iberici 2000 anni prima di cristo

Pre-history: 1 population “Iberians”. They came Ibiria peninsula. We know

travel to Spain some monuments: 1 monuments is Stonehenge.
2000 a.D.: England wasn’t a island. Iberians came to England on foot and
settled there. They were nomad.
Physical aspect as Mediterranean population, dark hair and eyes and dark
skin.

the color of life, they were all in the same position, in the fetal position,
this is a symbol, To revive people.
they were all facing, because they were all facing east, where the sun
rises, around the body there were objects, objects that these people could
use in their life, all of which shows that they are not ordinary people.
there were two hypotheses:
1)
these stone circles were astronomical observatories, we think they were
always built on top of a hill, because from above you can observe the sky
and the stars.
If we analyze the position of the stones, it corresponds to the position of
the stars, they do so because these stones were of two types in the circles
-Single stone in vertical position, called menhir
-two vertical stones and one horizontal on top, called dolmens, created a
constellation on the stone circle.
2)
There is another stone in the circle which is usually placed in the center of
the circle or moving sideways, and is not horizontal and is probably an
altar, if there was an altar probably the stone circle was a temple and they
were religious, and sometimes they found blood on the altar, and they
thought it was sacrifices.
Sometimes this altar has something strange, on the front sometimes there
is a deep hole, the sunlight cannot reach the bottom of the hole, it passes
through the hall twice a year.
Unless it's a vernal or autumnal equinox, this means that the sun is also in
the same position throughout the year.
They also knew the concept of astronomy, they are very heavy stones.
Neolithic derives from neo e ,llithos and means "new stone".
Since we said they were nomads, they could not cultivate the land and
they could not raise cattle,
they were hunters, fishermen and gatherers (gatherer).
3)
they were a cemetery
Let’s talk about the second population, which arrived in
England 800 years b.C., they were from peninsula
scandinava.

Celts came to England by ship during the Iron Age. They were a northern
people from the Scandinavian peninsula. We know that they knew
metallurgy, fishing and farming. They created one of the first examples of
alphabet: the FUTARK, that is an alphabet made of runes. The runes were
NOT letters, but signs and symbols. They can be found on jewels or on the
stones and trees which constituted the ancient temples in the woods. The
Celts had a pyramidal society, in which the chief and the Druids were at
the top, then there were the warriors, the farmers and the slaves.
The Druids were important figures in their society. They were priests,
judges,teachers, councillors for the chief, physicians and bards. So, they
detained the memory of the traditions of their own people and transmitted
it orally to the next generations.

this period is called the iron (Ferro) age, they could work the iron, they
knew metallurgy, which is the skill to know how to work with metals, we
know that because in this case we have some testimonies such as jewelry,
that was so beautiful that a few years ago Tiffany, the very famous jewelry
brand, dedicated a collection of jewels for this populations, and they are
called CELTS.
These celts could create this beautiful jewels, and they also work the iron
for making weapons (armi), important discoveries are thanks by the
jewelry.
They went by sea, by boat , and this means that they knew how to build a
boat and how to drive a boat, so this means that the England now is an
island.
They get orientation in the sea looking at the sun, at the stars, exc.
they are from by the Scandinavia peninsula, this means that their physical
aspects were different, they were really tall, blonde or ginger, they had fair
eyes, and they were complexion.
They were not nomad, but settlers, this means that they knew how to
cattle breed and how to farm the land.
Their populations we’re divided in tribes.
Their society is a pyramid, at the top there was the chief (il capo) not the
king, under the chief there where the councellors, who were old warriors,
and all women where councellors and they were holy (Sante) because they
give birth to the babies, and the divinity where all women, called
goddesses, and they were all ancient.
in the councellors we will see that we’re also the druids.
Under the councellors there were warriors, both women and men.
We have also the druids, they are outside the pyramid because they did
many different functions, they were usually part of the counsellors, they
were priests, and they had a religious based on nature, and they had
ceremonies in nature places, and in fact most of their gods are relate to
nature, like god of sun, moon, spring, everything related to nature.
The druids were the ones that celebrate the celebration of the religion,
they were also outside the pyramid.
They believe their religion was based on magic and they believe that they
were magicians, and they were also physicians, and also they were
teachers, because they were the only one who studies everything about
population, but school didn’t exist, so they learned by heart (a memoria),
when they had to teach people something that they knew, they would
teach by heart if he want to be a druid.
When they have to teach common people by singing songs, so they were
also called bards, who sings songs and move from a village to village.
They wee also lawyers and judges, if for the councillors there were
problems, they go to the chief and he would sentence the criminal.

the celts lived happily in england for many centuries, but at a certain point
came romans, they tried to conquer the land the first time in 55 b.c. , but
they couldn’t, and 10 years later they tried again with giulio cesar and they
succeeded in 45 d.c.
the romans didn’t ever conquered the all land, they created a wall to enter
in england and was called adrian’s wall, they succeeded with the southern
part, it was created to mark the part that they conquered.
About the roman conquers is important to know that the tribes that they
conquers changed their names, and they called them brittons , that’s why
today we say brittany, great britain.
after changed the name they had to pay taxes to the empire, as long as
they pay taxes they would be free to do whatever they want. this meant
that when the roman empire fell, the people continue to believe that
nothing happened.
the romans hanno lasciato in england were the buildings, like london ,
which was called londinion, and was founded by romans.
and generally speaking. you can recognise the city that were conquered
from romans with the name of the cities, because if finish with cester, and
it means “little city”.
it’s sure that were a cettling of romans.
romans were great builders of streets.
they also want their city to be clear, so they had fognatures.
and if you want to build fognatures you need a waterhighways
(acquedotto).
apart of this four things they did nothing else, they knew how to read and
write, but they didn’t teach to britonns how to write. the roman empire fell
in 409 a.d. and romans had to say nobody could read and write, so actually
prehistory was not over for brittons.
and the name of the imperator in this time was honofrius.
So because that nobody could write, we have nothing written testaments,
and that age us called dark years.
in 454 years of conquers, the relationship with brittons and romans and
romans with celts, was not easy because they wanted them to pay taxes
and they wanted to be free.
so bruttons used to rebel really often, and the leader of the most
important rebellion was BOUDICCA, and one they didn’t have enough to
pay taxes, and romans had revenge to rave her and her daughters, and one
of her daughter died.
when people discover what happened they went completely mad.
the queen encourage this rage and united different tribes, and she moves
to tribe to tribe trying to creat a giant tribe. they sent romans away, but
unfortunately during a war she has made prisoner by romans, and the
problem was that the tribes weren’t together anymore, and the romans
wanted to move boudicca to rome, but she killed herself not to give the
romans the sodisfaction of bringing her to rome

THE DARK YEARS

It Begans in 597 a.d. , they are called dark years because there are not
Britain documents about what happened but in 571 a.d. They found a text
whose title is “historia ecclesiastica gentis anglorum”, it was written by a
monk who was “bede the bard” and it explain the history between the
years.
What we know is that 3 population came from german area and their
names were “angles, frisons and jutes” in facts the settled in differents
parts of england.
But the angles conquered the most part of england, in fact england is
called like that for angles.

Then a fourth populations arrived and they were the “saxons”, and they
were still from germany, and they wanted to illy with the most powerful
population which were the angles and they mixed in an only population
which is called “anglo-saxons”.
this is important because when the anglo saxon where born, ENGLISH was
born, and was called OLD ENGLISH, around 700-1066 and was a germanic
english and the grammar where like germanic grammar, the verbs for
example where always at the end of the phrases and they were the
declinations.
the important thing is that somewhere somebody discovered how to write ,
in 597 “pope gregory the first” called the great, decided to christenice the
england and he sent ST augustin to cristianise england and he did it, he
christianised de chief and he found monasteries where they write and
copy texts.
St augustin decided that he would christianise only the chief and they tried
to convince the other people.
st augustin when arrived he first went to the chief and convinced them to
be cristian, a thing that he had done is that he found a monastery in
Canterbury, is the first monastery in England and became archbishop of
that monastery.
even nowadays this monastery ist the most important religious figure after
the monarch. in england there were also catholic, and in the canterbury
the mounts did an important job, but they translating codices,

a codice is like the ancestor of a book, but you can’t call it a book, because
books are made of paper, and the paper did not exist and codices are made
by parchment, and then the books are printed and codices are made by
hand

the mounts are called amanuensis because they write by hand.

Parchment is made by the skin of the animals, in particular of lambs, for

doing that they had to take young lambs and when you take the skin the
first thing that you must do is take the skin and to souk in to uman urine
because uman pees contains ammonia , and not only cleans the skin, but
also it became whiter and soft.
and when the skin is ready, u make a dry and you cut a rectangle, and you
stretch it and press it to make it harder, and at the end you can fold the
page and with the skin of one lamb you can make a minimal of two paces,
but if you fold it other times you can make more pages like 8 pages.

THERE ARE TWO DIFFERENT WAYS:

CHEAPER
if you put this clothes in water for months the material deteriorates and
then you press them together, you cut the shape that you need and here is
the cover

EXPENSIVE
the other way was using the skin of the lambs, and for the cover you need
like three to 5 lambs in minimal.

PENS
the skin of the lambs is idroreppelent so you mustn’t use something of
water, so the first thing you have to use is coal mixed with resine and also
with the white of a egg and the fourth ingredient is beetles pressed, for
making the color darker.
they are easily to do it than the codices but are much expensive.

COLORS
the black inchiostro was cheaper but difficult, and the colors are much
expensive also.

RECYCLING CODICES
one way to save money was recycling the codices, like scratching away the
ink , it was important because when we study medieval codices there
were some stories, which are philologies who learn watch at was written in
the codices, and when they were recycled they look at the page in the
light.

the other way is that if you have written on a page you can use the space
that is not used, like the space between the lines, u can use also the
border, and these are called glosses.

the first codice important was “…”

STORY
after the arrival of st augustine, there is a period called the EPTARCHY
because “epta” means number “7” , and this period is called EPTARCHY
because the country was divided in seven kingdoms by the tribes.

in one of the kingdom, at the beginning of 9 century, there was an anglo

Saxon important king, king Alfred the grate, he was the first king on
England, because he unified all the seven kingdoms
the second thing that he did was creating public schools, because was a
really clever man, and for him if you want your country to increase you
have to have

and the schools were open to all the citizens, apart from
-women, they were subdued, and the brain of the woman was smaller than
the brain if the man, for their thinking
-slaves, because they were not considered citizens

the king incentivate the monasteries to copy and to translate many

codices, and he wanted the mounts not to copy and translate only he
wanted also them to create new codices in anglo-saxon

he defeated the vikings, who are a population coming from the scandinavia
peninsula and from island, and they were dangerous for england because
they used to come by ship and they road the monasteries (because were
rich) and they also kidnapped people from england because they would
sell this people as slaves in costantinopolis in turkey.
WHY SO?
because white people as a slaves were considered particularly expensive
and they would sell them at a good price and mounts were also cultivated.

KING ALFRED THE GRATE

(he is called the grate because he did the first written cover of laws which are
called the “laws of alfred” and its important because if you epwrite done a law
it’s the same law for all the england.
Kingdom of King Alfred the Great; He was a great king because he defeated the
Vikings, unified England, created the first public schools and then established
OE as a literary language. He wrote some literary works himself. King Alfred
definitely defeated the Vikings and completed the unification of England.)

1066
is a fondamentale year because was the last time the england was
conquered by a foreign country, in that year there was a king who’s name
is edward the second, he was also called the pious, because he was
religious and he didn’t want to meet his wife, because he thought that the
women were demons, and tenters.
when he died in the problem was that he hadn’t a heir (erede), so he
nailed one of his councillors, named HAROLD II as his successor, he
became king after his death, but as soon as he became king Edward
cousins claimed the throne (HARALD HARDRADA) and he was the king of
the vikings
the other cousin was a norman (WILLIAM DUKE OF NORMANDY (north
France)) also William wanted the throne
HARALD travelled to the north and HAROLD went to the north and he won
the battle, but as soon as the battle was over a message arrived that
william had crossed the sea and he got to the south, so HAROLD had to go
and march for five days and five nights without sleeping for going against
WILLIAM, WHY SO because the london was on the south and if william had
got to london he would have conquered the country.
when they arrived even they were more than william ‘s esercito and william
won the battle because harold’s army, and he won the HASTINGS.
so WILLIAM became WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. when he conquered the
country there was a difficult situation and he established all the people in
a position of power could not be english, they must be normans, so there
was the anger of the english because they lost and they were conquered,
and there war also another problem, that the upper classes spoke norman
and lower classes spoke middle english, and latin in the church.
So there were three tpdifferent lenguages and they couldn’t communicate
to one another.
AFTER 300 YEARS IT BECAME MIDDLE ENGLISH (1500 so 16 secolo)
their lenguages fused together, that’s why english of nowadays has some
words that remind you french and others that remind you latin.
FOR WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR
disappear the declinations, the verb at the end of the phrases, the capital
letters for the names
NEW TYPE OF GOVERNMENT
william create a new government called FEUDALISM, there was a social
pyramid
AT THE TOP
king
UNDER THE KING
barons (vassalli), there were different barons,
barons (baroni), dukes and counts
UNDER
knights (cavalieri)
BELOW
merchants, artisans and peasants (contadini) of the system of the
enclosure, and not farmers because of that
AT THE END
slaves