and State levels) in different spheres of social life (e.g.
education, health, housing, social security and social welfare), introduction of
modern science and technology— all have deeply affected the structures, both micro
and macro of Indian Society. Village communities have also changed in its social
structure and its relations with the outer world, though the impact of the
modernizing forces is uneven on different villages and on different castes,
communities and families. Market economy has shattered the traditional
arrangement and has bound the village economy with the national economy.
Improved network of communications has established close links between the
rural areas and industrial cities and towns and other urban areas, thus breaking
down the isolation of the village. The application of new agricultural technology in
agricultural production has transformed the farm economy and the mode of life of
many farming families. As a result of the dynamics imparted to the economic and
social system, the jqjmani system of traditional, personal, exchange relation has been
largely replaced by contractual, impersonal, pecuniary relations. Several village
studies, notably by Mandelbaum, Thirsumalai, Gadgil, A.R. Desai and Daniel
Thornero, have revealed that the family, caste, class and the institutional life of the
village communities have been undergoing drastic changes as a result of (a) the
144
rapid transformation of the agrarian society from the subsistence-based, semi-
feudal, colonial economy to a market-based profit-oriented, commercial agrarian
sector of the whole Indian society; (b) the introduction by the Government of
modern techniques and devices to completely transform the scattered and
underdeveloped village economy into a well-knit economy and make it an organic
part of the whole national economy.
The age-old process of partition in the joint household (due to family feuds)
resulting in the fragmentation of land and consequent uneconomic holdings
and the various land reform measures depriving big landowning households of
their land— forced individual members of the joint family seek individual incomes
to supplement the family income. This eventually results in the break-up of the joint
family. As occupational opportunities in the villages are limited and occupations are
usually associated with caste, villagers tend to migrate to towns and cities for work
in the factories and service sector. Migration alone brings about a radical change
in traditional joint family which was a co-residential unit with a common kitchen.
As long as it is to the personal advantage of the migrant, he may not demand
partition. But the seeds of disruption are already sown because independent earning
promotes the spirit of individualism. But villagers ' are neither summarily rejecting
the ideals of joint family living, nor turning headlong to the conjugal family of the
Western life. Certain shifts in the solidarity relations are being made. Several family
studies have revealed that their present family is decidedly different from those in
the past, yet cultural continuity is clearly evident.
Under the impact of capitalist development the former jajmani relations in the
villages have been much curtailed. However, families of different jatis remain
dependent on each other economically as well as ritually and politically. The
jajmani system has been converted into secular modern patron-client relationships.
As it was in the jajmani system, the landholding households, usually of the
upper castes, are still at the centre of village patron-client relationship. Clientage is
the refuge of the lower caste households who depend on the patrons for relatively
145
secure employment on their land, for loans when needed. Patrons also need clients
as steady labour supply as well as for their factional battles in politics at the village
levels or in their competitive struggle for political power.
In the countryside the dominant castes, not necessarily higher castes, by
virtue of their control of land and capital enjoy real power and influence. Social
disparities between them and the other half of the rural population, the lower castes
(mostly share croppers and agricultural labourers), remain powerless and without
influence. However, recently, other landowning castes amalgamated as Other
Backward Classes have successfully challenged the large jatis of big farmers in the
North.
Thus blending with jajmani systems now or side by side with them or in their
stead are purely secular relationships of superiority subordination: between
employers and employees, creditors and debtors, patrons and clients, masters and
debt-bondsmen. But, like the jajmani relationships, the new relationships are centred
in a village, most of their participants are likely to be villagers of the same village,
the superior participants are likely to be the landholders and the more the land they
hold the more superior they are likely to be. The relationships of production among
villagers are largely within their villages. The village centeredness of production
relationships has been increased by state-legislated land reforms which virtually
reestablished non-cultivating absentee and uptown landlords.
The course of planned social change and economic development that India
has followed after Independence involves, among other things, the transmission of
certain key ideas, principles and values from the highest to the lowest levels of
society. These have far-reaching consequences for the village communities.
Traditionally, the villager lived in a narrow world where the ties of locality, caste,
kinship and hereditary service led back and forth between the same sets of persons.
Relations were multiplex in character, and the circuit of relations had a tendency to
become closed. To day the closed circuit tends to become more and more open.
Increased mobility has led to the physical dispersal of castes, lineages and families.
146
A person can no longer afford to confine his relations within a village, a caste or a
kin group. He has to develop relations with people who are spread far deep and
wide and who have diverse social, economic and political positions and interests.
Some of the most radical changes taking place in the Indian society today are
in the field of politics. A rigidly hierarchical and segmental social structure is being
transformed into one which seeks to bring about political articulation between
people at all levels of society. The peasant in a Midnapore village is linked directly to
local party leaders, party bosses, MLAs and MPs. The introduction of the Panchayati
Raj has certainly maintained the political dominance of the rural middle classes in
their villages but it has also increased for them and villagers in their orbits the
political importance of their villages.
Political democracy has extended the arena of inter- and intra-caste
relationships to state boundaries; while this extension has affected caste
relationships within villages, the village centeredness of these relationships remain.
The political bases of dominant castes' considerable political power at state levels are
in their villages where their caste fellows are well-to-do farmers and patrons of less
well-to do clients of other castes.
The Panchayati Raj was introduced with a view to provide India's villages
with local self-government that was statutory rather than conventional, democratic
rather than oligarchical and oriented to change rather than to keeping the status quo.
But this has not happened. One effect of panchayat raj has been to give powerful
functionaries in the village’s access to funds: to fight over them and with them.
Other effects have been to enlarge the arenas in which village factions contend and
to make political influence more readily available to them. The new elected
panchayat bodies have become the battle ground of village factionalism and party
rivalry. In some States, the panchayat bodies have become the old village council
dominated by the landowning classes and castes.
Conflict and competition among groups are more usual than cooperation in
many villages. Increased caste consciousness and political awareness of the rural
147
poor leading to conflicts, often violent, have become common in many parts of rural
India. Increasingly villagers tend to behave less as villagers than as members of their
families, castes, religious communities and factions. Even on village occasions, like
weddings and "melas", villagers tend to participate as members of their group and in
such ways as to demonstrate it. Despite the changes in the village social structure
and economy, the village remains somewhat different from towns and cities in its
ethos, way of life and interpersonal relations. In fact, the village represents a
structural pattern different to that of towns. The village, typically, continues to be the
chief scene of the villagers’ activities and the main nexus of their social relations. To
quota Mandelbaum, ‘The village ...... continues to be a viable community for its
inhabitants. A person's village provides him with one source of self-identification,
with a nexus of his activities, a stage for his status, and an arena of conflict." A
village may consist of families who identify themselves and are identified by others
as belonging to different castes. But people speak of family village as home. When
they are away from home, villagers identify themselves and those whom they meet
as belonging to their villages. Despite the changes in the village social organisation
during the last one hundred years, and in spite of the deep and some bitter cleavages
among its inhabitants, the village typically remains a real community. What Mckim
Marriott wrote about Indian villages still remains largely true: A village "is a vital
nucleus of economic activity, a main nexus of social activity, a principal stage for
political striving." for Community Development
PROJECT AND PLANNING
India lives in villages. Rural development is therefore the essence of the
country's economic and social development. Any strategy for rural development
must enlist the active participation of the villagers in any programme undertaken for
the purpose. Since 1950s therefore the national government has made planned
efforts to change the rural life. The first such notable effort was through Community
Development Projects launched in October, 1952. These are a programme of aided
self-help, planned and implemented by the villagers themselves, government
offering only technical guidance and financial assistance.
148
The Community Development (CD) has been defined as "a process of social
action in which the people of a community organise themselves for planning and
action, define their common and individual needs and problems; make group and
individual plans to meet their needs and solve their problems, execute these plans
with a maximum reliance upon community resources and supplement them with
services and material from government and non-governmental agencies.
The basic concept of the CD projects is that it seeks the many-sided
development of rural life, rather than piecemeal efforts made in isolation from each
other. The problem of improving agriculture is really the problem of improving
Indian village life and thus must be tackled as a whole. Since all facts of rural life are
closely interrelated, the only correct and effective method would be to attack all
problems simultaneously and in proper coordination with each other. This precisely
is the approach of the CD projects. The main items in the CD programme are: (1)
improvement in agricultural techniques such as the introduction of improved
varieties, use of fertilizers, improvement in cropping pattern; (2) exploring
supplementary avenues of employment through the development of village and
cottage industries; (3) extension of minor irrigation facilities; (4) improvement of
transport, through construction of local roads; (5) provision of social services such as
education, health, housing, sanitation, etc., so that the village community can have a
better life and enjoy an increased measure of social welfare; (6) development of
cooperatives and panchayats.
The Community Development programme was launched with 55 projects,
and 55 more CD Blocks were inaugurated in 1953 when the National Extension
Service was inaugurated with identical aims. Since then the number of Blocks began
rising and by April 1977, all villages in the country were covered by CD Blocks.
Initially, the programme was an all-official affair. In 1989 after the Panchayati
Raj was instituted, the CD Programme was integrally connected to Panchayati Raj
institutions, particularly to Panchayat Samities, the institution of village
democracy.
149
Since its inception, a number of special programmes, mainly meant for the
uplift of rural poor launched and integrated in the CD Programme such as the Small
Farmers Development Agency, Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers
Projects, Pilot Project for Tribal Development, Hill Areas Development Programme,
Draught-prone Area Programme, Applied Nutrition Programme, etc.
The CD Programme had provided an elaborate delivery mechanism in the
form of development blocks and the village level extension agency. However, as the
Review of the Sixth Plan performance noted, over the years this programme had
suffered considerable erosion and gradual disintegration.
In terms of instruments of planning, Community Development and
Panchayati Raj institutions have been reduced to an extremely peripheral status.
A. What do you mean by rural community?
B. Bring out the characteristics of rural community.
Elucidate the role of social workers in rural community development.
C. Define community development.
D. Write a short note on community development programme.
A………………………………………………………………………………………
B………………………………………………………………………………………...

A. Differentiate rural life from urban life.
B Point out the salient features of urbanisation.
A………………………………………………………………………………………
B………………………………………………………………………………………...
150
4.9 LETS SUM UP
A. Examine the various fields of Social Work.
B. Write a short note on family and child welfare.
A. VARIOUS FIELDS OF SOCIAL WORK:
9 Public Assistance
9 Social Insurance
9 Family Services
9 Child Welfare Services
9 Health and Medical
9 Mental Service
9 Correctional Service
9 Youth Leisure time service
9 Veterans’ services
9 Employment services
9 Housing services
9 International social services
9 Community welfare service
B. FAMILY AND CHILD WELFARE:
Man is becoming the cancer of the whole planet. During the past half-century,
advances in medical sciences, public health, agriculture, and overall improvement in
the general standard of living of the people have outstripped the natural resources.
The problem of population is / socio-economic disease, which has everlasting effect
on the present as well as on the future generations. If we fail in meeting this
challenge, it will be a pathetic jeopardy and the future generation will not excuse us.
Family planning is not synonymous with birth control. A WHO Expert
Committee (1970) has stated that family planning includes in its preview (1) the
proper spacing and limitation of births, (2) advice on sterility (3) education for
parenthood, (4) sex education, (5) screening for pathological conditions related to
151
the reproductive system (e.g. cervical cancer), (6) genetic counseling, (7) Pre-
marital consultation and examination, (8) carrying out pregnancy tests, (9)
marriage counseling, (10) the preparation of couples for the arrival of their first
child, (11) providing services for unmarried mothers, (12) teaching home
economics and nutrition, and (13) providing adoption services.
A. Explain the various factors which caused juvenile delinquency.
B. Write a short note on juvenile delinquency in India.
C. Discuss the importance of Industrial social work.
A. PSYCHO-BIOLOGICAL FACTORS.
Like born criminals, it has been stated by some, there are born delinquents;
that is to say, crime propensities are inherited. This statement however has not been
proved.
Following Lombroso, the famous Italian criminologist, many
criminologists in Europe believe that boys and girls possessing certain physical and
mental traits are prone to delinquent behaviour. But there is no scientific reason to
hold that a combined mental and physical constitution makes persons prone to
delinquency. Persons possessing the same type of so-called criminal constitution
may not be criminals having different social environments.
important psychological factor in the causation of delinquency is said to be
that individuals turn directly to delinquency in order to get their wishes satisfied or
resort to delinquency since they cannot satisfy their wishes through normal
channels.
SITUATIONAL OR ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS:
It is now generally recognized that the situational or environmental factors
are conducive to delinquent behaviour. The more important situational factors are:
economic factor, education, family conditions, companionship factor, community
conditions, and exploitation of children by adults.
B. JUVENILE DELINQUENCY IN INDIA:
152
Along with many other social problems, juvenile delinquency has become a
serious problem in our country recently. In 1964 Mr. G. C. Dutt wrote in Seminar on
Social Defence, "Juvenile delinquency is rapidly becoming a serious menace in India
and with the progressive industrialization of many parts of the country, which were
essentially rural areas until a few years ago, this problem will assume the same
proportions as in many of the Western countries". Mr. Dutt's assertion appears to be
supported by facts. During 1966-70 there were 22,853 cognizable cases against
juvenile delinquents—an increase of 21.2 per cent over the previous five-year
average. According to police records (1971) there were 1, 03,419 juvenile delinquents.
Drinking, gambling and theft were found as the major deviant activities, though
violence was quite noticeable. Of the delinquents 70 per cent lived with their parents
and the remaining 30 per cent either lived with their guardians or homeless. More
than 80 per cent of the delinquents came from the lower income group. Juveniles
were responsible for 2.6 per cent of the total cognizable offences in the country. The
maximum number of juvenile offences was reported from Maharashtra, followed by
Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Among the Union Territories, Delhi reported the
maximum number of cases.
Though juvenile delinquency in our country does not stand comparison with
the problem of juvenile delinquency in the West, it is generally admitted that
juvenile delinquency in our country is on the increase. The question is: What are the
causes of juvenile delinquency in India?
All the factors which are enumerated above may be held responsible for the
rise of juvenile delinquency in India as in other advanced countries of the world,
though poverty, acute housing problem and cinema may be more important factors
in India.
C. IMPORTANCE OF INDUSTRIAL SOCIAL WORK:
Orientation and induction of new employees.
153
Communicating company policies to workers individually and providing them
with correct interpretation, and communicating workers opinions and feelings to
the management:
A. Briefly explain the tasks and duties of psychiatric social workers in
counseling.
B. Write a short note on youth welfare programme in India.
A. TASKS AND DUTIES OF PSYCHIATRIC SOCIAL WORKERS IN
COUNSELLING:
Tasks:
1. Counsels clients and patients, individually and in group sessions, to assist in
overcoming dependencies, adjusting to life, and making changes.
2. Counsels family members to assist in understanding, dealing with, and
supporting client or patient.
3. Interviews clients, reviews records, and confers with other professionals to
evaluate mental or physical condition of client or patient.
4. Formulates or coordinates program plan for treatment, care, and
rehabilitation of client or patient, based on social work experience and
knowledge.
5. Monitors, evaluates, and records client progress according to measurable
goals described in treatment and care plan.
6. Modifies treatment plan to comply with changes in client's status.
7. Refers patient, client, or family to community resources to assist in recovery
from mental or physical illness.
8. Intervenes as advocate for client or patient to resolve emergency problems in
crisis situation.
9. Plans and conducts programs to prevent substance abuse or improve health
and counseling services in community.
10. Supervises and directs other workers providing services to client or patient.
154
DUTIES:
• Interviews client to determine nature and degree of problem, disability or
illness and interprets data for other social or health treatment agencies.
• Assists family members in understanding the clients' needs and aids client
and family in working out realistic functional goals for client.
• Assists client and parents with problems concerning relationships or other
aspects of social functioning affected by disability.
• Helps client and family members through individual or group conferences to
understand, accept, and follow medical recommendations.
• Develops and writes informational material for educational purposes;
conducts workshops and educational sessions.
• Provides psychiatric social work assistance to mentally or emotionally disturbed
patients, collaborating with psychiatric team in diagnosis and treatment plan.
• Plans discharge of clients.
• Assists in training university students on field placement as a phase of their
professional social work curriculum and conducts in-service training for
mental health personnel.
• Coordinates referral and evaluation of client to interdisciplinary diagnostic
teams; serves as case manager for referred client.
• Conducts psychosocial screening activities determining required specialized
psychiatric assistance.
B. YOUTH WELFARE PROGRAMME IN INDIA:
The youth population in India is not only large in number (33.5% population
was in age-group of 15-35 in 1981), "but is more vigorous and active, more open and
responsive to new ideas and to change. The vital significance of youth in the process
of nation-building can scarcely be under-estimated. There is need for youth to
come together and present themselves as a potent force to remove inequalities in
our social, political and economic structure.
The country being predominantly agricultural, about 75% of the youth population
resides in the rural areas and most of them are illiterate and engaged in agriculture.
155
While some young people have opportunities of better education and had affluent
lives, a vast majority of youth had lives of poverty and deprivation due to lack of
good education. Women suffer from greater disadvantage due .to lack of an
ingrained attitude of superiority of males. Following youth ' mobilisation
programmes and policies takes place in India.
A. What do you mean by rural community?
B. Bring out the characteristics of rural community.
C. Elucidate the role of social workers in rural community development.
D. Define community development.
E. Write a short note on community development programme.
A. RURAL COMMUNITY:
A village community may then be defined as a group of people living in a
definite geographical area, characterized by consciousness of kind, common life-
styles, and various intensive social interactions.
B .CHARACTERISTICS OF RURAL COMMUNITY:
Up to the advent of the British in India, as professor Ramakrishna Mukherjee
wrote, her social organisation was predominantly characterised by village
community system.
India still lives in the villages. Village is one of the three crucial institutions of
society in India, caste and joint family being the other two. They have survived not
only the onslaught of foreign invasions, but also absorbed new forces of social and
cultural change and adapted themselves to the demands and challenges posed to
them.
A village is usually a clear social and territorial entity, not only in the records
and accounts of government administration, but also in the view of its inhabitants.
But the people who take part in the community activities of a village are not so
clearly bounded.
The main social locale is the village, the heart of the inhabitants. The groups
156
involved are primarily the families and caste groups of the same village and its
vicinity for certain essential goods and services, rather than the whole castes of a
region. 'To a villager", Mandelbaum writes, "his village is more than just a collection
of houses, lanes and fields; it is a prime social reality". Precisely because of this
reason M. N. Srinivas has considered "Indian village community" as a vital
component, along with caste and joint family, of India's social structure. The famous
French sociologist Louis Dumant and some others have doubted the significance of
the village as a corporate group. These doubts have come up, in part, because of the
exaggerated notion of village autonomy that once was prevalent. The complexities of
the relationship between multi-caste village and the multi-village caste may have
also produced such reactions. Mandelbaum observes, "The village is clearly an
important and viable social entity to its people, who also take part in the larger
society and share in the pattern of the civilisation." Following Mandelbaum, M. N.
Srinivas, D. N. Mazumdar and S. C. Dube, we may indicate several distinctive socio-
cultural features of Indian village community. These are:
RELATIVE SELF-SUFFICIENCY.
A traditional village in India is self-sufficient in several respects. A village is a
unit of production as well as of consumption. Most of the social interactions take
place between people belonging to the same village. Politically, there is less
interference from the outside world. Conflicts arising from inter-caste or intra-caste
rivalries are resolved through panchayat. Panchayat also act to reinforce the
respective rights and duties of each caste group in the village.
Possibly, this relative and casually observed self-sufficiency of the village
prompted Sir Charles Metcalfe, one of the founding administrators of the British rule
in India, to regard the Indian village a monolithic, atomistic and unchanging entity.
Metcalfe wrote: 'The village communities are little republics, having nearly
everything that they want within themselves and independent of foreign relations."
He further wrote, wars passed over it, regimes came and go, but the village as a
society always emerged "unchanged, unspoken and self-sufficient." This view of
157
Metcalfe got reassertion in the writings of many notable thinkers like Henry Maine,
Karl Marx and Mahatma Gandhi.
Modern anthropological studies however have produced a different picture.
The Indian village was not static, but has changed from time to time: and it clearly
was not and is not self-sufficient. The whole nature of the traditional society
militated against the independent isolation of a village. In earlier days there was a
good deal of coming and going among villages.
C. ROLE OF SOCIAL WORKERS IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT:
(1) Improvement in agricultural techniques such as the introduction of
improved varieties, use of fertilizers, improvement in cropping pattern; (2) exploring
supplementary avenues of employment through the development of village and
cottage industries; (3) extension of minor irrigation facilities; (4) improvement of
transport, through construction of local roads; (5) provision of social services such as
education, health, housing, sanitation, etc., so that the village community can have a
better life and enjoy an increased measure of social welfare; (6) development of
cooperatives and panchayat.
D. COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT:
The Community Development (CD) has been defined as "a process of social
action in which the people of a community organise themselves for planning and
action, define their common and individual needs and problems; make group and
individual plans to meet their needs and solve their problems, execute these plans
with a maximum reliance upon community resources and supplement them with
services and material from government and non-governmental agencies.
E. COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME:
The Community Development programme was launched with 55 projects, and 55
more CD Blocks were inaugurated in 1953 when the National Extension Service was
inaugurated with identical aims. Since then the number of Blocks began rising and
by April 1977, all villages in the country were covered by CD Blocks.
Initially, the programme was an all-official affair. In 1989 after the Panchayati
Raj was instituted, the CD Programme was integrally connected to Panchayati Raj
158
institutions, particularly to Panchayat Samities, the institution of village
democracy.
Since its inception, a number of special programmes, mainly meant for the
uplift of rural poor launched and integrated in the CD Programme such as the Small
Farmers Development Agency, Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers
Projects, Pilot Project for Tribal Development, Hill Areas Development Programme,
Draught-prone Area Programme, Applied Nutrition Programme, etc.
The CD Programme had provided an elaborate delivery mechanism in the form
of development blocks and the village level extension agency. However, as the
Review of the Sixth Plan performance noted, over the years this programme had
suffered considerable erosion and gradual disintegration.
In terms of instruments of planning, Community Development and
Panchayat Raj institutions have been reduced to an extremely peripheral status.
A. Differentiate rural life from urban life.
B. Point out the salient features of urbanisation.
A. RURAL VS. URBAN LIFE:
Despite the increasing impact of urban civilization upon the countryside,
the rural community in all advanced and developing countries of the world
remains a distinctive way of common life. This distinctive country life is in
striking contrast to the mode of life in the city. One of the great distinctions,
therefore, in modern society is that between rural and urban, between country
and city.
The outstanding sociological characteristics that differentiate a country and
a city are: modes of community life and their outlook which derive from the
differences in the nature of occupations and social interaction, number and nature
of social groups as well as the concentration of population. From these differences
in the physical base of social life in the rural and urban communities arise
159
differences in the socio-cultural and socio-psychological characteristics of the rural
people and the urban dwellers.
B.SALIENT FEATURES OF URBANISATION:
Town life in India is not new; it is as old as the Indus Valley Civilization.
However, urbanization as a process of transforming rural into urban living is a
recent phenomenon. As in Western industrialised countries, the rise of industry
has been associated with urban growth but the urban proportion is still smaller.
Since migration from rural areas is not generally matched by a corresponding
expansion of employment opportunities in modern industry, urbanization in
India has its own special character.
160
UNIT V
CONTENTS
5.1 EMERGING AREAS OF SOCIAL WORK
5.1.1 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
5.1.2 DISASTER
5.1.3 HIV/AIDS
5.2 HUMAN RIGHTS
5.2.1 SOCIAL WORK AND HUMAN RIGHTS
5.2.2 HUMAN RIGHTS IN INDIA
5.2.3 DEFINITION OF HUMAN RIGHTS
5.2.4 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN RIGHTS
5.3 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL
5.4 UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS
5.4.1 HUMAN RIGHTS DECLARED BY THE UNIVERSAL
DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS
5.5 LETS SUM UP
5.1 EMERGING AREAS OF SOCIAL WORK
5.1.1 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Man is living in a highly complicated environment. The environment is
defined as the aggregate of all external conditions and influences affecting the life
and development of an organism, human behaviour or society. Thus environment is
a multi-dimensional field that includes both internal and external factors. The whole
environment includes intra-psychic-processes, metabolic and organic functioning,
adaptive capacity and the physical conditions. The entire environment together
forms a dynamic matrix of interaction that shapes an individual's behaviour.
Environment is continuously being exploited by us for the purpose of raising
our material conveniences but this has resulted in (i) change in the physical
constitution of environment; (ii) disturbance in different links in life chain; (iii)
depletion of natural resources; (iv) degradation of rife support system; (v) pollution
of different types-water, air, noise, soil, etc.
161
During the last few decades, a considerable amount of scientific research has
been done to explore various facets of environment and problems that originate
from them. Now it is widely recognized that some mechanisms will have to be
evolved to bring about minimal degree of integration between person and his
environment in order to develop, maintain and even enhance his problem solving
capacity and to ensure his proper growth and development in his own habitate.13 It
requires proper education. Social work can provide scientific knowledge concerning
the delicate relationship of human beings to the rapidly changing physical and social
environment.14 Social work can enable people to understand varied kinds of events
and behaviours in the context of various types of influences and variables that play a
determining role in the creation of these events and behaviours; can motivate them
to focus on the adaptive balance that may exist between living beings and their
environment; and can assist them to appraise consistencies, strengths and
complementary as also various inconsistencies, discrepancies and conflicts as they
affect the quality of life.
In order to develop a healthy relationship between marts and his
environment, social work can play a very significant role by creating and
strengthening the right kind of thinking, attitudes and behavioural patterns among
people. The specific functions that social work can perform in this regard are:
1. Social work can provide information required for correct understanding of
different aspects of environment as also the prooiems that emanate from it
and the measures that can be adopted to tackle them.
2. Social work can present facts before people to enable them to take right
decisions.
3. Social work can develop such attitudes and values in the personality of the
people as may develop and sustain the feeling of respect for environment for
various types of gifts that it has made available to man kind and refrain them
from taking any such action that may lead to exploitation and abuse of
environment.
162
4. Social work can substitute the existing harmful values of materialism and
hedonism leading to environmental degradation by propagating and
developing the values of plain and simple living.
5. Social work can motivate man to adopt a friendly behaviour towards
Environment.
6. Social work mobilizes and organizes people to give a united challenge to
those who indulge in varied kinds of activities detrimental to the conservation
and development of environment.
7. Social work can persuade and prepare people to take all such steps like
promotion of forestation and restraint on deforestation; restriction on
emission of various pollutants that pollute water, air, soil, etc.
8. Social work can impress upon the policy makers to formulate such policies
9. Social work can urge and motivate the people associated with enforcement of
sincerely and to ensure that penalties stipulated for their violation are
imposed upon those who glaringly violate them,
10. Social work can help in fixing the responsibility of those employees cf the
enforcement machinery who deliberately ignore the infringement of legal
provisions or show slackness in dealing with the lav/ breakers and can
ensure that suitable actions are taken against such irresponsible and
recalcitrant employees.
11. Social work can appeal and prepare people in general in the community to
lend their maximum possible cooperation in the task of environmental
conservation and development not only by observing various 'dos' and
'don'ts' in their personal lives but also by initiating all sorts of suitable
organized social actions including specific work-oriented projects in a
sustained manner that may be required in this regard.
163
12. Social work in collaboration with other disciplines may undertake scientific
researches to explore various unexplored aspects of environment, especially
to highlight its realities and their impact upon mankind and to suggest
measures that ought to be taken to recreate a friendly relationship between
man and environment.
5.1.2 DISASTER:
Disaster is a sudden, calamitous event that seriously disrupts the functioning
of a community or society and causes human, material, and economic or
environmental losses that exceed the community’s or society’s ability to cope using
its own resources. Though often caused by nature, disasters can have human origins.
DISASTER MANAGEMENT:
Disaster Management can be defined as the organization and management of
resources and responsibilities for dealing with all humanitarian aspects of
emergencies, in particular preparedness, response and recovery in order to lessen
the impact of disasters
MAJOR DISASTERS OF INDIA:
Major disasters of India are Venus Circus fire tragedy, Bangalore (1981),
Bhopal Gas tragedy (1984), Lattur Earthquake (1992), Orissa Super Cyclone (1999),
Gujarat Earthquake (2001) and Riots (2002), South Indian Tsunami (2004) and the
Kashmir Earthquake (2005). Governmental, Non Governmental sectors and the
community survivors could carry out simple and effective community based
interventions to alleviate the emotional and social problems of the survivors and
various risk groups. These community manpower resources need to be empowered
through various capacity building exercise to bring in mastery over the events and
problems.
IMPACT OF DISASTERS ON THE COMMUNITY:
Disasters impact on entire communities. The immediate effects include loss of
life and damage to property and infrastructure, with the survivors (some of whom
may have been injured in the disaster) traumatized by the experience, uncertain of
the future and less able to provide for their own welfare, at least in the short term.
164
More than likely, they are left without adequate shelter, food, water and other
necessities to sustain life. Rapid action is required to prevent further loss of life.
The primary aims of disaster response are rescue from immediate danger and
stabilization of the physical and emotional condition of survivors. These go hand in
hand with the recovery of the dead and the restoration of essential services such as
water and power. How long this takes varies according to the scale, type and context
of the disaster but typically takes between one and six months and is composed of a
search and rescue phase in the immediate aftermath of a disaster followed by a
medium-term phase devoted to stabilizing the survivors’ physical and emotional
condition.
The social, economic and political consequences of disasters are frequently
complex. For instance, the disaster may:
• disrupt vital community self-help networks, further increasing vulnerability;
• disrupt markets over a wide area, reducing the availability of food and
opportunities for income generation;
• destroy essential health infrastructure such as hospitals, resulting in a lack of
emergency and longer-term medical care for the affected population.
Moreover, the situation may be compounded by a secondary threat, such as
earthquake aftershocks or epidemics.
It is essential that disaster response activities do not make a bad situation
worse by fostering dependency or destroying existing community-support
mechanisms. Rather, they should lay the foundations for the subsequent recovery of
the affected population. Disaster situations are highly fluid, evolve rapidly (often in
unpredictable ways) and therefore require a close degree of coordination and
cooperation between those involved in the response, including the affected
community itself.
Following a disaster, life-saving assistance is the most urgent need. The rapid
provision of food, water, shelter and medical care is vital to prevent further loss of
life and alleviate suffering. However, practical experience, backed by research,
165
supports the view that even at this stage; relief must be conducted with a thought to
the affected community’s longer-term benefit and certainly should not be prejudicial
to it. And as people begin to get back on their feet and rebuild their lives, aid
agencies need to help them to strengthen their resilience to future hazards. Just
restoring the pre-disaster status quo may inadvertently perpetuate vulnerability.
Likewise, development programmes need to take into account existing risks and
susceptibility to hazards and to incorporate elements to reduce them. The two
approaches are interdependent, complementary and mutually supportive.
SOCIAL WORKERS CONTRIBUTION TO DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Goal: To help rebuild dignified living for victims
Strategies: Community building to foster social cohesion and mutual help
Approach: Grassroots participation – sense of ownership to ideas and agreed
schedule of resettlement. For the People, With the People, By the People. By the
people is the best option. The negative potential of social unrests, hostility and
violence is something to be mindful of. However, it is natural for the masses to be
agitated because of poor environmental conditions, lack of food, no sight of a future,
strong sense of helplessness in being a “victim”. Therefore, it is all the more
important to adopt a community organization approach in mobilizing mutual help
and mutual watch among the misplaced population. Give them goals and targets,
e.g. forming cleansing teams, food team, supplies team so that the needy will get the
needed resources.
Social workers can help to calm people down, identify natural leaders to
organize the victims, coordinate with agencies and government departments on the
logistics, and mobilize healthy adults to help the weak and feeble.
For the establishment of a positive culture of resilience, establish singing
teams to promote resilience songs, dance and exercise teams to dissipate energy
(victims do need to run around and exercise a bit too, like group dancing), and
construction teams to help in active labour for reconstruction.
166
Sound systems for daily morning exercises, encouraging broadcast from
sports and movie stars as well as State Leaders, story telling for children on history,
motivating songs that everyone can sing together, cultural dances can all be very
useful. Find a special channel for radio that is mechanically driven (no need for
batteries). What is broadcasted should not be re-showing of the disaster because it
only serves to re-traumatize the population.
Hold regular residents meetings: As rebuilding the community will take
many years of hard work, holding regular resident meetings, and community parties
(serving some good food once every week) can provide the people with something
to look forward to. Creation of hope can enhance their reason and strength in
persevering hardship and adversity.
Community organizers: NGOs and government can hire community
organizers for villages and communities. These organizers are preferably trained
social workers who can run groups, who can motivate people to participate in
collective actions in community building. Each community o should hire community
organizers who will hire some helpers, grassroots organizers from local residents to
help in the work. These employers (NGOs + govt.) and social workers should
commit to work in these resettlement areas.
Grassroots organizers – Social workers should actively look for adults and
young adults, who are outspoken and articulate, mobilize these people as grassroots
organizers. These grassroots organizers should be paid.
Corruption prevention – resident’s organization can be set up to help
coordinate supplies of relief materials so as to enhance a sense of self-management.
"Ultimately, there is nothing as important as informed public discussion and
the participation of the people in pressing for changes that can protect our lives and
liberties. The public has to see itself not merely as a patient, but also as an agent of
change
167
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS1
A. Explain the role of social workers in protecting the environment.
B. Discuss about the impact of disasters on community and elaborate the role
of social workers in managing the disaster.
A………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
B………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………
5.1.3 HIV/AIDS
Social workers are very involved with communities, families and individuals
infected and affected by HIV and have a unique contribution to make in tackling the
resulting social issues - which often end up as the responsibility of social workers
employed by governments, NGOs and the private sector. These concerns include
counseling and advice-giving, orphan care, child protection, assessment and
provision of income support to families, workplace issues, to influencing social
policy and political resolve to tackle the epidemic.
Social workers, as professionals working in the social welfare sector, are
currently involved in mainstreaming HIV concerns in a variety of sectors. They are
well-placed to do this given their wide range of responsibilities and generic training.
However they need further training, additional resources and supportive services
from their employing organisations and partners.
There is need for a mainstreaming approach, which can build links between
individuals, families and communities in dealing with HIV issues - and social
workers should take a lead role in this. In addition social workers should continue to
develop policies and approaches that will enable the profession to develop useful
responses to the epidemic. Further advocacy is also required on social issues to
168
strengthen the resolve of governments and civil society to address the many
problems caused by HIV.
AIDS knows no social, racial or cultural barriers. Yet the rates of infection
spiral especially among the poor, the disenfranchised and among people who
struggle with inequality and oppression.
Throughout the pandemic, people living with HIV/AIDS across the world
have shown, and continue to show, a commitment to community-based action. They
have not acted alone. Often social workers have provided essential leadership and
support in mobilising community response to HIV/AIDS. Together they have
shown an unbending resolve to work toward wellness, to openly engage the
communities, and to assert and protect fundamental rights. This action is a potent
reminder of the duty of compassion that binds us all.
Social workers are committed to the principles of social justice. We have a
"responsibility to devote objective and disciplined knowledge and skills to aid
individuals, groups, communities and societies in their development and resolution
of personal-societal conflict". The principles of the profession explicitly provide that
we work without prejudice with regard to gender, age, disability, colour, social class,
race, religion, language, political beliefs or sexual orientation. Likewise, we must be
mindful and aware of the impact of oppression and marginalization with regard to
gender, age, disability, colour, social class, race, religion, language, political beliefs or
sexual orientation. We are obligated to uphold stringently the principles of privacy,
confidentiality and responsible use of information even when a country's legislation
is in conflict with this demand. Work we undertake must be consistent with these
fundamental values and nowhere may we be complicit in supporting individuals,
groups, political forces or power structures that suppress their fellow human beings
by terrorism, torture or other brutal means.
Through its pervasive and global scope, AIDS presents different challenges
wherever it arises. In the interest of preventing further spread of HIV/AIDS and
promoting health, our approach assumes a continuum of care — sexual and psycho-
169
social health education, adequate testing, prophylactic means of prevention,
counselling, support, care and treatment.
(1) WITH RESPECT TO HUMAN RIGHTS
• To pressure all governments and organizations to adhere to the principles of
human rights and dignity of the person in accordance with existing Human
Rights conventions and to respond compassionately to those affected by the
pandemic;
• To advocate with vigour that all people affected and infected by HIV/AIDS
have proper food, housing, education and health care and be able to exercise
their rights in this regard without hindrance.
(2) WITH REGARD TO SOCIAL AND HEALTH POLICY
• To engage in the fight against poverty as a key element in the prevention of
HIV infection;
• To work actively with persons living with HIV/AIDS so that they hold their
rightful place as principal partners in addressing the pandemic and as active
participants in decision-making and policy implementation at all levels;
• To advocate public and social health policies rooted in a solid understanding
of the determinants of health, and in the context specific realities of the
community, so that those policies effectively provide a continuum of care that
promotes an improved quality of life for everyone affected and infected by
HIV/AIDS;
• To use our expertise at the macro-social level to criticize policies that harm the
health and psycho-social well-being of all those who are touched by the
pandemic, and to ensure that those who are marginalized and adversely
affected are heard;
• To constantly battle the stigmatization and resultant discrimination that
attaches to HIV/AIDS no matter what its source and no matter what its
target.
170
(3) WITH REGARD TO SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION
• To incorporate innovative, comprehensive, practical and theoretical
HIV/AIDS education within social work curricula with the understanding
that HIV/AIDS touches every facet of human development;
• To teach all students, practitioners and academicians of social work about
HIV/AIDS and apprise them of the medical, physical, psycho-social, cultural,
legal and economic issues involved in the pandemic;
• To acknowledge and work through our own fears and prejudice so we may
fully foster respect for people living with HIV/AIDS;
• To develop an understanding of the determinants of health and the principles
of the prevention-to-care continuum of care as they apply to individual and
community well-being, emphasizing health promotion, prevention of
infection, social and psychological care, medical treatment, counselling and
support;
• To involve all those affected by the pandemic in the education process,
through community-based organisations, NGOs or other bodies;
• To foster collegial attitudes that promote interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary,
and transdisciplinary approaches and to ensure meaningful exchange with
other professions;
• To integrate theory and practice
(4) WITH REGARD TO PARTNERSHIPS
• To address HIV/AIDS, mindful that people living with AIDS are integral to
the interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary and transdisciplinary undertakings
that offer promise and hope in response to the pandemic;
• To enter into respectful professional relationships based on equality and
equity;
• To overcome local, regional, national or professional concerns that might limit
a broader understanding, effective intervention and inclusive decision-
making;
171
• To collaborate with all organizations or leaders mindful of the particular
political, social, economic and cultural context that shapes the particular
relationship.
• To ensure the participation of social workers in psycho-social research to
ensure a social work perspective on prevention, intervention, care, treatment
and support and health promotion;
• To involve people with HIV/AIDS in designing, implementing and
interpreting the research;
• To ensure that all research initiatives are driven by the fundamental values of
confidentiality, informed consent, self-determination, dignity and worth of
the individual;
• To respond to the contribution of those being studied with respect and
gratitude to ensure that the results of research are imparted to those being
studied and to all those implicated throughout the research process and after
its completion, so that they may benefit directly from the process and the
results.
(5) WITH REGARD TO SOCIAL RESEARCH
That the HIV/AIDS pandemic and its psycho-social, medical, legal and
economic ramifications are a priority for all social workers and all social work
educators throughout the world;
That social workers and educators will forcefully advocate social and health
policies founded on the human dignity of people with HIV/AIDS and the
communities in which they live;
That social workers and schools of social work will promote a continuum of
care that is based on a critical understanding of the determinants of health, as well as
culturally sensitive approaches to risk and harm reduction including, but not limited
to, education about safer sex and injection drug use;
That social workers and social work educators will be guided by a
fundamental awareness that issues of HIV/AIDS awareness, education, research,
172
treatment and care are intrinsically tied to issues of discrimination, poverty,
unemployment, physical, mental and social well-being
That our duty is to work to eradicate the impediments to effective prevention
of HIV transmission and to the proper care of those affected and infected by
HIV/AIDS.
GERENTOLOGICAL SOCIAL WORK
A man's life is normally divided into five main stages namely: infancy,
childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age. In each of these stages an individual
has to find himself in different situations and face different problems. Infancy and
childhood are periods of dependence. One is normally at the mercy of one's parents.
In the later stage of childhood and during the period of adolescence how
circumstances make a few of them to become delinquents, we have already
examined. It is during the adulthood than an individual has to bear the main brunt
of life. Old age is not free from problems. Though from the point of view of wider
society the problems of old age are comparatively less, from the standpoint of the
individual the problems are not less significant. In old age physical strength
deteriorates, mental stability diminishes, money power becomes bleak and eyesight
suffers a setback.
It is only for a blessed few old age may prove to be a stage of contentment and
satisfaction. But for a large number of people it may actually become a period of
disappointment, dejection, disease, repentance, and loneliness. In order to find some
solace for their distressed mind good number of people turn towards religion. They
become more and more other-worldly in their attitude. Some seek to get satisfaction
through the achievements of their children or grandchildren. Some old people cut off
their relations with the external world and prefer to live in solitude. Only a few
make compromises arid try to equip themselves to sail along with the currents of
life. Old age, thus, has its psychological and socio-cultural sides. An insight into
these may help us to understand the problem better.
173
ASSESSMENT OF THE ENORMITY OF THE PROBLEM
The first step in planning for intervention with the elderly, who require care,
is to assess the problem. An assessment of the percentage of disabled elderly living
in a community and their living arrangements has to be made at the outset. Housing
is a key factor for quality of life of the elderly. Safe, secure, usable, comfortable and
affordable housing is associated with life expectancy. The problem assessment
requires a closer look at the following:
1. Type and extent of disability—physical, cognitive, psychological, or

combination of different types of problems. Older persons are likely to suffer
from multiple problems requiring different types of help (Bali, 1996).
2. Type of support required—practical, monetary, emotional support, help with
activities of daily living1 (such as bathing, eating, dressing and soon), or with
instrumental activities such as banking, shopping and so on.
3. Quantity of care required—occasional, or on daily basis, or around the clock
care. Most families assume that care giving means just co-residence. But care
may have to be long term and even for activities of daily living.
AN ASSESSMENT OF RESOURCES AVAILABLE TO OLDER PERSONS
This includes a realistic assessment of different types of resources at the
disposal of the older- person that my help in independent living in the community
and avoid institutionalisation. These include:
economical resources (pension, monthly allowance, property),
availability of career (spouse or children),
cognitive capacity (absence of dementia or deterioration),
physical (absence of disabling disorders and capacity for mobility),
Psychological (life satisfaction, morale and absence of depression).
The possibility of making available community resources and benefits from
voluntary organisations and governmental agencies for the needy elderly should
also be thoroughly explored.
174
PLANNING FOR CARE
Against the background of the problem posed and the I available resources,
decisions are made regarding how and where care would be provided. This requires
a realistic look at several influencing variables:
POSSIBILITY OF PROVIDING CARE AT HOME
It has been the experience of the developed countries that institutionalisation
is not always the right answer. Most countries are shifting their policies more
towards encouraging informal and family care (Bal dock & Evers, 1994). In India,
there is a strong cultural preference to live in families and social norms demand that
family provide the necessary care. Also, both hospitalization and institutionalization
have their own problems. A careful evaluation of whether the condition of the
elderly can be adequately managed at home has to be made.
IDENTIFYING CARERS AND POTENTIAL CARERS
If there is a possibility to provide family care, the social worker has to identify
carers. Estimate the total demand that caring is likely to make on carer/s, in order to
prepare the family for long term caring. In most cases of care giving, bulk of the
responsibility falls on a relative who lives closest to the elderly. Proximity is a factor
that decides the amount and availability of care. Social workers need to identify
potential carers who may be able to 'provide care at a distance'. Relatives who can
provide monetary help or occasional respite care should be identified to avoid
unequal burden on either the spouse or one child who happens to co-reside with the
needy person.
ASSESS THE NEED FOR PARTIAL INSTITUTIONALIZATION
Short term institutionalization of the care recipient occasionally is an option to
be considered seriously. Utilising the services of day centres and day care provisions
should also be assessed.
REQUIREMENTS FOR TAILOR MADE VERSUS STANDARDIZED
SERVICES
Elders are a heterogeneous lot and their needs and resources vary. Social
workers need to evaluate each person's requirements and prepare an individualised
175
programme as far as possible. There are times when standardised packages of
services available have to be used. As Singh (1996) aptly points out, there are
common human needs of the elderly, yet marked individual variations. Hence,
promotions of preventive services have to be individualised and need not be
uniform for everyone.
Ideally, gerontological care should be a shared responsibility of family,
community and society (Brodsky & Habib, 1996).
CARER RELATED ISSUES
In recent years, many Indian researchers have started focusing on the physical
and psychological impact of long term care giving on the carers (Jamuna, 1996,
Rajkumar and others, 1996). Concern for the carer should be an integral part of social
work with older people.
1. Identify the resources available to the carer to provide help. This may depend
on the carer's age, gender, health status, economic status, proximity to client
and many such factors.
2. Assess the quantity and quality of care that one can expect from different
carers. Care can be of different types and different sets of people could
provide instrumental, emotional, and functional assistance.
3. Avoid feminisation of care by involving male members of the family. Family
care is largely provided by middle and older women and by persons who
already are disadvantaged. Three-fourths of unpaid care givers are women
(Keigher & Stone, 1994). In India, most of the care for the male elderly is
provided by a spouse who herself may be in need of care. Most adult women
end up as carers at some point of their lives. Women are likely to get less care
than men though they may suffer from disabilities (Prakash, 1995b). As Singh
(1996) remarks, in a patriarchal society where 'men mature and women grow
old', social workers need to be gender sensitive.
4. Support for the carers has several components.
176
Information to carer/s regarding the condition of the client and the type of demand
likely to be made on them:
This is crucial to plan adequately for elder care. For example, investigators
have shown that most families who need to care for Alzheimer sufferers often do not
have any idea of the stress involved and the far reaching negative impact of the
disease on their life style (Rajkumar, Magdeline & Nair, 1996).
Information about the options and alternatives available to the carer with regard to
care giving:
The care programme need not always be an 'either family—or—institution'
proposition. A mix of different types of care options should be considered. Lack of
knowledge among public and professionals about ageing and appropriate care of
elderly is a problem (Brosky & Habib, 1996).
Counselling the carer to resolve conflicts, guilt feelings and mixed emotions that are
likely to be generated in the course of caring:
Such counselling programmes have found to help families involved in long
term care (Jamuna, 1996). Courses which touch not only the practical but also on the
emotional, managerial and advocacy dimensions of caring are recommended for
carers (Evers & Leichsenring, 1994).
Respite care for carers:
To avoid burnout, respite has to be planned on a daily, weekly or occasional
basis.
Practical help to carers:
Carers need financial and instrumental support, apart from emotional and
social support. Multiple needs of elders make different demands on the carers which
require a variety of coping techniques (Bali, 1995).
Methods of compensating the carer for their responsibilities:
As of now, it is not very common to give economic compensation to carers.
Middle class and lower class families need financial incentives to bear the expense of
medication and long term care of elderly (Bagchi, 1996). Some developed countries
have a system of payment to carers (Evers & Leichsenring).
177
Medical and psychological help to the carers to prevent burnout
Self Help groups for carers:
Encourage them to participate in existing support groups. These groups
provide both informational and social support.
In gerontological social work a troublesome issue is 'that* of balancing the
family well-being against the individual well-being (Prakash, 1995a). Many elderly
may be unwilling to live in an institution. But their behaviour may be too
dysfunctional for family members to manage. At times the cognitive decline in the
older person may be too pronounced, or multiple physical disorders too complicated
for the carer to cope with. The family life of the carer may get disrupted due to the
behaviour of the client as well as the burden on the carer. At such times, the case
worker may have to advise institutionalisation of the elderly person in the interest of
the family well-being. A humane solution to such situations need to be worked out
that is both practical and culturally acceptable in such cases. There are several such
emerging issues that will confront the professionals working in the field of
gerontology.
Social workers in India need to become aware of the care systems that are
tried in the west and learn from their experiences. Long term care system in the west
is complex and large. It consists of informal care provided voluntarily by family and
friends, home and community-based care, and nursing homes. A range of
supportive services and financing streams are involved in managing elderly care. It
is recommended that at the level of community, the planning of long-term care must
focus on four themes (Beland & Arweiler, 1996): (1) Developing priorities to reflect
values, (2) Setting up human service organisations governed by a set of rules and
procedures, (3) Choosing objectives to which participants and organisations are
committed, and (4) Mobilising the various resources.
Environmental modification is a new treatment approach that enables
caregivers to manage daily care and maintain individuals with dementia at home.
The use of assistive devices and home modification offers a potential for greater
178
independence and improved quality of life for older persons with impairments.
Adult day care centres lighten the burden of the carers to some extent. Family-
centred day care centres, in some countries, provide support and recreational
services in a family atmosphere. Such units are offered within the homogeneous
neighbourhood familiar to the elderly (Primak, 1996).
There are non-institutional health and support systems available to older
Americans living in a community that represent a bridge between independent
living and institutional care (Weaver, 1994). Such a continuum of care includes adult
day care, respite care, support groups, congregate housing, medical home health
care, and hospices. Assistive technologies are helping the western elderly to
maintain their independence in spite of their impairment and lack of continuous
carers. Similarly, researchers are focusing on the stress those nursing assistant who
deliver a high proportion of direct services to nursing home patients experience
{Novak & Chappel, 1996). Gerontological social work is a relatively new field in
India and as such it can learn several lessons from the successes and failures of
western efforts at providing long term care to frail elderly as well as providing
support to care givers.
A. Examine the importance of propagating the ill effects of HIV / AIDS to
the public by the social workers.
B. Discuss about the gerentological problems and role of social workers in
it.
A………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
B………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………
179
5.2 HUMAN RIGHTS
Human rights are inseparable from social science and social work theories,
values and ethics and practice. Social work, from its inception has been a human
rights profession, laving as its basic tenet the extrinsic value of every human being.
One of its main aims is the promotion of equitable social structures, which can offer
people security and development while upholding their dignity.
Social workers work with clients at various levels: the micro-level of
individual and family; the meso-level of community; and the macro-level of
national and international Community. Concern for human rights must be
manifested by social workers at all levels. At all times social work is concerned
with the protection of individual and group needs, t is often forced to mediate
between the people and the state and other authorities, to champion particular
causes and to provide support, when state action threatens or neglects the rights and
freedom to individuals and/or groups. More that other professionals, social work
educators and practitioners are conscious that their concerns are closely linked with
respect for human rights. They accept the premise that human rights and
fundamental freedoms are indivisible, and the full realisations of civil and
political rights are impossible without.
"Human rights are inseparable from social work theories, values, ethics and
practice. Rights corresponding to human needs have to be upheld and postured.
Social work is concerned with the protection of individuals and group needs. It is
often forced to mediate between the people, the state and other authorities, to
champion particular causes and to provide support when state actions threaten or
neglect the rights and freedoms to individuals and / or groups. Social work
educators and practitioners are conscious that their concerns are linked with respect
for human rights.
HUMAN DIGNITY AND WORTH AND SOCIAL JUSTICE
Human dignity and worth means that social workers respect the inherent
dignity and worth of every person and respect the human rights expressed in the
United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Social justice encompasses
180
the satisfaction of basic needs; fair access to services and benefits to achieve human
potential; and recognition of individual and community rights.
Human rights are often categorised as first, second and third generations.
First generation rights are civil and political rights, like the right to vote, freedom of
speech, and freedom from discrimination, fair trial etc. Second generation rights are
economic, social and cultural rights, like the right to health, housing, social security
and education. Third generation rights are collective rights, such as the right to
development and self determination.
In terms of social work practice, realising first generation rights means
advocacy either on behalf of individuals or disadvantaged groups. Social workers
working in advocacy might be involved in the protection of civil and political rights
through advocacy groups, refugee action groups or prisoner reform.
Working to realise second generation rights is the bread and butter work of
most social workers. It involves putting services in place to meet rights like the right
to education, health care, housing, income and so on. So, every time a social worker
takes a client to Centrelink to assist them to get income support, or liaises with the
Department of Housing to find accommodation, or refers them to a community
health centre for physical, social or emotional support they are engaging in a form of
human rights work.
Third generation rights are collective rights which intersect perfectly with the
social work practice of community development. Community development, the
discipline is a way of working with, rather than for, communities to increase their
capacity and ability to find their own solutions to problems. Social workers are
facilitators for this process of change that occurs from the grass roots in a bottom- up
way.
Professor Jim Ife and Lucy Fiske have argued that the relationship between
community development and human rights is so symbiotic that:
181
Community development needs a human rights based framework if it is to be
successful, and human rights needs a community development framework if they
are to be realized.
The marrying together of community development practices and human
rights principles is being increasingly recognised at the United Nations level. The
United Nations Common Understanding of a Human Rights Based Approach to
Development Cooperation sets out necessary elements of policy development and
service delivery under human rights based approach as follows:
1. People are recognised as key actors in their own development, rather than
passive recipients of commodities and services.
2. Participation is both a means and a goal.
3. Strategies are empowering, not disempowering.
4. Both outcomes and processes are monitored and evaluated.
5. Analysis includes all stakeholders.
6. Programmes focus on marginalized, disadvantaged, and excluded groups.
7. The development process is locally owned.
8. Programmes aim to reduce disparity.
9. Both top-down and bottom-up approaches are used in synergy.
10. Situation analysis is used to identity immediate, underlying, and basic causes
of development problems.
11. Measurable goals and targets are important in programming.
12. Strategic partnerships are developed and sustained.
13. Programmes support accountability to all stakeholders.
Human rights could be generally defined as those rights which arc inherent in
our nature and without which we cannot live as human beings. Human rights and
fundamental freedoms allow us to fully develop and use our human qualities, our
intelligence, our talents and our conscience and to satisfy our spiritual and other
needs. They are based on mankind's increasing demand for a life in which the
inherent dignity and worth of each human being will receive respect and protection.
182
The denial of human rights and fundamental freedoms not only is an
individual and personal tragedy, but also creates conditions of social and political
unrest, sowing the seeds of violence and conflict within and between societies and
nations. As the first sentence of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states,
respect for human rights and human dignity "is the foundation of freedom, justice
and peace in the world".
Human rights are universal and apply to all persons without discrimination.
Respect for individual rights needs to be upheld at all times, irrespective of cir-
cumstances or political systems. The rights of any particular individual or group in
any particular circumstances can be restricted only if they threaten to curtail similar
or comparable rights of others.
Social work originates variously from humanitarian and democratic ideals.
Social work practice has since its beginning been focused on meeting human needs
and on developing human potential and resources. "Social work is a profession
whose purpose is to bring about social changes in society in general and in its indi-
vidual forms of development." Professional social workers are dedicated to service
for the welfare and self-fulfilment of human beings; to the development and
disciplined use of scientific knowledge regarding human and societal behaviour, to
the development of resources to meet individual, group, national and international
needs and aspirations; and to the achievement of social justice.
Social workers are involved in planning, estimating, applying, evaluating and
modifying preventive social policies and services to groups and communities. They
intervene in numerous functional sectors, using various methodological approaches,
working.' within a broad organizational framework and providing social services to
various sectors of the population at micro, meso and macro levels.5 Social work
education is aimed at promoting social development and worldwide quality
education, training and knowledge for social work practice, social services, and
social welfare politics.
183
A. Explain briefly about human rights.
A………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
B………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………
5.2.1 SOCIAL WORK AND HUMAN RIGHTS

The profession's focus on human needs shapes its conviction that the
fundamental nature of these needs requires that they be met not as a matter of choice
but as an imperative of basic justice. Thus social work moves to a consideration of
human rights as the other organizing principle for its professional practice. The
transition from needs orientation to rights affirmation has been made necessary
because of tangible substantive needs that have to be met. A substantive need can be
translated into an equivalent positive right, and entitlement to the benefits of that
right is sought from the State and beyond. It follows that the search for and
realization of positive rights and entitlements is an inseparable twin to the meeting
of needs. Working within different political systems, social workers uphold and
defend the rights of their individual or collective clients while attempting to meet
their needs. They do this while often employed by established, sanctioned authority;
and their position as agents of the State, or employees of powerful institutions or
agencies, has placed many in a precarious role. The profession's need to serve as a
faithful employee has had to live alongside its obligation to serve the consumer of its
practice. According to the profession's code of ethics and mission statements of
schools of social work, service to people is the higher consideration.
Social work is concerned with the protection of individual and group
differences. It is often forced to mediate between the people and the State and other
authorities, to champion particular causes, and to provide protection when State
184
action for the public good threatens the rights and freedoms of particular persons or
groups (e.g. in cases of the removal of children from their families; of denial of
assistance; of institutionalization of elderly or disabled people; or of housing
conflicts resulting in homelessness).
As a bridging profession, social work has to be conscious of its values and
possess a solid knowledge base, not least in the field of human rights, to guide it in
many conflicting situations throughout it: practice. While social workers
through their actions may well reinforce the rights of clients, faulty judgement can
lead them to jeopardize those rights. Viewing its work from a global human rights
perspective helps the profession by providing a sense of unity and solidarity,
without losing sight of the local perspectives, conditions and needs which constitute
the framework within which social workers operate.
More than many professionals, social work educators and practitioners are
conscious that their concerns are closely linked to respect for human right;. They ac-
cept the premise that human rights and fundamental freedoms are indivisible, and
that the full realization of civil and political rights is impossible without employment
of economic, social and cultural rights. They believe that the achievement of lasting
progress in the implementation of human rights depends on effective national and
international policies of economic and social development. Their direct knowledge
of the conditions of the vulnerable sectors of society makes social work educators
and practitioners valuable in the formulation of social policies. Human rights are
inseparable from social work theory, values and ethics, and practice. Rights corre-
sponding to human needs have to be upheld and fostered, and they embody the
justification and motivation for social work action. Advocacy of such lights must
therefore be an integral part of social work, even if in countries living under
authoritarian regimes such advocacy can have serious consequences for social work
professionals. Human rights and social work have to be considered within the
context of conditions faced by the majority of people on Earth at the close of the
twentieth century. It is estimated that, in the past decade alone, more people lost
185
their lives as a result of economic and social deprivation than perished in the Second
World War.
Countless people have been killed or tortured or have disappeared in a world
subjected to domination and oppression. Exploitative and oppressive systems and
structures give rise to dictatorships and authoritarian regimes under which millions
become victims of human rights violations as the price of their struggle for freedom
and survival
Each year 12.9 million children from developing countries die before the age
of five and, in many of these countries, almost half the adult population is illiterate.7
According to figures released by the World Health Organization, in the developing
world alone there are over 1 billion people living in inadequate housing, with 100
million of these living in conditions classified as homelessness.8 Worldwide there are
an estimated 17.5 million refugees and more than 25 million people displaced within
their own countries because of civil strife, famine or other disaster. Close to 80 per
cent of all refugees are women and children and, in some countries, women and
children constitutes 90 per cent of the refugee population.'
Women are prominent in the statistics of poverty and deprivation. Two-thirds
of the world's illiterate people are women.' Maternal mortality rates are high in most
developing countries: an African woman, for example, has one chance in 20 of dying
in childbirth; an Asian woman, one chance in 54; a South American woman, one
chance in 73. In contrast, a North American woman has one chance in over 10,000."
Facts and figures cited above are likely to remain accurate for a number of
years. Attitudes, however, are changing. Ultimately, hope for improvement lies in
human rights instruments and their implementation, and in ever-growing
international consciousness and solidarity. Social workers have a role to play in
strengthening such solidarity and ensuring that the principles enshrined in the texts
of human rights instruments are gradually translated into reality, paving the way for
a world in which people's most urgent and legitimate need are satisfied.
186
HUMAN RIGHTS
Social workers work with clients at various levels: the micro-level of
individual \ and family; the meso-level of community; and the macro-level of
national and international Community. Concern for human rights must be
manifested by ferial workers at all levels. At all times social work is concerned with
the protection of individual and group needs. t is often forced to mediate between
the people and the state and other authorities, to champion particular causes and to
provide support, when state action threatens or neglects the rights and freedom to
individuals and/or groups. More than other professionals, social work educators
and practitioners are conscious that their concerns are closely linked with respect for
human rights. They accept the premise that human rights and fundamental
freedoms are indivisible, and the full realisations of civil and political rights are
impossible without enjoyment of economic, social and cultural rights.
Rights corresponding to human needs have to be upheld and postured; they
embody the justification and motivation for social actions. Advocacy of such rights is
therefore an integral part of social work. Even if in countries living under
authoritarian regimes such advocacy can have serious consequences for social work
professionals.
In developing countries, the proportion of need and possibility of
exploitation, leads to the collective vision of the right to social and economic
development beyond the personal level to the national and regional levels, with a
system of international solidarity as its ultimate aim.
In the modern times there has been a change in the social philosophy, and a
consequent shifting of importance from individual to the society. Thus, social work
too ensures to protect the workers from exploitation, women hood from the male
domination, and children from parental indifference. Moreover, social work has
played a great role in ensuring the human rights of the oppressed section of the
society, making them aware of their rights and empowering them to become equal
sharers in the community development. Programmes for the welfare of the
187
scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes and other backward classes are conceived
of as being supplemental to general development programmes in different sectors.
The urgency of rapid economic and social advance among these groups is now being
recognised ever more than before.
As in the case of scheduled tribes, and indeed to an even larger degree,
voluntary action by the various organisations has a vital contribution to make in
work among Harijans. In recent years, the central government has assisted a number
of leading organisations in carrying through programmes of training and social
work among Harijans, with the help of this assistance these organisations and
workers can help members of the scheduled castes and other backward groups to
organize themselves for mutual self-help through co-operatives and other agencies.
Social work has also ensured the protection of human rights through various
social legislations. This enhances the happiness of the entire community by
protecting from injustice and by punishing those who do not conform to the social
interest. Besides social legislation tackles the social problems like untouchability,
child marriage, dowry system, sati, devadasi system and various other social
problems; thus helping to build a wholesome community. The emerging new notion
of social service as a force and instrument in the promotion or planned social change
and development enlarges the scope of professional social work activity, which
traditionally, has been associated with such fields of practise as child and family
welfare, medical and psychiatric social work, school social work, corrections and
group services. Also social work is adding new responsibilities of joining together
with other disciplines to fight poverty and the problems of the modern society.
In the following pages of this chapter, the emphasizes is given on human
rights and the functions of voluntary action in protecting the human rights and
developing the society to a higher realm of equality, fraternity, justice and
prosperity.
188
A. HUMAN RIGHTS
(A) HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Then, in the last third of the twentieth century, people speak of "human
rights", "the rights of man", or "les droits de I'homme", they really mean those rights
drawing their formulation from the last decades of the 18th century and the
Americans and the French Revolutions, but the idea of the inalienable rights of the
human beings is much more older and intact was known to poets, philosophers and
the politicians in antiquity and in the middle ages. When Sophocles' Antigone— the
play was composed about 442 B.C.—says to King Creon:
"But all your strength is weakness itself against the immortal unrecorded laws
of God."
She invokes the higher law, the law of nature, the natural rights of man.
Throughout the centuries there has been a close connection and interdependence
between the idea of natural law and the idea of the natural rights of man.
Ancient legal codes failed to recognize any area of individual freedom
from state interference, and the first codifications of something akin to a catalogue of
rights—if not yet of all men, then at least of the nobles of the land—began to emerge
in compacts between princes and the feudal assemblies. The most famous and the
influential commitment of this kind was in the English Magna Carta, accepted by
King John at Runnymede in 1215. The famous clause, among the provisions in this
declaration, which states that "no free man shall be taken or imprisoned . . . exiled, or
in any way destroyed . . . except by the law of the land, gave expression to the idea
of individual freedom and became the symbol of this freedom for centuries to come."
In the 17th century in England, the "immemorial rights of Englishmen" were
successfully fought for, the landmarks of the struggle being the English Petition of
Right (1628) and the English Bill of Rights (1689). The powerful influence of the
French philosophers of Enlightenment is also visible among all the American
revolutionaries to come up with the American Declaration of Independence (1776),
the Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776) and the American Bill of Rights. The French
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) was directly inspired by
189
the earlier American examples. The constitutions of the 19th and 20th centuries
carved out specific individual rights in social and political spheres. Later came the
humanitarian intervention to maintain the human rights of the citizens and
inhabitants of the states by international action. Since then there have been various
treaties to protect human rights and the efforts ensured the prohibition of slavery
and exploitation of the labourers, etc.
(B) DEFINITION AND NATURE OF HUMAN RIGHTS
Human rights are those rights which every person is inherent with, just
because of his or her human status. No one can take away the human rights or
ideally not to be taken way because they are part of the human person. And no part
of the person can be taken away. Most of the Fundamental Rights are thus falling
under the human rights which also, include economic, social and cultural rights.
Man as a member of the human society has rights in order to survive as well
as to make his life better. Human rights are concerned with the dignity of the
individual—the level of self-esteem that secures identity and promotes human
community. As such, their main implications and characteristics may be enumerated
as the following:
First and foremost it implies that every one has them. All human beings
possess them by virtue of being members of the great human society irrespective of
the fact that they know about them or not. Human rights are like the moral rights
and, as such the element of their enforcement lies in the faculty of man's conscience.
They cover legal rights protected by the law of the state; they also cover the
fundamental rights incorporated on to the basic law of the land and thereby given
special treatment in respect of their amendment and judicial enforcement.
An appeal to the cases of human rights covers the world as a whole and as
such it sanctions the use of persuasion as well as force by foreign powers to
intervene in the domestic affairs of a state where human rights are not properly
honoured. In this way the present case of human rights involves the case of
restraints on the wayward sovereignty of the state. It does not mean that human
190
rights have an unqualified character. Like all rights they may be also restricted in the
interest of public peace, social decency, political security and the like. Each country
has its own cultural moves in the light of which reasonable restrictions may be put
on the exercise and enjoyment of such rights. This point acts as a great barrier in the
way of universalisation of human rights.
However, the difficulty in defining the human rights arises from the fact that
there is no universally accepted conception in this regard. It has infact varied from
place to place, people to people and time to time, "The foundational norm governing
the human rights is that of the respect for the human personality and its absolute
worth, regardless of colour, race, sex, religion or other considerations. These rights
are essential for the adequate development of the human -personality and for human
happiness. Without getting involved in definitional controversies, therefore, human
rights may be said to be those fundamental rights to which every may man or
woman inhabitating in any part of the world should be deemed entitled merely by
virtue of having been born as a human being.
The Universal Declaration of human rights was adopted by the United
Nations General Assembly on 10 December, 1948. It sets forth the basic civil,
economic, political and social rights and freedoms of every person. The Universal
Declaration of Human Rights states that all people are born free and equal in rights
and in dignity. This declaration is meant to serve as a common standard of
achievement for all peoples and for all nations. The Article one states that "all human
beings are born free and equal in rights". They are endowed with reason and
conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. Every one
is entitled )to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this declaration, without the
distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other
opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no
distinction shall be made on the basis of political, jurisdictional or international
status of the country or territory to which a person belongs; whether it be
independent trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitations of sovereignty.
191
Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person. No one thus is to be
held in slavery or servitude and slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms. No
one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading^ treatment or
punishment. Everyone has a right to recognition as a person before the law,
everywhere. All are equal before: the law and are entitled without any
discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled without any of the
partialities to equal protection of the law against any discrimination in violation of
this declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination.
The declaration also ensures the right to freedom of 1 movement and
residence within the borders of each state. 1 Everyone has the right to property, to
marriage, to freedom of5| thought, conscience and worship including the right to
changed one's religion and beliefs and to propagate them. Every one* has the right to
freedom of opinion and expression, freedom of | peaceful assembly and association,
right to social security, right to work, to rest and leisure, right to a standard living"
and to education.
The Humanism is a way of looking at the world which emphasizes the
importance of human beings—their nature and their place in the universe.
Humanism teaches that every person has dignity and worth and therefore should
command the respect of every other person.
(C) U.N. AND HUMAN RIGHTS
The Dumbarton Oaks proposals stated that the new organisation (UNO)
would promote "respect for human rights and fundamental freedom." The Human
Rights provisions were consequently included in the U.N. Charter. The Charter
contains six specific references to human rights. The Preamble of the Charter
confirms the faith in the fundamental human rights in the dignity and worth of the
human person and in the equal rights of men and women. The U.N. Charter places
promotion and encouragement of human rights on the same footing as the
maintenance of international peace and security. The General Assembly can make
studies and recommendations for helping in realizing the human rights and
192
fundamental freedom. ECOSOC was asked to set-up a commission for human rights
in the economic and social fields. And one of the basic objectives of the trusteeship
system, according to the Charter, is to encourage respect for human rights. These are
the goals set forth in the U.N. Charter and how far U.N. succeeded in achieving
these goals can be studied from two points of view:
1. How far U.N. has geared itself for the job, and
2. How far did it succeed in specific cases of the violation of human rights?
(I) MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTATION
The U.N. has created machinery for promoting human rights and
fundamental freedoms. The U.N. Commission on Human Rights was constituted in
1946. It submitted proposals regarding:
• an international bill of rights,

• international declarations and conventions on civil liberties, the status of
women, etc.,
• the protection of minorities, and
• prevention of discrimination on the grounds of race, sex, language or
religion.
On the basis of these proposals of the commission, Universal Declaration of
Human Rights was adopted by the General Assembly in 1948. In 1960, another
Declaration on the Granting of Independence to colonial countries and peoples was
adopted. In 1963, Declaration on the elimination of all kinds of Racial Discrimination
was adopted by the General Assembly. All of these constitute a respectable body of
international human rights law.
Apart from the Universal Declaration of human rights, the Human Rights
Commission prepared other instruments such as the Declaration on the rights of the
child, Declaration on the rights of asylum and declarations and conventions on the
elimination of all forms of racial discrimination and all forms of religious
intolerances. To watch over the general observances of human rights, the Human
Rights Committee was set-up which assesses facts and uses its good offices to
193
achieve a friendly solution. The U.N. Human Rights Commission has played a
key role in abolishing the Racial Discrimination of the Blacks of Africa and America.
The U.N. also had been playing a part in implementing the provisions regarding
human rights. For example, the Security Council recommended selective mandatory
sanctions against Rhodesia 4 and the General Assembly appointed a Special
Committee in 1957 to investigate the conditions in Hungary where Russians were
torturing the rebels to death. Similarly, the cases adopted by the U.N. concerning
human rights treaties are brought to the International Court of Justice.
(II) COVENANTS ON HUMAN RIGHTS
The General Assembly decided in 1951 that there should be two covenants—
one dealing with the civil and political rights and the other dealing with the
economic, social and cultural rights. A conference, in accordance with the resolutions
of the General Assembly was held in Teheran and the twenty-nine resolutions
adopted there are known as the Teheran Proclamations. It asserted that member
states should fulfil obligations to promote and encourage respect for human rights
and fundamental freedoms.
(III) SPECIFIC CASES
U.N. action on human rights in South Africa is the most [important case in
this respect. The policy of "apartheid" (racial discrimination) of the South African
Government had culminated in race conflicts, creating a dangerous and explosive
situation and violation of the basic principles of gjiuman rights. So far the U.N. has
not been able to take any ^effective step. The South African Government had now
taken |teps to end apartheid and talks have been initiated by the presidents De
Klerk and Nelson Mandela, with the ANC and Sbther group.
In 1972, Asians were expelled from Uganda and Idi lAmin let loose a reign of
terror. According to the International |Commission of Jurists it was an explicit
policy of a racial jjpiscrimination. Nothing was done by the U.N. in this regard.
Pakistani Army committed war crimes and practised "mass and selective genocide"
in Bangladesh in 1971. Here also the. J.N. Did not take note. In Sri Lanka,
194
language problem between Tamils and Sinhalese has assumed serious
proportions. There is large scale killing of Tamils but U.N. is sleeping over it. In
Chile the Military Junta has suppressed human rights and fundamental freedom and
the detents were executed. Similarly, in Iran the Fundamentalists have
eliminated the opposition but U.N. has taken no note of it. The Vlyanmar
government has granted permission to the U.N. earn to visit and study the human
rights violations in that country.
The issue of the international protection of the human Rights is a complicated
one. Firstly, there is no agreed definition of human rights. Secondly, the Charter
suggests no method, where by the states be forced to observe human rights. Thirdly,
the Soviet Union and America differed in their opinion of the relationship between
human rights and states. The states are more concerned about their national interests
and are not sincere about the human rights. So inspite of the widespread activities of
the U.N. in the promotion of human rights, the goals set forth in the Charter have
not yet been fully realized. Still, it can be said to the credit of U.N. that, it started the
first institutionalised effort in this direction. The question of human rights and
fundamental freedom is no longer within the domestic jurisdiction. It has come
under the international jurisdiction. If the states co-operate and effective machinery
for implementation is set-up, it will be possible to enjoy human rights all over the
world.
(D) HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE MODERN WORLD
In the modern world, human rights are at stake in an alarming rate. Every
minute there is a violation of human rights happening in India itself in various
forms. The discriminations based on class, caste, race, nationality, colour, religion
and the social and economic status is still prevalent in various parts of the world. Let
us take our own country to illustrate this aspect. Men and women are endowed with
equal rights and opportunities and justice, but in India, the women* are the weaker
section, exploited by their male counterparts, j just as objects. The women have to
still emerge in a male dominated society. The religious and caste barriers have"
195
furthermore given them various obstacles as in the case of Muslim women, to
properly participate in the community building. A good number of women are
exploited and maltreated sexually, physically and even economically. Women are
paid less wages even when the work done and the time are as equal as or more than
that of men.
The sexual harassment and abuse of women and children are the most
outraging and brutal violation of the human rights. Every woman has the right to
freedom from torture and cruelty and the right to liberty and security, but when she
is exploited sexually—in any form—it is the violation of these rights. However, the
official reports show that the actual rapes committed is twice or thrice the number of
those reported. Many do not report the crime to the police because of the fear and
shame and the humiliation by the media. There is still no solid means of sentencing
the guilty in the judicial functioning and finally in many cases, the victim turns out
to be the immoral person. Child abuse and Child labour, exploitation of the
labourers, dowry system, sati, child marriage, devadasi system, corruption of the
bureaucracy a ( all the social evils existing in our country today, which in or the
other day violate the human rights. A thorough social reform is the need of the hour
to provide social justice to or and all in India. More on this regard will be dealt with
in the following pages.
A “Social work and human rights are interrelated”. – Discuss.
B. Briefly explain the historical background of human rights
C. Explain briefly the Nature of Human Rights
A………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
B………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………
196
5.2.2 B. HUMAN RIGHTS IN INDIA
(A) HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
There is justification to assert that ever since the dawi of human civilization in
Arya-Varta (Bharat), humanism wit} all its humanitarian aspects has been upheld as
the highest' virtue in man. This applies not only in the field of social relationships as
between man and woman, but also in the religious domain as the tenet of faith,
leading to the salvation of mankind. It is noteworthy that human rights had always a
close link with the civilization of man. Buddha's doctrine of Ahimsa is a
humanitarian doctrine par excellence; dating back to the third century B.C.
Hinduism has preached the doctrine of 'Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam' which means the
kinship of the whole world, meaning thereby that the whole world and the human
race are all kith and kin of one family. The ancient Sanskrit text given below
embodies this concept, "I seek no kingdoms, nor heavenly pleasures, nor personal
salvation since to relieve the humanity from its manifold pains and distresses is the
supreme objective of all mankind." In the Indian context, all the major religions have
played their roles: promotes and maintain the natural human rights though here
have been exceptions in some cases. Also the rise and fall f many empires and kings
who constituted the governance of he state, have built up the civilization of India
down the centuries, and human rights are deeply rooted in this age-old jyilization of
India. In the following points we will see the violation of human rights in the
ancient, medieval and modern India.
The Ancient Indian Concept of Humanitarian Laws of War There are two
unique contributions of ancient India to evolution of humanitarian laws of war.
First is the universality of the application of these laws, irrespective of race,
religion, caste or creed. The second aspect is related to the detailed rules of warfare
which were laid down in legal texts such as the 'Manusmriti' (200 B.C-100 A.D.), the
'Mahabharata' (1000 B.C.), the 'Arthasastra' of Kautilya (300 B.C.), etc.
If "Tat Tvam Asi" and "Aham Brahmasmi" (I am Brahman) conceived the
universality of the individual soul, it as the principle of "Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam"
which propounded the universal equality. And Ahimsa laid down the universal
197
conduct for tolerance, respect for the individual, peace and co-operation. The
dictates of the humanity coupled with the consideration of the universality of
application, irrespective of political or religious considerations helped the all round
development of laws of war in the ancient India.
(I) HUMAN RIGHTS IN MEDIEVAL INDIA
Throughout the middle ages, all over the world, human rights were at low
ebb. The right to freedom of worship was the great causality; and the non-believer
was often subjected to atrocities compelling him to change his faith and become a
"believer".
Although Delhi witnessed an eclipse of human rights, it was Akbar (16th
century A.D.) who permitted freedom of worship and abolished religious
persecutions. In the middle ages the humanitarian laws of warfare were often
disregarded. But salutary principles were formed for the exchange of war prisoners
and of those who died in the battle. The right of asylum was also respected during
the time of Akbar. Thus, it can be asserted that Delhi and its vicinity witnessed the
evolution of humanitarian laws of war at a time when religious persecution was the
order of the day and atrocities on the vanquished were common. Delhi kept alive the
torch of humanitarian rights in the dark days of the medieval history.
(II) INDIA IN 1947 AND AFTER
New Delhi witnessed the various struggles of India's Freedom Movement,
leading to the ultimate independence of India. It is to the standing credit of those
who had the vision and foresight to appreciate the new trend and to change their
time-hardened policies of colonisation, knowing that a new era had dawned. The
liberation of Asian, African and Latin American continents, which followed 1947,
involved the freedom of more than half the human population; and this vitally
altered the future of mankind for the better.
The greed for conquest and expansion which engulfed the seven seas of the
world and eclipsed the human rights in the 19th century leading to the two great
world wars came to the viewed as great human errors and this did change the minds
198
and hearts of men and fostered a new outlook. The aftermath of these wars was to
bring in a new era for humanity which witnessed the reversing of the process of
empire-building by decolonisation which, in itself, was recognition of the human
rights. The cyclonic wave of decolonisation which originated from the Indian shores
in 1947 changed the entire political geography of the world and radically altered
some of the age long traditional concepts and norms, not only of international law,
but also of the fundamental law of mankind. The peaceful transfer of power in 1947
thus initiated the beginning of a new era of hope and oneness, and the humanitarian
spirit set an example for the other colonizers to follow. Thus, the abominable slavery
was eradicated, no one country could hold another in bondage, the acquisition of
territory by power could no longer confer a legal right on the conqueror and finally
the coercion and compulsion of one state over another to sign a treaty vitiated the
agreement ab initio.
The U.N. Charter later affirmed the dignity of man and the futility of wars
and gave proper formulation and enunciation of human rights. Thus, India's
independence and the U.N. Charter did register a great step forward. Those events
transformed the human aspirations into reality, and both rank as the radiating
symbols of human rights. The salient features of Indian constitution have a direct
bearing on the world-wide recognition of human rights as well as freedom from
social, economic and political oppression.
(B) CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS
(I) THE FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
The basic principles of human rights conceived in liberty and dedicated to the
proposition that "all men are created equal" found an echo in the Constituent
Assembly of India when the late Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru declared that the
objective of the constitution is to realize the dream of Mahatma Gandhi and bring
about Ram Rajya, that is justice, social and economic to the teeming millions of India.
This was to ensure dignity of man and freedom from political, social and economic
oppression. The Preamble of the Constitution starts with the declaration, "We the
199
people of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a sovereign, social,
secular, democratic republic and to secure to all its citizens; justice, social, economic
and political, liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; equality of
status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all fraternity assuring the
dignity of the individual and the unity and the integrity of the Nation."
The main objectives of the constitution are crystal clear in this declaration.
The Fundamental Rights guaranteed in the Constitution have been classified into
seven groups. They are:
a) Right to equality,
b) Right against exploitation,
c) Right to freedom,
d) Right to freedom of religion,
e) Cultural and educational rights,
f) Right to constitutional remedies, and
g) Right to property.
The chapter on Fundamental Rights has great significance on the social and
political life of the country. Having experienced the colonisation and lack of
independence, the founder fathers of the constitution ensured that the citizens
should not be deprived of any kind of freedom. After fifty years of operation it has
shown the wisdom of these founders and the innumerable decisions of the High
Courts and the Supreme Court declaring enforcing human rights at the instance
of the highest and the lowest in the country. In order to ensure equality before law
positive mandate is given to the State to remove the existing inequalities and
disparities in regard to backward classes, the scheduled castes, scheduled tribes,
women and children, poor and the handicapped. Seats are reserved for these classes
the politics, educational institutions and government services Untouchability is
made an offence and every one has the right to vote and every attempt is made to
fashion a caste-ridden society into an egalitarian classless society. Even the prisoner:
cannot be denied the fundamental rights guaranteed by the constitution. The right
200
against exploitation prohibits the exploitation of human labour and illegal
trafficking, etc. The cultural and educational rights ensure the protection of
religious and linguistic minorities to have their own culture, language, script and to
conserve the same.
(II) THE DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES
Articles 35-51 contains the directive principles "which are fundamental to the
governance of the country" and impose obligation on the State to implement them.
They are meant to: secure social, economic and political justice to all citizens.
Directive principles cannot be legally enforced by any court though they are
declared fundamental in the governance of the State. Some think that these
principles are only "pious wishes" but for others they are more important than even
the fundamental rights. Equal pay for equal work, living wages, right to gainful
employment, just and human conditions of work, participation of workers in the
management, free and compulsory education for children, raising the level
of nutrition and standard of living, are some of the Directive Principles intended to
ensure the dignity of human life and the pursuit of happiness.
Universal adult franchise and democratic form of government provides
guarantees against violations of human rights. A truly independent judiciary
ensures the protection of human rights and in order to safeguard the interests of the
minorities various commissions have been created. Thus the Fundamental Rights
and the Directive Principles constitute the “soul and conscience" of the constitution.
The amendments cannot abrogate the fundamental rights which relate to the
personal life, liberty and freedoms.
(III) CONCEPT OF LIBERTY AND EQUALITY IN INDIAN CONSTITUTION
The chapter on Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles give many
provisions for the attainment of liberty and equality. Liberty is the "positive power
of doing and enjoying those things which are worthy of enjoyment and work." In
other words, this means the presence of those conditions which are essential for the
development of an individual personality. The constitution seeks liberty of
201
expression, belief, faith and worship. Article 20 protects citizens against
unreasonable conviction and double punishment. Article 21 protects the life and
personal liberty of every citizen. Equality in the constitutional efforts of the world
means persons of adequate opportunities for all without any distinction of caste,
colour, birth or wealth. So all citizens must be treated equal before the law and there
should be no discrimination on the ground of religion, race, caste, birth, sex, etc.
With regards to employment it ensures the equality. Customs like untouchability
which breed inequality have been abolished. The state is expected to take steps so
that people may secure the right to education. In order to ensure equality the
constitution directs the state to make special provisions for the scheduled castes and
the scheduled tribes.
(C) SOCIAL LEGISLATION AND HUMAN RIGHTS
The declaration of the complete independence adopted by the Congress at its
Lahore Session in 1929 said: "It is in alienable right of the Indian people, as of any
other people, to have freedom and to enjoy the fruits of their toil and have the
necessities of life so that they may have full opportunities of growth." The U.N.
Charter was formulated with the same idea that directly influenced the Indian
Constitution. In modern India the most important development in this regard was
the creation of the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) in 1993. In pursuit
of the implementation of one of the promises given in the election manifesto of 1991
and also keeping in view the urgency of the matter in the light of the allegations
and propaganda of Pakistan and America, including some NGOs about the
gross violation of human rights in Punjab, Kashmir and some other parts of the
country; the Government of India thought it expedient to set-up such a body in the
national interest through an ordinance promulgated by the President of India on 23
September 1993 which became an act in the following year. The function of NHRC is
to make enquiries about the specific cases of the violations of human rights, even
those cases pending in the courts, to visit jails or institutions where persons are
dodged and study their condition, to review the constitutional provisions to spread
202
human right awareness and to do research and to encourage the non-governmental
organisations working in this field. The framers of constitution have directed the
State to take effective legislative and executive actions to establish an egalitarian
society. Positive action has been taken to liberate the individual from a number of
abuses and in this context we can cite the laws on abolition of bonded labour, dowry
system, abolition of ex-communication, prohibition of illegal trafficking of women
and the introduction of several welfare measures like the Minimum Wages Act,
Employees' Provident Fund Act, Employees' State Insurance Act, etc. The Criminal
Procedure Code has been amended giving fair trials to the criminals. Capital
Punishment, though not abolished has been restricted to exceptional cases of
inhuman murders.
The horizon of freedom has therefore been enlarged in the law, spirit and
practise; and New Delhi as the pivotal centre of a democratic parliament, an
independent judiciary and seat of several commissions to safeguard the human
rights, remains the greatest symbol of achievements in the field of human rights in
Asia.
(D) SOCIAL SECURITY AND HUMAN RIGHTS
The unprecedented rise in population growth and the unbalanced
development of industries have created certain implications. In order to protect the
individual from the uncertainties, the future social security has been adopted as an
indispensable national programme. In essence, any measure of social security strikes
at the root of exploitations. Its ultimate aim is to create and sustain a welfare state for
social justice in addition to economic and political justice.
According to Sir William Beverage, social security is an attack on five
problems, namely—want disease, ignorance, squalor and illness. Social security is
also defined by Maurice Srack as protection against the contingencies of life. Thus,
we can see that social security and human rights are closely linked together. Social
security denotes public programmes to maintain, protect and to raise the basic living
standards. Before 1950's though various schemes of social insurance and social
203
assistance were initiated in different countries, India could not benefit from such
schemes largely due to disorganisation within the country. After the independence,
the need for social security in India is much more pronounced due to reasons like
low wages, indebtedness, adverse conditions like death, marriage, religious
ceremonies wherever money is to be spent and finally, the necessity of social security
for the economic development. Human right issues mostly affect the economically
backward, working class people whose development should be the main focus of
social welfare.
Indisputable is the fact that India's stand in respect of the human rights has
been quite straightforward. Several NGOs like Amnesty International and Asia
Watch operating at the international level sought to tarnish it for the sake of their
vested interests. Ours is an open society with an entire democratic system. For this
reason atrocities cannot be done by the police, paramilitary or by the military forces
as we may find in China and Pakistan. Stray cases of 'state terrorism' may not be
ruled out. It is a fact that some of the provisions of the Terrorist and Disruptive
Activities (Prevention) Act were misused by the authorities. But the draconian law
lapsed on 23rd May 1995. At the same time it should not be lost sight of, that the
excesses were exceptions and not the rule. Available facts have contradicted the
malicious propaganda that this law was used discriminatory against the Muslims of
the country.
Thus, we may safely endorse the view of the Nobel Peace Laureate, H.H.
Dalai Lama: "In India there may be stray out-bursts of human right violations. These
are tending to occur in comparatively isolated pockets where extremists and
terrorists themselves engage in acts that violate human rights. By and large, there is
genuine freedom in this country and a healthy flourishing democracy. India can
truly take pride in this."
204
A. Briefly explain the historical perspective of human rights
B .What do you understand from the Directive Principles of State Policy?
A………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
B………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………
5.2.3 DEFINITION OF 'HUMAN RIGHTS

Louis Henkin, in his The Age of Rights' defines: "Human rights are rights of
individuals in society. Every human being has legitimate, valid, justified claims
upon his or her society...to various 'goods' and 'benefits '....they are defined,
particular claims listed in international instruments... deemed essential for
individual well-being, dignity, and fulfilment, and that reflect a common sense of
justice, fairness, and decency."
Jack Donnelly's definition is limited mainly to 'functional aspects. He defines
'what rights are humans' as follows: "Rights are titles that ground claims of a special
force. To have a right to X is to be specially entitled to have and enjoy x. The right
thus governs the relationship between right-holder and duly-bearer insofar as that
relationship rests on the right. In addition, to have a right is to be empowered to
press rights claims, which ordinarily 'trump'...other grounds for action.... the duties
correlative to rights 'belong to' the right-holder, who is largely free to dispose of
those duties as he sees fit. Thus individual rights are political trumps held by
individuals.....
"Human rights" are those individual rights entered the language of political
discourse only three centuries ago. This does not mean, of course, that what we call
human rights did not exist before then or that they were never respected. They were
often respected in practice for a wide variety of religious, cultural, and social reasons
205
only vaguely related to the reasons we usually cite for observing rights today.
Throughout antiquity and the Middle Ages the language of politics was caste in the
terms of obligation, (duty) rather than rights:"
Section 2 (1) (d) of the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993 defines 'human
rights': "Human rights mean the rights relating to life, liberty, equality and dignity of
the individual guaranteed by the Constitution or embodied in the International
Covenants and enforceable by Courts in India."
The definition given in Section 2 (1) (d) is not exhaustive. It should be read
with the rights enunciated in various international covenants, such as the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights 1948, the Geneva 'Red Cross' Conventions 1949,
Helsinki Declaration 1975, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights,
1966, etc.
Manorama Year Book: "A right may be defined as something to which an
individual has a just claim. Human rights are those that individuals have by virtue
of their existence as human beings. The right to life itself and the basic necessities of
food and clothing may be considered fundamental human rights. Human rights
traditionally have been put in two categories, natural rights and civil rights. Natural
rights are those that belong to individuals by virtue of their humanity: the right to
remain alive, to sustain life with food and shelter, and to follow the dictates of their
conscience."
5.2.4 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN RIGHTS
The concept of Human Rights has spreaded worldwide only after 1945, when
the United Nations Organisation was established. Upto the end of the 19th century,
even upto the half of this century, the Governments throughout the world adopted
'Police State'. Under this policy, the State used to extract huge taxes, but did not
concentrate on developmental activities. Majority of the States were involved in wars
with each other. Majority portion of the revenue was expended for army and
armament. There was little scope for the welfare and development activities.
Majority of the countries were ruled by the Kings. The King was treated as the
"God". Superior powers were assumed in him. He was the sole and supreme in the
206
country. There was no separation of powers. All powers were concentrated in the
hands of the King. Monarchic rule was the common form. The number of the
countries too was very less.
Under such circumstances, there was no scope of welfare and human rights.
The people too were adhered to the policy of 'Police State'. Under this policy, the
State had limited liabilities, such as protecting the boundaries of the State from
neighbours, to curb the internal disturbances, collection of revenue, etc. At that time,
the literacy was very less. People too accepted everything done by the King and his
servants.
In the middle of the eighteenth century, 'Industrial Revolution' started in
Great Britain. Soon it spreaded in the western countries, and effected entire globe in
economic, social, political relations between the States. The Industrial Revolution led
the imperialism. Great Britain, France, Spain, Portuguese, America, etc. western
developed countries began to search new places for their economic development.
Several African and Asian countries, including India, China, South Africa, Sri Lanka,
Burma, etc. etc. went into the hands of imperialistic rule. The imperialistic rulers
exploited the colonies to the greatest extent.
Dadabhai Naoroji, the veteran freedom fighter of India, estimated that Great
Britain exploited the Indians to the extent of 30,000,0000 to 40,000,000 pounds per
year. This simple example shows us how the Britishers exploited India and Indians.
The Britishers were exploiting the work from Indian labourers without paying
or paying only nominal. The Indians were taken away to various colonies,
dominions, etc. by the Britishers to work in the houses, plantations and factories, etc.
Like this our Indians went to Mauritius, Fiji, Trinidad and Tobago, etc. The Indian
labourers, who were taken to those colonies, have become the citizens of the
countries, after such colonies have become independence.
Indian's position under the Great Britain was somewhat better. But the
position of Negroes was very worst. They were taken to America and other western
countries as 'Slaves'. They were treated as 'animals'. The slaves were sold in the
207
'slaves market'. The sale transactions of slaves were regulated by 'slave laws'.
Under such circumstances Abraham Lincoln was the first person to fight
against slavery. Under his leadership only, negroes were freed from slavery, and the
Acts were enacted giving 'equal rights' to them in America. This was the first
recognition of 'Human Rights' in the World History.
South Africa was under the reign of Great Britain. The White Government
adopted Apartheid Policy, i.e. suppression of Black. Nelson Mandela, the Black
Leader, was imprisoned for 27 years by the White Government. India and several
other countries denounced this policy. As a result of international and national
struggles, South Africa was given to the Black in 1990. During the reign of White, the
blacks including Indians suffered innumerable troubles in South Africa. During this
period, there was no question of human rights and their implementation. The
human rights were humiliated by the white. They barely exploited the Blacks to
maximum extent.
Since the beginning of 20th century, there were tremendous changes occurred
in the globe. Science and Technology, information technology, etc. developed
abnormally. The number of countries has been increased. The United Nations
Organization was established on 24-10-1945. Since the establishment of UNO, there
have been revolutionary changes in the field of human rights throughout the world.
The Charter of the UNO itself contains several provisions relating to human
rights. The Charter itself starts with the phrase "WE THE PEOPLES OF THE UNITED
NATIONS." This phrase itself indicates the determination of the UNO to dedicate itself
for the human rights. The Preamble affirms that it is "to reaffirm faith in fundamental
human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men
and women..." The Charter aims to eradicate the wars, and to establish international co-
operation and peace. It wants to remove untold sorrows of mankind.
Clause (2) of Article 1 of the Charter explains: "The Purpose of the United
Nations is to develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the
principles of equal rights and self-determination of peoples, and to take other
208
appropriate measures to strengthen universal peace."
Article 55 of the Charter narrates its objects about 'human rights as follows:
"With a view to the creation of conditions of stability and well-being which are
necessary for peaceful and friendly relations among nations based on respect for the
principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples, the United Nations shall
promote:
a) higher standards of living, full employment, and conditions of economic and
social progress and development;
b) Solutions of international economic, social, health, and related problems; and
international cultural and educational co-operation; and
c) universal respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental
freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion."
Article 56 strengthens Article 55 and to achieve the objectives for human
welfare and human rights as follows: "All Members pledge themselves to take joint
and separate action in co-operation with the Organisation for the achievement of the
purposes set forth in Article 55."
By the strenuous efforts the UNO, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
1948 was declared.
After this Declaration, there was a number of Conventions on Human Rights,
such as the European Convention on Human Rights 1950, International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights, 1966, the International Covenant on Economic Social &
Cultural Rights 1966, International Convention on the Elimination of all forms of
Racial Discrimination 1966, American Convention on Human Rights 1969, the
Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe 1975, African Charter on
Human Rights and Peoples' Rights 1981, etc.
One of the fundamental issues is labour, in which case human rights are
barely exploited throughout the world. Women and young persons are exploited, as
they are cheaply available. There are more than one hundred International Labour
Conventions on this issue since 1945. The Charter of the United Nations
209
Organisation also has concentrated on this issue since its inauguration. It has
established International Labour Organisation, one of its main organs with the sole
object of upgrading the living standards of the labour throughout the world. There
were four Conventions named Geneva "Red Cross" Conventions of 1949.
Customary International Law: The important point is to be noted that the
International Court of Justice has recognised Customary International Law with the
main objectives to adopt and implement the treaties to protect human rights in a
universal level.
STAGES:
The writers on International Law recognised three stages in the development
of human rights.
FIRST STAGE:
The first stage starts from the period of Rousseau of eighteenth century. In
this period civil and political rights were thought to be human rights. Rousseau said:
"Man is born free, but he is chained everywhere." The jurisprudents of this period
thought and taught that the man would have natural rights given by God, and these
rights would arrive from the traditional concept.
SECOND STAGE:
The second stage occurs in twentieth century. According to the jurisprudents
of this period the man has economic, social and cultural rights. Socialism is the basic
concept inherent in these rights. Karl Marx, Engel, etc. have influenced the second
stage. According to Karl Marx, there are only two classes of people, viz. capitalists
and labour, and the capitalists enjoy more privileges such as money, leisure,
happiness, rights, etc. The labour suffers for all the needs required for living. The
capitalists barely exploit the workers. After exceeding certain limit, the workers
revolt against the capitalists, and kill them to establish classless society. He preaches
that in the classless society no human rights could be exploited. To achieve classless
society, he preaches revolution.
Soviet Russia was the first country to adopt the socialistic principles in the
world in 1917. It nationalized every means of production, distribution and
210
consumption in the country. According to socialism, all men and women are equal
in every aspect. However, the socialism in Soviet Russia and in some other socialistic
countries has utterly failed. Both the incidents of establishment of socialistic
countries and their fall are historic events in the world history. It is alleged that in
the socialistic governments also human rights are exploited.
United Nations Organisation was established on 24-10-1945 during this
second stage only. The Charter of UNO mainly concentrated for world peace and
human rights. Speak to the truth, from the beginning of the Charter itself the
objectives of the Charter are crystal clear devoting itself for the upgrading the living
standards of every human being in the globe. The evolution of the international law
of human rights has been one of the more remarkable features of the development of
international law since 1945, and most particularly after the establishment of UNO.
With the inspiration of the Charter of UNO, the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights 1948 was made; it has given birth to several conventions and
conferences leaving the room for the discussion about human rights. Universal
Conventions and Conferences on Civil and Political Rights, and on Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights have been held during this second stage.
THIRD STAGE:
The third stage starts since 1970. It is mainly supported by the developing
countries. In this stage, a new idea is incorporated in human rights, i.e. in addition to
the individual rights of the first two stages; there are collective, group rights, such as
the right to self-determination and the right to development that may properly
qualify as human rights.
[Note: Some writers use the term "Generations" instead of "Stages" for the purpose
of development of Human Rights]
A. Briefly explain the origin and development of human rights in India.
211
A………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
B………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………
5.3 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL:

It is one of the important organs of the United Nations
United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF): It was established in 1946 under
the supervision of the General Assembly. Now it concentrates for the developmental
activities aimed to improve the quality of life for children and mothers in developing
countries.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR): It was
established by the General Assembly on 1-1-1951. Its main work is to help the
refugees world-wide. It won Nobel Prizes in 1955 and in 1981 for its work.
HIGH COMMISSIONER FOR HUMAN RIGHTS:
It was established in 1993. At present it has 53 member-States as members.
The main object of it is to improve and implement the human rights throughout the
world. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO):
[Refer this Topic in Part-B] World Health Organization (WHO): [Refer Topic "whom
International Labour Organization: [Refer it in Part-B ]
AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL:
It is a world-wide human rights organization with headquarters in London. It
is a non-Governmental organisation. It was established on 28-5-1961. Peter Berenson,
a British lawyer appealed in newspapers appealing to show amnesty on the
suffering human beings world-wide. Its headquarters are located at Easton Street,
London WCIX8DJ. Now it has spread throughout the world, having 11, 00,000
members in more than 150 countries. There are 6,000 local groups in 70 countries in
Africa, the Americas, Asia, Europe and the Middle East. Appreciable thing is to
know that by the efforts undertaken by this organisation, Nobel Prize for Peace was
given to it in 1977.
212
5.4 UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS, 1948
INTRODUCTION:
The League of Nations was formed by the Treaty of Versailles, 1919 between
the sovereign States, that too belonging to the Western countries (except Japan from
Asia and a few other countries from other continents). The United Nations
Organisation is the association of all the States from entire globe. It is dedicated to all
the human beings. In fact the Preamble of the Charter of the United Nations
Organisation starts with "WE THE PEOPLE OF THE UNITED NATIONS..." This
phrase is sufficient to know the character of the UNO. Further the Preamble also
aspires to achieve the globe free from the wars, and to establish a global society with
social justice, and to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger
freedom, to employ international machinery for the promotion of the economic and
social development of all peoples, etc.
One of the purposes laid down in Article 1 of the Charter is to achieve
international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic, social,
cultural, or humanitarian character, and in promoting and encouraging distinction
as to race, sex, language, or religion.
Article 55 of the Charter has concentrated more on human rights, though this
term has not been coined in that Article. This Article runs:
Art 65. With a view to the creation of conditions of stability and well-being,
which are necessary for peaceful and friendly relations among nations based on
respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of people, the United
Nations shall promote:
a) higher standards of living, full employment, and conditions of economic and
social progress and development;
b) solutions of international economic, social, health, and related problems; and
international cultural and educational co-operation; and
c) universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental
freedom for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion.
The UNO established various specialised agencies to upgrade the living
213
standards of all the human beings in economic, social, cultural, educational, health,
and related fields.
In this way, the Charter imposes 'obligations' to 'promote' the human rights.
The Economic and Social Council, one of the principal organs of the UNO is
responsible under the General Assembly for carrying out the functions of the United
Nations with regard to international economic, social, cultural, educational, health
and related matters.
The United Organisation took birth on 24-10-1945. But within three years after its
birth, it took serious steps and concern for the implementation of human rights all over
the world. One of the first steps taken by the UNO was the adoption of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights. 48 Member-States were present and voted in favour of it,
and opposed by none. There were eight absentee Member-States. The absentee Member-
States were the Soviet Russia, Yugoslavia, Ukraine, Czechoslovakia, Byelorussian SSR,
Poland, Saudi Arabia, South Africa. As a result of serious efforts of the Member-States,
the General Assembly declared "The Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948" vide
its Resolution No. 217A (III) G.A.O.R., dated 10-12-1948, at its 3rd Session.
SCHEME OF THE DECLARATION:
The Preamble of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948 itself is an
evidentiary document proclaiming the 'human rights'. This Declaration contains 30
Articles. Each Article is a diamond piece imbedded in gold jewellery giving every
human being a right. This Declaration contains a comprehensive list of civil,
political, economic, social and cultural rights. Mrs. Eleanon Roosevelt, the Chairman
of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights commented: "This Declaration
is not, and does not purport to be a statement of law or of legal obligation; it is
instead a common standard of achievement for all peoples of all nations."
OBJECT: The Preamble of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948
explains the object of Declaration 1948 as follows:
"Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable
rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and
peace in the world,
214
"Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in
barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a
world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom
from fear and want has been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common
people,
"Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a
last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be
protected by the rule of law,
"Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed
their faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human
person and in the equal rights of men and women and have determined to promote
social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom,
"Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in co-operation
with the United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of
human rights and fundamental freedoms,
"Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the
greatest important features for the full realization of this pledge,
"Now, therefore, the General Assembly proclaims this Universal Declaration
of Human Rights as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all
nations, to the end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this
Declaration constantly in. mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote
respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and
international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance,
both among the peoples of Member States themselves and among the peoples of
territories under this jurisdiction."
5.4.1 HUMAN RIGHTS DECLARED BY THE UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF
HUMAN RIGHTS 1948
Spirit of brotherhood: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity
and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards
one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
215
(Article 1)
No discrimination: Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth
in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex,
language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth
or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the
political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a
person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any
other limitation of sovereignty.
(Article 2)
Right to life: Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.
(Article 3)
Abolition of slavery: No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and
the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.
(Article 4)
Abolition of torture, etc.: No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel,
inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.
(Article 5)
Right to recognition: Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a
person before the law.
(Article 6)
Equality before the law: All are equal before the law and are entitled without
any discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection
against any discrimination in violation of this Declaration and against any
incitement to such discrimination.
Right to remedy: Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the
competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights ‘granted him
by the constitution or by law.
(Article 8)
216
No arbitrary arrest: No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or
exile.
(Article 9)
Right to fair hearing: Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public
hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights
and obligations and of any criminal charge against him.
(Article 10)
Presumption of innocence: Everyone charged with a penal offence has the
right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial
at which he has had all the guarantees necessary for his defence.
No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or
omission which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or international
law, at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than
the one that was applicable at the time the penal offence was committed.
(Article 11)
Right to privacy: No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his
privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attack upon his honour and
reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such
interference or attacks.
(Article 12)
Right to freedom of movement: Everyone has the right to freedom of
movement and residence within the borders of each State. Everyone has the right to
leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country.
(Article 13)
Right to asylum: Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other
countries asylum from persecution. This right may not be invoked in the case of
prosecutions genuinely arising from non-political crimes or from acts contrary to the
purposes and principles of the United Nations.
(Article 14)
217
Right to nationality: Everyone has the right to a nationality. No one shall be
arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his nationality.
(Article 15)
Right to marriage: Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to
race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are
entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution.
Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending
spouses. The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is
entitled to protection by society and the State.
(Article 16)
Right to own property: Everyone has the right to own property alone as well
as in association with others. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.
(Article 17)
Right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion: Everyone has the right
to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change
his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in
public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and
observance.
(Article 18)
Right to marriage: Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to
race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are
entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution.
Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending
spouses. The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is
entitled to protection by society and the State.
(Article 16)
Right to own property: Everyone has the right to own property alone as well
as in association with others. No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.
(Article 17)
218
Right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion: Everyone has the right
to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change
his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in
public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and
observance.
(Article 18)
Right to freedom of opinion and expression: Everyone has the right to
freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions
without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through
any media and regardless of frontiers.
(Article 19)
Right to assembly and association: Everyone has the right to freedom of
peaceful assembly and association. No one may be compelled to belong to an
association.
(Article 20)
Right to take part in the Government: Everyone has the right to take part in
the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives.
Everyone has the right of equal access to public service in his country. The will of the
people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this shall be expressed in
periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and
shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures.
(Article 21)
Right to social security: Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to
social security and is entitled to realization, through national effort and international
co-operation and in accordance with the organization and resources of each State, of
the economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free
development of his personality.
(Article 22)
219
Right to work: Everyone has the right to work, to Tree choice of employment, to just
and favorable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment.
Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work.
Everyone who works has the right to just and favorable remuneration ensuring for
himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if
necessary, by other means of social protection. Everyone has the right to form and to
join trade unions for the protection of his interests.
(Article 23)
Right to rest and leisure: Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including
reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay.
(Article 24)
Right to a standard of living: Everyone has the right to a standard of living
adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food,
clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to
security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or
other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control. Motherhood and
childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children, whether born in or
out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection.
(Article 25)
Right to education: Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be
free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall
be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally
available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.
Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to
the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall
promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or
religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the
maintenance of peace. Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that
shall be given to their children.
220
(Article 26)
Right to participate in cultural life: Everyone has the right freely to participate
in the cultural life of the community to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific
advancement and its benefits. Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral
and mterial interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of
which he is the author.
(Article 27)
Right to a social and international order: Everyone is entitled to a social and
international order in which the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration can
be fully realized.
(Article 28)
LIMITATIONS: Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the
free and full development of his personality is possible. In the exercise of his rights
and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined
by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights
and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public
order and the general welfare in a democratic society. These rights and freedoms
may in no case be exercised contrary to the purposes and principles of United
Nations.
(Article 29)
INTERPRETATION: Nothing in the Declaration may be interpreted as
implying for any State, group or person any right to engage in any activity or to
perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth
herein.
(Article 30)
EFFECT OF THE DECLARATION: The Universal Declaration undoubtedly
made effects upon all the Member-States. This Declaration is a historic event and a
great achievement of the United Nations. After this Declaration, there was a
considerable number of treaties on human rights between the Member-States. The
221
efforts made by the United Nations through its various organs, especially ECOSOC
had effected and resulted in fruitfulness. Majority of the Member-States, including
India, established Human Rights Commissions.
Fawcett commented: "Whatever may be the legality of Universal Declaration
of Human Rights, it has set a standard by which national behaviour can be measured
and to which nations aspire."
The status of the Declaration of Human Rights 1948 as a source of rules of
customary international law was considered in the Filartiga Case, which is the most
important international case-law on Human Rights.
Brief Facts: The defendant-Pena-irala was a Paraguayan citizen. He was the
former head of police in Asuncion, Paraguay. During his presence in Paraguay as a
police officer, he did several atrocities on Paraguayan civilians. He caused the death
of son of Filartiga under the veil of his power in 1976 by torture. Filartiga and his
daughter, who were Paraguayan citizens and political sufferers, entered the United
States in 1978 and applied for political asylum in America. Within a short period of
their arrival to America, they came to know that the defendant-Pena-irala was also in
America. The plaintiff and his daughter filed a combined suit against Pena-irala
alleging that he caused the death of his son (brother of co-plaintiff) in Peraguay.
They filed this suit under the provisions of "Wrongful Death Statutes of America, the
United Nations Charter; the Universal Declaration of Human Rights; the United
Nations Declaration against Torture; the United States Judiciary Act 1789; the
American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man; and other pertinent
declarations, documents and practices constituting the customary international law
of human rights and the law of nations.
The defendant raised the objection that the American Courts had no
jurisdiction to try the offences caused in Peraguay, another sovereign State. The
District Court dismissed the claim petition of Filartiga stating that it had no
jurisdiction. Filartigas appealed to the Court of Appeals.
222
JUDGMENT: The Court of Appeals held that the District Court did have
jurisdiction under the United States Judiciary Act 1789 and also under the provisions
of the Charter of United Nations, and also under the provisions of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights.
PRINCIPLES: (i) The Court of Appeal observed: "A threshold question on the
jurisdictional issue is whether the conduct alleged violates the law of nations. In light
of the universal condemnation of torture in numerous international agreements, and
the renunciation of torture as an instrument of official policy by virtually all of the
nations of the world (in principle if not in practice), we find that an act of torture
committed by a state official against one held in detention violates established norms
of the international law of human rights, and hence the law of nations."
1. The Court of Appeal further held: "The United Nations Charter (Preamble,
and Articles 55 and 56) makes it clear that in this modern age a state's
treatment of its own citizens is a matter of international concern."
2. The Court of Appeal further observed: "...although there is no universal
agreement as to the precise extent of the 'human rights and fundamental
freedoms' guaranteed to all by the Charter, there is at present no dissent from
the view that the guarantees include, at a bare minimum, the right to be free
from torture. This prohibition has become part of customary international
law, as evidenced and defined by the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights.... which states, in plainest of terms 'no one shall be subjected to
torture'."
RESULT: Due to the political decision taken by the American and
Paraguayan Governments, the American Government allowed the defendant to
return to Paraguay before the Court of Appeal's judgment. The Court of Appeal
directed the District Court to proceed with the proceedings. The District Court
conducted the inquiry and awarded $ 5 million to each of the plaintiffs as punitive
damages.
223
A. Explain the stages in development of human rights which are recognised by
International Law.
B. Briefly explain about UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS
1948.
A………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
B………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………
5.5 LETS SUM UP

A. Explain the role of social workers in protecting the environment.
B. Discuss about the impact of disasters on community and elaborate the role
of social workers in managing the disaster.
A. ROLE OF SOCIAL WORKERS IN PROTECTING THE ENVIRONMENT:
Social work can provide information required for correct understanding of
different aspects of environment as also the proems that emanate from it and the
measures that can be adopted to tackle them.
Social work can present facts before people to enable them to take right
decisions.
Social work can develop such attitudes and values in the personality of the
people as may develop and sustain the feeling of respect for environment for various
types of gifts that it has made available to mankind and refrain them from taking
any such action that may lead to exploitation and abuse of environment.
224
Social work can substitute the existing harmful values of materialism and
hedonism leading to environmental degradation by propagating and developing the
values of plain and simple living.
Social work can motivate man to adopt a friendly behaviour towards
Environment.
Social work mobilizes and organizes people to give a united challenge to those
who indulge in varied kinds of activities detrimental to the conservation and
development of environment.
Social work can persuade and prepare people to take all such steps like
promotion of forestation and restraint on deforestation; restriction on emission of
various pollutants that pollute water, air, soil, etc.
Social work can impress upon the policy makers to formulate such policies
Social work can urge and motivate the people associated with enforcement of
sincerely and to ensure that penalties stipulated for their violation are imposed upon
those who glaringly violate them,
Social work can help in fixing the responsibility of those employees of the
enforcement machinery who deliberately ignore the infringement of legal provisions
or show slackness in dealing with the lav/ breakers and can ensure that suitable
actions are taken against such irresponsible and recalcitrant employees.
Social work can appeal and prepare people in general in the community to
lend their maximum possible cooperation in the task of environmental conservation
and development not only by observing various 'dos' and 'don'ts' in their personal
lives but also by initiating all sorts of suitable organized social actions including
specific work-oriented projects in a sustained manner that may be required in this
regard.
225
Social work in collaboration with other disciplines may undertake scientific
researches to explore various unexplored aspects of environment, especially to
highlight its realities and their impact upon mankind and to suggest measures that
ought to be taken to recreate a friendly relationship between man and environment.
B.DISASTER MANAGEMENT:
Disasters impact on entire communities. The immediate effects include loss of
life and damage to property and infrastructure, with the survivors (some of whom
may have been injured in the disaster) traumatized by the experience, uncertain of
the future and less able to provide for their own welfare, at least in the short term.
More than likely, they are left without adequate shelter, food, water and other
necessities to sustain life. Rapid action is required to prevent further loss of life.
The primary aims of disaster response are rescue from immediate danger and
stabilization of the physical and emotional condition of survivors. These go hand in
hand with the recovery of the dead and the restoration of essential services such as
water and power. How long this takes varies according to the scale, type and context
of the disaster but typically takes between one and six months and is composed of a
search and rescue phase in the immediate aftermath of a disaster followed by a
medium-term phase devoted to stabilizing the survivors’ physical and emotional
condition.
The social, economic and political consequences of disasters are frequently
complex. For instance, the disaster may:
• disrupt vital community self-help networks, further increasing vulnerability;
• disrupt markets over a wide area, reducing the availability of food and
opportunities for income generation;
• destroy essential health infrastructure such as hospitals, resulting in a lack of
emergency and longer-term medical care for the affected population.
Moreover, the situation may be compounded by a secondary threat, such as

earthquake aftershocks or epidemics.
226
It is essential that disaster response activities do not make a bad situation
worse by fostering dependency or destroying existing community-support
mechanisms. Rather, they should lay the foundations for the subsequent recovery of
the affected population. Disaster situations are highly fluid, evolve rapidly (often in
unpredictable ways) and therefore require a close degree of coordination and
cooperation between those involved in the response, including the affected
community itself.
Following a disaster, life-saving assistance is the most urgent need. The rapid
provision of food, water, shelter and medical care is vital to prevent further loss of
life and alleviate suffering. However, practical experience, backed by research,
supports the view that even at this stage; relief must be conducted with a thought to
the affected community’s longer-term benefit and certainly should not be prejudicial
to it. And as people begin to get back on their feet and rebuild their lives, aid
agencies need to help them to strengthen their resilience to future hazards. Just
restoring the pre-disaster status quo may inadvertently perpetuate vulnerability.
Likewise, development programmes need to take into account existing risks and
susceptibility to hazards and to incorporate elements to reduce them. The two
approaches are interdependent, complementary and mutually supportive.
SOCIAL WORKERS CONTRIBUTION TO DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Goal: To help rebuild dignified living for victims
Strategies: Community building to foster social cohesion and mutual help
Approach: Grassroots participation – sense of ownership to ideas and agreed
schedule of resettlement. For the People, With the People, By the People. By the
people is the best option. The negative potential of social unrests, hostility and
violence is something to be mindful of. However, it is natural for the masses to be
agitated because of poor environmental conditions, lack of food, no sight of a future,
strong sense of helplessness in being a “victim”. Therefore, it is all the more
important to adopt a community organization approach in mobilizing mutual help
and mutual watch among the misplaced population. Give them goals and targets,
227
e.g. forming cleansing teams, food team, supplies team so that the needy will get the
needed resources.
Social workers can help to calm people down, identify natural leaders to
organize the victims, coordinate with agencies and government departments on the
logistics, and mobilize healthy adults to help the weak and feeble.
For the establishment of a positive culture of resilience, establish singing
teams to promote resilience songs, dance and exercise teams to dissipate energy
(victims do need to run around and exercise a bit too, like group dancing), and
construction teams to help in active labour for reconstruction
A. Examine the importance of propagating the ill effects of HIV / AIDS to the
public by the social workers.
B. Discuss about the gerentological problems and role of social workers in it.
A. HIV/AIDS:
Social workers are committed to the principles of social justice. We have a
"responsibility to devote objective and disciplined knowledge and skills to aid
individuals, groups, communities and societies in their development and resolution
of personal-societal conflict". The principles of the profession explicitly provide that
we work without prejudice with regard to gender, age, disability, colour, social class,
race, religion, language, political beliefs or sexual orientation. Likewise, we must be
mindful and aware of the impact of oppression and marginalization with regard to
gender, age, disability, colour, social class, race, religion, language, political beliefs or
sexual orientation. We are obligated to uphold stringently the principles of privacy,
confidentiality and responsible use of information even when a country's legislation
is in conflict with this demand. Work we undertake must be consistent with these
fundamental values and nowhere may we be complicit in supporting individuals,
groups, political forces or power structures that suppress their fellow human beings
by terrorism, torture or other brutal means.
228
Through its pervasive and global scope, AIDS presents different challenges
wherever it arises. In the interest of preventing further spread of HIV/AIDS and
promoting health, our approach assumes a continuum of care — sexual and psycho-
social health education, adequate testing, prophylactic means of prevention,
counselling, support, care and treatment.
B. GERENTOLOGICAL PROBLEMS:
Type and extent of disability—physical, cognitive, psychological, or
combination of different types of problems. Older persons are likely to suffer from
multiple problems requiring different types of help (Bali, 1996).
Type of support required—practical, monetary, emotional support, help with
activities of daily living1 (such as bathing, eating, dressing and soon), or with
instrumental activities such as banking, shopping and so on. Quantity of care required—
occasional, or on daily basis, or around the clock care. Most families assume that care
giving means just co-residence. But care may have to be long term and even for activities
of daily living.
PLANNING FOR CARE
Against the background of the problem posed and the I available resources,
decisions are made regarding how and where care would be provided. This requires a
realistic look at several influencing variables:
POSSIBILITY OF PROVIDING CARE AT HOME
It has been the experience of the developed countries that institutionalisation is
not always the right answer. Most countries are shifting their policies more towards
encouraging informal and family care (Bal dock & Evers, 1994). In India, there is a strong
cultural preference to live in families and social norms demand that family provide the
necessary care. Also, both hospitalization and institutionalization have their own
problems. A careful evaluation of whether the condition of the elderly can be adequately
managed at home has to be made.
IDENTIFYING CARERS AND POTENTIAL CARERS
If there is a possibility to provide family care, the social worker has to identify
carers. Estimate the total demand that caring is likely to make on carer/s, in order to
prepare the family for long term caring. In most cases of care giving, bulk of the
responsibility falls on a relative who lives closest to the elderly. Proximity is a factor that
229
decides the amount and availability of care. Social workers need to identify potential
carers who may be able to 'provide care at a distance'. Relatives who can provide
monetary help or occasional respite care should be identified to avoid unequal burden
on either the spouse or one child who happens to co-reside with the needy person.
ASSESS THE NEED FOR PARTIAL INSTITUTIONALIZATION
Short term institutionalization of the care recipient occasionally is an option to be
considered seriously. Utilising the services of day centres and day care provisions
should also be assessed.
REQUIREMENTS FOR TAILOR MADE VERSUS STANDARDIZED
SERVICES
Elders are a heterogeneous lot and their needs and resources vary. Social workers
need to evaluate each person's requirements and prepare an individualized
programme as far as possible. There are times when standardised packages of
services available have to be used. As Singh (1996) aptly points out, there are
common human needs of the elderly, yet marked individual variations. Hence,
promotions of preventive services have to be individualized and need not be
uniform for everyone.
A. Explain briefly about human rights.
A. HUMAN RIGHTS
Human rights are inseparable from social science and social work theories, values
and ethics and practice. Social work, from its inception has been a human rights
profession, having as its basic tenet the extrinsic value of every human being. One of its
main aims is the promotion of equitable social structures, which can offer people
security and development while upholding their dignity.
Social workers work with clients at various levels: the fticro-level of individual and
family; the meso-level of community; and the macro-level of national and
international Community. Concern for human rights must be manifested by social
workers at all levels. At all times social work is concerned with the protection of
individual and group needs, t is often forced to mediate between the people and the
230
state and other authorities, to champion particular causes and to provide support, when
state action threatens or neglects the rights and freedom to individuals and/or groups.
More that other professionals, social work educators and practitioners are conscious that
their concerns are closely linked with respect for human rights. They accept the premise
that human rights and fundamental freedoms are indivisible, and the full
realisations of civil and political rights are impossible without.
"Human rights are inseparable from social work theories, values, ethics and
practice. Rights corresponding to human needs have to be upheld and postured. Social
work is concerned with the protection of individuals and group needs. It is often forced
to mediate between the people, the state and other authorities, to champion particular
causes and to provide support when state actions threaten or neglect the rights and
freedoms to individuals and / or groups. Social work educators and practitioners are
conscious that their concerns are linked with respect for human rights.
A “Social work and human rights are interrelated”. – Discuss.
B. Briefly explain the historical background of human rights.
C. Explain briefly the Nature of Human Rights.
A. SOCIAL WORK AND HUMAN RIGHTS
The profession's focus on human needs shapes its conviction that the
fundamental nature of these needs requires that they be met not as a matter of choice
but as an imperative of basic justice. Thus social work moves to a consideration of
human rights as the other organizing principle for its professional practice. The
transition from needs orientation to rights affirmation has been made necessary
because of tangible substantive needs that have to be met. A substantive need can be
translated into an equivalent positive right, and entitlement to the benefits of that
right is sought from the State and beyond.
It follows that the search for and realization of positive rights and entitlements is an
inseparable twin to the meeting of needs. Working within different political systems,
social workers uphold and defend the rights of their individual or collective clients
while attempting to meet their needs. They do this while often employed by
231
established, sanctioned authority; and their position as agents of the State, or
employees of powerful institutions or agencies, has placed many in a precarious
role. The profession's need to serve as a faithful employee has had to live alongside
its obligation to serve the consumer of its practice. According to the professions code
of ethics and mission statements of schools of social work, service to people is the
higher consideration.
Social work is concerned with the protection of individual and group
differences. It is often forced to mediate between the people and the State and other
authorities, to champion particular causes, and to provide protection when State
action for the public good threatens the rights and freedoms of particular persons or
groups (e.g. in cases of the removal of children from their families; of denial of
assistance; of institutionalization of elderly or disabled people; or of housing
conflicts resulting in homelessness).
As a bridging profession, social work has to be conscious of its values and
possess a solid knowledge base, not least in the field of human rights, to guide it in
many conflicting situations throughout it: practice. While social workers
through their actions may well reinforce the rights of clients, faulty judgement can
lead them to jeopardize those rights. Viewing its work from a global human rights
perspective helps the profession by providing a sense of unity and solidarity,
without losing sight of the local perspectives, conditions and needs which constitute
the framework within which social workers operate.
More than many professionals, social work educators and practitioners are
conscious that their concerns are closely linked to respect for human right;. They ac-
cept the premise that human rights and fundamental freedoms are indivisible, and
that the full realization of civil and political rights is impossible without employment
of economic, social and cultural rights. They believe that the achievement of lasting
progress in the implementation of human rights depends on effective national and
international policies of economic and social development. Their direct knowledge
232
of the conditions of the vulnerable sectors of society makes social work educators
and practitioners valuable in the formulation of social policies.
Human rights are inseparable from social work theory, values and ethics, and
practice. Rights corresponding to human needs have to be upheld and fostered, and
they embody the justification and motivation for social work action. Advocacy of
such lights must therefore be an integral part of social work, even if in countries
living under authoritarian regimes such advocacy can have serious consequences for
social work professionals.
Human rights and social work have to be considered within the context of
conditions faced by the majority of people on Earth at the close of the twentieth
century. It is estimated that, in the past decade alone, more people lost their lives as
a result of economic and social deprivation than perished in the Second World War.
B. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF HUMAN RIGHTS
In the last third of the twentieth century, people speak of "human rights", "the
rights of man", or "les droits de I'homme", they really mean those rights drawing
their formulation from the last decades of the 18th century and the Americans and
the French Revolutions, but the idea of the inalienable rights of the human beings is
much more older and infact was known to poets, philosophers and the politicians in
antiquity and in the middle ages. When Sophocles' Antigone— the play was
composed about 442 B.C.—says to King Creon:
"But all your strength is weakness itself against the immortal unrecorded laws
of God."
She invokes the higher law, the law of nature, the natural rights of man.
Throughout the centuries there has been a close connection and interdependence
between the idea of natural law and the idea of the natural rights of man.
Ancient legal codes failed to recognize any area of individual freedom
from state interference, and the first codifications of something akin to a catalogue of
rights—if not yet of all men, then at least of the nobles of the land—began to emerge
in compacts between princes and the feudal assemblies. The most famous and the
233
influential commitment of this kind was in the English Magna Carta, accepted by
King John at Runnymede in 1215. The famous clause, among the provisions in this
declaration, which states that "no free man shall be taken or imprisoned . . . exiled, or
in any way destroyed . . . except by the law of the land, gave expression to the idea
of individual freedom and became the symbol of this freedom for centuries to come."
In the 17th century in England, the "immemorial rights of Englishmen" were
successfully fought for, the landmarks of the struggle being the English Petition of
Right (1628) and the English Bill of Rights (1689). The powerful influence of the
French philosophers of Enlightenment is also visible among all the American
revolutionaries to come up with the American Declaration of Independence (1776),
the Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776) and the American Bill of Rights. The French
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) was directly inspired by
the earlier American examples. The constitutions of the 19th and 20th centuries
carved out specific individual rights in social and political spheres. Later came the
humanitarian intervention to maintain the human rights of the citizens and
inhabitants of the states by international action. Since then there have been various
treaties to protect human rights and the efforts ensured the prohibition of slavery
and exploitation of the labourers, etc.
C. NATURE OF HUMAN RIGHTS
Human rights are those rights which every person is inherent with, just
because of his or her human status. No one can take away the human rights or
ideally not to be taken way because they are part of the human person. And no part
of the person can be taken away. Most of the Fundamental Rights are thus falling
under the human rights which also, include economic, social and cultural rights.
Man as a member of the human society has rights ir order to survive as well
as to make his life better. Human rights are concerned with the dignity of the
individual—the level of self-esteem that secures identity and promotes human
community. As such, their main implications and characteristics may be enumerated
as the following:
234
First and foremost it implies that everyone has them. All human beings
possess them by virtue of being members of the great human society irrespective of
the fact that they know about them or not. Human rights are like the moral rights
and, as such the element of their enforcement lies in the faculty of man's conscience.
They cover legal rights protected by the law of the state; they also cover the
fundamental rights incorporated on to the basic law of the land and thereby given
special treatment in respect of their amendment and judicial enforcement.
An appeal to the cases of human rights covers the world as a whole and as
such it sanctions the use of persuasion as well as force by foreign powers to
intervene in the domestic affairs of a state where human rights are not properly
honoured. In this way the present case of human rights involves the case of
restraints on the wayward sovereignty of the state. It does not mean that human
rights have an unqualified character. Like all rights they may be also restricted in the
interest of public peace, social decency, political security and the like. Each country
has its own cultural moves in the light of which reasonable restrictions may be put
on the exercise and enjoyment of such rights. This point acts as a great barrier in the
way of universalisation of human rights.
However, the difficulty in defining the human rights arises from the fact that
there is no universally accepted conception in this regard. It has infact varied from
place to place, people to people and time to time, "The foundational norm governing
the human rights is that of the respect for the human personality and its absolute
worth, regardless of colour, race, sex, religion or other considerations. These rights
are essential for the adequate development of the human -personality and for human
happiness. Without getting involved in definitional controversies, therefore, human
rights may be said to be those fundamental rights to which every may man or
woman inhabitating in any part of the world should be deemed entitled merely by
virtue of having been born as a human being.
A. Briefly explain the historical perspective of human rights
235
B .What do you understand from the Directive Principles of State Policy?
A. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF HUMAN RIGHTS:
There is justification to assert that ever since the dawi of human civilization in
Arya-Varta (Bharat), humanism wit} all its humanitarian aspects has been upheld as
the highest' virtue in man. This applies not only in the field of social relationships as
between man and woman, but also in the religious domain as the tenet of faith,
leading to the salvation of mankind. It is noteworthy that human rights had always a
close link with the civilization of man. Buddha's doctrine of Ahimsa is a
humanitarian doctrine par excellence; dating back to the third century B.C.
Hinduism has preached the doctrine of 'Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam' which means the
kinship of the whole world, meaning thereby that the whole world and the human
race are all kith and kin of one family. The ancient Sanskrit text given below
embodies this concept, "I seek no kingdoms, nor heavenly pleasures, nor personal
salvation since to relieve the humanity from its manifold pains and distresses is the
supreme objective of all mankind." In the Indian context, all the major religions have
played their roles: promotes and maintain the natural human rights though here
have been exceptions in some cases. Also the rise and fall f many empires and kings
who constituted the governance of he state, have built up the civilization of India
down the centuries, and human rights are deeply rooted in this age-old civilization
of India. In the following points we will see the violation of human rights in the
ancient, medieval and modern India.
The Ancient Indian Concept of Humanitarian Laws of War There are two
unique contributions of ancient India to evolution of humanitarian laws of war.
First is the universality of the application of these laws, irrespective of race,
religion, caste or creed. The second aspect is related to the detailed rules of warfare
which were laid down in legal texts such as the 'Manusmriti' (200 B.C-100 A.D.), the
'Mahabharata' (1000 B.C.), the 'Arthasastra' of Kautilya (300 B.C.), etc.
If "Tat Tvam Asi" and "Aham Brahmasmi" (I am Brahman) conceived the
universality of the individual soul, it as the principle of "Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam"
236
which propounded the universal equality. And Ahimsa laid down the universal
conduct for tolerance, respect for the individual, peace and co-operation. The
dictates of the humanity coupled with the consideration of the universality of
application, irrespective of political or religious considerations helped the all round
development of laws of war in the ancient India.
(II) HUMAN RIGHTS IN MEDIEVAL INDIA
Throughout the middle ages, all over the world, human rights were at low
ebb. The right to freedom of worship was the great causality; and the non-believer
was often subjected to atrocities compelling him to change his faith and become a
"believer".
Although Delhi witnessed an eclipse of human rights, it was Akbar (16th
century A.D.) who permitted freedom of worship and abolished religious
persecutions. In the middle ages the humanitarian laws of warfare were often
disregarded. But salutary principles were formed for the exchange of war prisoners
and of those who died in the battle. The right of asylum was also respected during
the time of Akbar. Thus, it can be asserted that Delhi and its vicinity witnessed the
evolution of humanitarian laws of war at a time when religious persecution was the
order of the day and atrocities on the vanquished were common. Delhi kept alive the
torch of humanitarian rights in the dark days of the medieval history.
(III) INDIA IN 1947 AND AFTER
New Delhi witnessed the various struggles of India's Freedom Movement,
leading to the ultimate independence of India. It is to the standing credit of those
who had the vision and foresight to appreciate the new trend and to change their
time-hardened policies of colonisation, knowing that a new era had dawned. The
liberation of Asian, African and Latin American continents, which followed 1947,
involved the freedom of more than half the human population; and this vitally
altered the future of mankind for the better.
The greed for conquest and expansion which engulfed the seven seas of the
world and eclipsed the human rights in the 19th century leading to the two great
237
world wars came to the viewed as great human errors and this did change the minds
and hearts of men and fostered a new outlook. The aftermath of these wars was to
bring in a new era for humanity which witnessed the reversing of the process of
empire-building by decolonisation which, in itself, was recognition of the human
rights. The cyclonic wave of decolonisation which originated from the Indian shores
in 1947 changed the entire political geography of the world and radically altered
some of the age long traditional concepts and norms, not only of international law,
but also of the fundamental law of mankind. The peaceful transfer of power in 1947
thus initiated the beginning of a new era of hope and oneness, and the humanitarian
spirit set an example for the other colonizers to follow. Thus, the abominable slavery
was eradicated, no one country could hold another in bondage, the acquisition of
territory by power could no longer confer a legal right on the conqueror and finally
the coercion and compulsion of one state over another to sign a treaty vitiated the
agreement ab initio.
The U.N. Charter later affirmed the dignity of man and the futility of wars
and gave proper formulation and enunciation of human rights. Thus, India's
independence and the U.N. Charter did register a great step forward. Those events
transformed the human aspirations into reality, and both rank as the radiating
symbols of human rights. The salient features of Indian constitution have a direct
bearing on the world-wide recognition of human rights as well as freedom from
social, economic and political oppression.
B. THE DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES
Articles 35-51 contains the directive principles "which are fundamental to the
governance of the country" and impose obligation on the State to implement them.
They are meant to: secure social, economic and political justice to all citizens.
Directive principles cannot be legally enforced by any court though they are
declared fundamental in the governance of the State. Some think that these
principles are only "pious wishes" but for others they are more important than even
the fundamental rights. Equal pay for equal work, living wages, right to gainful
238
employment, just and human conditions of work, participation of workers in the
management, free and compulsory education for children, raising the level
of nutrition and standard of living, are some of the Directive Principles intended to
ensure the dignity of human life and the pursuit of happiness.
A. Briefly explain the origin and development of human rights in India.
A. ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN RIGHTS:
The concept of Human Rights has spreaded worldwide only after 1945, when
the United Nations Organisation was established. Upto the end of the 19th century,
even upto the half of this century, the Governments throughout the world adopted
'Police State'. Under this policy, the State used to extract huge taxes, but did not
concentrate on developmental activities. Majority of the States were involved in wars
with each other. Majority portion of the revenue was expended for army and
armament. There was little scope for the welfare and development activities.
Majority of the countries were ruled by the Kings. The King was treated as the
"God". Superior powers were assumed in him. He was the sole and supreme in the
country. There was no separation of powers. All powers were concentrated in the
hands of the King. Monarchic rule was the common form. The number of the
countries too was very less.
Under such circumstances, there was no scope of welfare and human rights. The
people too were adhered to the policy of 'Police State'. Under this policy, the State
had limited liabilities, such as protecting the boundaries of the State from
neighbours, to curb the internal disturbances, collection of revenue, etc. At that time,
the literacy was very less. People too accepted everything done by the King and his
servants.
In the middle of the eighteenth century, 'Industrial Revolution' started in
Great Britain. Soon it spreaded in the western countries, and effected entire globe in
economic, social, political relations between the States. The Industrial Revolution led
the imperialism. Great Britain, France, Spain, Portuguese, America, etc. western
239
developed countries began to search new places for their economic development.
Several African and Asian countries, including India, China, South Africa, Sri Lanka,
Burma, etc. etc. went into the hands of imperialistic rule. The imperialistic rulers
exploited the colonies to the greatest extent.
Dadabhai Naoroji, the veteran freedom fighter of India, estimated that Great
Britain exploited the Indians to the extent of 30, 000,0000 to 40,000,000 pounds per
year. This simple example shows us how the Britishers exploited India and Indians.
The Britishers were exploiting they work from Indian labourers without paying or
paying only nominal. The Indians were taken away to various colonies, dominions,
etc. by the Britishers to work in the houses, plantations and factories, etc. Like this
our Indians went to Mauritius, Fiji, Trinidad and Tobago, etc. The Indian labourers,
who were taken to those colonies, have become the citizens of the countries, after
such colonies have become independence.
Indian's position under the Great Britain was somewhat better. But the
position of Negroes was very worst. They were taken to America and other western
countries as 'Slaves'. They were treated as 'animals'. The slaves were sold in the
'slaves market'. The sale transactions of slaves were regulated by 'slave laws'.
Under such circumstances Abraham Lincoln was the first person to fight
against slavery. Under his leadership only, negroes were freed from slavery, and the
Acts were enacted giving 'equal rights' to them in America. This was the first
recognition of 'Human Rights' in the World History. South Africa was under the
reign of Great Britain. The White Government adopted Apartheid Policy, i.e.
suppression of Black. Nelson Mandela, the Black Leader, was imprisoned for 27
years by the White Government. India and several other countries denounced this
policy. As a result of international and national struggles, South Africa was given to
the Black in 1990. During the reign of White, the blacks including Indians suffered
innumerable troubles in South Africa. During this period, there was no question of
human rights and their implementation. The human rights were humiliated by the
white. They barely exploited the Blacks to maximum extent.
240
Since the beginning of 20th century, there were tremendous changes occurred
in the globe. Science and Technology, information technology, etc. developed
abnormally. The number of countries has been increased. The United Nations
Organization was established on 24-10-1945. Since the establishment of UNO, there
have been revolutionary changes in the field of human rights throughout the world.
The Charter of the UNO itself contains several provisions relating to human
rights. The Charter itself starts with the phrase "WE THE PEOPLES OF THE
UNITED NATIONS.
A. Explain the stages in development of human rights which are recognised by
International Law.
B. Briefly explain about UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS,
1948.
A. DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN RIGHTS:
STAGES:
The writers on International Law recognised three stages in the development
of human rights.
First Stage: The first stage starts from the period of Rousseau of eighteenth
century. In this period civil and political rights were thought to be human rights.
Rousseau said: "Man is born free, but he is chained everywhere." The jurisprudents
of this period thought and taught that the man would have natural rights given by
God, and these rights would arrive from the traditional concept.
Second Stage: The second stage occurs in twentieth century. According to the
jurisprudents of this period the man has economic, social and cultural rights.
Socialism is the basic concept inherent in these rights. Karl Marx, Engel, etc. have
influenced the second stage. According to Karl Marx, there are only two classes of
people, viz. capitalists and labour, and the capitalists enjoy more privileges such as
money, leisure, happiness, rights, etc. The labour suffers for all the needs required
for living. The capitalists barely exploit the workers. After exceeding certain limit,
the workers revolt against the capitalists, and kill them to establish classless society.
241
He preaches that in the classless society no human rights could be exploited. To
achieve classless society, he preaches revolution.
Soviet Russia was the first country to adopt the socialistic principles in the
world in 1917. It nationalized every means of production, distribution and
consumption in the country. According to socialism, all men and women are equal
in every aspect. However, the socialism in Soviet Russia and in some other socialistic
countries has utterly failed. Both the incidents of establishment of socialistic
countries and their fall are historic events in the world history. It is alleged that in
the socialistic governments also human rights are exploited.
United Nations Organisation was established on 24-10-1945 during this
second stage only. The Charter of UNO mainly concentrated for world peace and
human rights. Speak to the truth, from the beginning of the Charter itself the
objectives of the Charter are crystal clear devoting itself for the upgrading the living
standards of every human being in the globe. The evolution of the international law
of human rights has been one of the more remarkable features of the development of
international law since 1945, and most particularly after the establishment of UNO.
With the inspiration of the Charter of UNO, the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights 1948 was made; it has given birth to several conventions and
conferences leaving the room for the discussion about human rights. Universal
Conventions and Conferences on Civil and Political Rights, and on Economic, Social
and Cultural Rights have been held during this second stage.
Third Stage: The third stage starts since 1970. It is mainly supported by the
developing countries. In this stage, a new idea is incorporated in human rights, i.e. in
addition to the individual rights of the first two stages, there are collective, group
rights, such as the right to self-determination and the right to development, that may
properly qualify as human rights.
B. UDHR:
EFFECT OF THE DECLARATION: The Universal Declaration undoubtedly
made effects upon all the Member-States. This Declaration is a historic event and a
242
great achievement of the United Nations. After this Declaration, there was a
considerable number of treaties on human rights between the Member-States. The
efforts made by the United Nations through its various organs, especially ECOSOC
had effected and resulted in fruitfulness. Majority of the Member-States, including
India, established Human Rights Commissions.
Fawcett commented: "Whatever may be the legality of Universal Declaration
of Human Rights, it has set a standard by which national behaviour can be measured
and to which nations aspire."
The status of the Declaration of Human Rights 1948 as a source of rules of
customary international law was considered in the Filartiga Case, which is the most
important international case-law on Human Rights.
243

07AMASW21 - Introduction To Social Work

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

07AMASW21 - Introduction To Social Work

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK

INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL WORK

SCHOOL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

. UNITS PAGE NOS

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF SOCIAL WORK

1.3 HISTORY OF SOCIAL WORK

1.3.1HISTORY OF SOCIAL WORK IN UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

SOCIAL WORK IN ANCIENT INDIA

1.4 PHILOSOPHY OF SOCIAL WORK

1.5 CONCEPT OF RELATED TERMS:

1.5.1 SOCIAL WELFARE

1.6 METHODS OF SOCIAL WORK

1.6.1 CASE WORK

1.6.2 GROUP WORK

INADEQUATE RESEARCH BASE

2.8 LETS SUM UP

3.1.1 GROWTH OF PROFESSIONAL TRAINING IN INDIA

3.4 FIELD WORK SUPERVISION

3.4.2 FUNCTIONS OF THE FACULTY SUPERVISORS

3.5 NEED FOR SOCIAL SCIENCE KNOWLEDGE FOR PROFESSIONAL

Professor Janice Wood Wetzel is the main representative.

3.7 LETS SUM UP

4.5.1 MEANING OF JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

VOLUNTARY YOUTH EFFORTS AND ACTIVITIES

1. He disseminates knowledge of various developmental programmes of the

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 5

5.1.1 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

1. Type and extent of disability—physical, cognitive, psychological, or

5.2.1 SOCIAL WORK AND HUMAN RIGHTS

• an international bill of rights,

5.2.3 DEFINITION OF 'HUMAN RIGHTS

5.3 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL:

5.5 LETS SUM UP

Moreover, the situation may be compounded by a secondary threat, such as

You might also like