Professional Documents
Culture Documents
BEHAVIOUR
COURSE WRITER
Prof. Vishwanath Joshi Prof. Vijay Masarkar
EDITORS
Mr. Yogesh Bhosle
Acknowledgement
Every attempt has been made to trace the copyright holders of materials reproduced in this book. Should any
infringement have occurred, SCDL apologises for the same and will be pleased to make necessary corrections
in future editions of this book.
PREFACE
We are delighted to present to you this renewed edition of the SLM on Organisational Behaviour.
We present this to you with a firm conviction that managing businesses today is more about managing
people and less about anything else. Understanding the human side of business, the relationship
dynamics at work place and channelizing the talent towards the achievement of business objectives
is a challenge every manager faces today. Often, as students of business management or as practicing
professionals, we get so narrow in our thinking and doing process that we fail to realise this significant
connection between people and business goals. Experience proves that this is the beginning of the
end for any organisation.
This the SLM is an attempt to get you started on this exciting learning journey about how people,
their behaviours and their inter relationships affect and get affected by the organisational culture and
goals.
Our request to all of you is not to limit your reading on this subject to this the SLM only. Like
most fields in modern businesses, OB is also being constantly enriched by new research, theoretical
frameworks and practical insights. We encourage you to keep yourself updated and enjoy your
learnings of OB.
iii
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Prof. Vishwanath Joshi is a Post Graduate in Human Resource Management from Pune University.
Spanning his career of more than 8 years, he has worked with IT consulting organizations like
Mahindra Consulting, Patni and KPIT Cummins Infosystems Ltd., Pune. Before taking up the role
of Head – Training with Brainvisa Technologies, an e-learning solutions company, he was heading
HR with UBICS, a UB group IT consulting and products company in Pune.
He has also consulted with Infosys Technologies Ltd., one of the largest and reputed IT consulting
organizations in India, as a Certified Trainer on behavioural skills for their software professionals.
He is also associated with Corporate Learning Centres like National Insurance Academy, a training
institution for all insurance organizations in the country as a trainer-faculty in various HR as well as
behavioural areas.
His current role at Brainvisa, Pune is largely focused on designing and executing organization wide
training processes and interventions in Managerial and behavioural areas.
Overall, he has more than five years experience in designing and delivering value based programs
like High Impact Communication skills, Customer Orientation and Management, Telephone
Communication, Managing Relationships, Mentoring and Coaching etc. for a variety of participant
profile.
He is also involved in designing and delivering high end Executive Education programs at Wipro,
Mphasis, Infosys, Intel, Reliance Infostream, EXL Services, Cognizant Technology Solutions etc. in
areas of People Management processes and skills.
Prof. Vijay Masarkar (ADCSSAA, MBA, MIRPM, and MLS) has total 21 years of experience in
the field of Management and Management Education in India and abroad. He has studied at Asian
Institute of Management, Manila, Philippines. He has qualified SET (Management) and UGC-NET
(HR) in 2001. He is also a registered Welfare Officer under Factories Act, 1948. And a Research
Scholar at Bharti Vidyapeeth, Pune.
He was associated with Liquor (Shaw Wallace), Textile industry (Indo-Rama Synthetics (I) Ltd.),
Apparel industry (Lords Wear Pvt. Ltd. & Lords Academy of Fashion Technology) and Infrastructure
and Project Management Organisation (Artefact Projects Pvt. Ltd.) before coming into academics.
Since 2008, he has been working in ODL environment at Post Graduate level and was formerly
associated with YCMOU and Tilak Maharashtra Vidyapeeth, Pune.
Prof. Vijay Masarkar is presently associated with Symbiosis Centre for Distance Learning since 2011
and also taught at Symbiosis Skills and Professional University, Pune and Symbiosis University
of Applied Sciences, Indore. He is also a program coordinator for Insurance Management, Project
Management and Law Programs at SCDL
iv
CONTENTS
Unit Page
TITLE
No. No.
1 Historical Evolution of Organisational Behaviour 1-18
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Historical Development of Organisational Behaviour
1.3 Events Instrumental in the Development of Organisational Behaviour
1.3.1 The Great Depression
1.3.2 The Rise of Trade Unionism
1.3.3 Hawthorne Experiments
1.4 Impact of Organisational Behaviour on Organisational Environment
1.5 Emerging Concerns in Organisational Behaviour
Summary
Key Words
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
3 Perception 31-48
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Significance of Perception
3.3 Principles of Perceptual Selection
3.3.1 External Attention Factors
3.3.2 Internal Set Factors
3.4 Perceptual Set in Organisational Settings
3.5 Characteristics of Perceiver and Perceived
Summary
Key Words
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
v
Unit Page
TITLE
No. No.
4 Personality 49-74
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Definition of Personality
4.3 Determinants of Personality
4.4 Personality Theories
4.4.1 Intrapsychic Theory
4.4.2 Type Theories
4.4.3 Trait Theories
4.4.4 Social Learning Theory
4.4.5 Self Theory
4.5 Personality and Organisation
4.6 Personality Structure
4.7 Personality and Behaviour
Case Study
Summary
Key words
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
5 Attitudes 75-96
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Nature of Attitude
5.3 Arousal of Attitude
5.4 Attitudes and Values
5.5 Attitudes and Opinions
5.6 Attitudes, Beliefs and Ideology
5.7 Attitudes and Prejudices
5.8 Characteristics of Attitude
5.9 Attitude Formation
5.10 Measurement of Attitude
5.10.1 Problems in Attitude Measurement
5.11 Changing Attitudes
5.12 Attitudes and Behaviour
5.12.1 Sources of Job Satisfaction
5.12.2 Job Satisfaction and Employee Performance
5.12.3 Commitment to Organisation
Summary
Key Words
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
vi
Unit Page
TITLE
No. No.
6 Motivation: The Driving Forces of Human Behaviour 97-108
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Characteristics and Classification of Motives
6.3 Intrapersonal Conflicts
6.3.1 Defence Mechanism
6.4 Money as a Motivator
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
7 Work Motivation Theories 109-132
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Abraham Maslow’s Theory of Need Hierarchy
7.2.1 Criticism of Maslow’s Theory
7.3 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation
7.3.1 Criticism of Herzberg’s Theory
7.4 Alderfer’s ERG Theory
7.5 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory of Motivation
7.5.1 Criticism
7.6 The Porter-Lawler Model
7.7 Equity Theory of Work Motivation
7.8 Attribution Theory
7.9 Theory X and Theory Y
7.10 Pygmalion in Management
Case Study
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
8 Morale and Work & Conditions of Work 133-158
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Indicators of Morale
8.3 Various Aspects of Morale
8.4 Improving Employee Morale
8.5 Work and Conditions of Work
8.6 Relationship among Job Characteristics, Working Conditions and Job
Performance
8.7 Characteristics of Work
8.8 Creating a Favourable Work Environment
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
vii
Unit Page
TITLE
No. No.
9 Maximising human Potential through EQ’ 159-176
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Principles of Emotional Intelligence
9.3 Daniel Goleman on EI in the Workplace
9.4 Significance of EQ at the Workplace?
9.5 Examples of High and Low EQ at Work
9.6 EQ Impacts Communication in the Workplace
9.7 Leading with Emotional Intelligence in Management
9.8 Emotional Intelligence for Project Managers
9.9 Using EI in HR (Human Resources)
9.10 Emotional Intelligence Interview Questions
9.11 Improving Your Emotional Quotient
Summary
Key Words
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
viii
Unit Page
TITLE
No. No.
11 Group Dynamics 195-216
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Classification of Groups
11.3 Teams and Types of Teams
11.4 Developmental Stages of Groups
11.5 Influences on Team Effectiveness
11.6 Team Diversity
11.7 Groupthink and Remedies to Overcome Groupthink
11.8 Group Maturity
11.9 Groups: A Sociological View
11.10 Effective Team Working
Case Study
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
12 Stress Management 217-230
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Types of Stress and Stressors
12.3 Management of Stress
12.4 Ways to Overcome Stress
Case Study
Summary
Key Words
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
13 Leadership and Business Ethics 231-258
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Classic Studies on Leadership
13.3 Leadership Skills
13.4 Leadership Styles
13.4.1 Managerial Grid
13.4.2 Rensis Likert’s Four Systems Management
13.4.3 Leadership Behaviour Continum
13.5 Theories of Leadership
13.6 Business Ethics
Summary
Key Words
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
ix
Unit Page
TITLE
No. No.
14 Management of Organisational Change 259-282
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Forces for Change
14.3 Organisational Resistance to Change
14.4 Planning to overcome Change
Case Study
Summary
Keywords
Self-assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
xi
xii
Historical Evolution of Organisational Behaviour
UNIT
Structure:
1
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Historical Development of Organisational Behaviour
1.3 Events Instrumental in the Development of Organisational Behaviour
1.3.1 The Great Depression
1.3.2 The Rise of Trade Unionism
1.3.3 Hawthorne Experiments
1.4 Impact of Organisational Behaviour on Organisational Environment
1.5 Emerging Concerns in Organisational Behaviour
Summary
Key Words
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
---------------------- Organisations are created to bring order to a concerted effort for the
achievement of certain objectives and goals. Since these objectives cannot be
---------------------- achieved by an individual or by a small group of individuals, the concepts of
division of labour, hierarchy of authority, etc. within an organization come into
---------------------- play. Since an individual cannot achieve the objectives of an organisation, it
---------------------- is necessary that many people come together in pursuit of the objectives of an
organisation. However, in order that their efforts are consequential, they need
---------------------- to be tied in a meaningful relationship. This is achieved by creating a structure,
where people work using technology. In a typical organisation, therefore, there
---------------------- is a constant interaction among people, structure and technology. In order that
---------------------- this relationship bears fruits, every organisation contains a blueprint of human
behaviour at work.
---------------------- There can be a definite ratio of input to output when it comes to other
---------------------- inanimate factors of production but in the case of human beings, there cannot be
any such fixed ratio. If the manager handles this human element properly, two
---------------------- plus two can equal five, or else it can be three. It is, therefore, necessary for the
manager not only to understand human behavior properly but also to channelise
---------------------- that understanding towards the betterment of the organisation. It is a fact that
---------------------- no manager can be much more efficient than the sum of the efficiencies of the
people working with him. It, therefore, becomes necessary for him to study
---------------------- human behaviour within the context of an organisation, understand it, try to
predict human behaviour and, having predicted it, try to control it.
----------------------
The industrial scene in modern India has undergone tremendous changes.
---------------------- The Government of India, until the last decade of the last century, protected
the Indian industry from foreign competition. The Government which drove
----------------------
out Coca Cola in the 70s, threw open the economy to the multinationals in
2 Organisational Behaviour
1992. The multinationals, which entered the Indian market, enjoyed superior Notes
resources in terms of money, technology as well as market network. With a view
to facing the challenges posed by the multinationals, a sea change in the attitude ----------------------
of the workforce of organisations was necessary. The responsibility to do this
fell squarely on the shoulders of every manager. It called for knowledge of the ----------------------
human behaviour at work. ----------------------
The composition of the workforce has undergone a huge change. The
----------------------
industrial worker of today is more educated than his counterpart some ten
or fifteen years before. The mix of the skills has also changed. If a manager ----------------------
desires to be effective, he must understand the behavioural angularities of the
employees. In a nutshell, to be efficient as well to be effective, a manager cannot ----------------------
remain content with having the knowledge of his area of work only. Typically,
----------------------
the discipline of Organisational Behaviour (OB) attempts to accumulate the
knowledge about human behaviour at work from which the manager can draw ----------------------
insights for understanding, predicting and controlling human behaviour at work.
----------------------
Modern managers cannot afford to have hits and misses. It is expected that they
hit the bull’s eye in the first attempt. Therefore, every manager, irrespective of ----------------------
his specialty or the functional area, should study the discipline of Organisational
Behaviour. ----------------------
----------------------
1.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF
ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR ----------------------
The field of Organisational Behaviour has developed from the studies ----------------------
conducted by behavioural scientists such as industrial psychologists, psychologists ----------------------
and sociologists. The focus of these studies lies in the understanding of human
behaviour in the organisations. The levels at which these studies have been carried ----------------------
out relate to individuals, small groups, intergroups and the total organisation as
a socio-economic and technical system. Some studies have also examined the ----------------------
interaction of the organisation with its environment. ----------------------
The discipline of Organisational Behaviour is based on empirical studies
of human behaviour at the work settings. On the other hand, human relations ----------------------
is the study of behavioural knowledge at work to develop human motivation ----------------------
towards the attainment of organisational goals. Human relations is an action-
oriented and a goal-directed approach. According to Keith Davis, the difference ----------------------
between the two is that of between a pathologist and the physician. While the
pathologist attempts to understand human illness, the physician tends to employ ----------------------
that knowledge to gain results. Thus, organisational behaviour and human ----------------------
relations are complimentary to each other.
Behavioural scientists focus their attention on organisational theory, ----------------------
especially organisational adaptability, the relationship of organisational structure ----------------------
to human behaviour and decision-making. The study of managerial behaviour
includes not only the tasks of getting things done through others but also the ----------------------
whys and hows of individual behaviour. Questions that form the subject matter
of Organisational Behaviour are related to individual, interpersonal, small group ----------------------
4 Organisational Behaviour
3. Human relations movement: According to Fred Luthans, three events Notes
cumulatively ushered in the era of human relations movement. They are:
----------------------
a) The Great Depression
b) The Hawthorne experiments ----------------------
c) Rise of trade unionism ----------------------
These events have been described in detail in the next section. ----------------------
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
----------------------
1. The application of psychological facts concerning human beings
within the context of business and industry is known as: ----------------------
i. Sociology
----------------------
ii. Psychology
iii. Industrial Psychology ----------------------
iv. Organisational Behaviour ----------------------
2. The principles of scientific management were given by:
----------------------
i. Abraham Maslow
ii. Elton Mayo ----------------------
iii. Frederick W. Taylor ----------------------
iv. Frederick Irving Herzberg
----------------------
Activity 1 ----------------------
----------------------
Arrange the following in the correct order of emergence:
1. Organisational behaviour 2. Scientific management movement ----------------------
3. Human relations movement 4. Industrial psychology ----------------------
----------------------
1.3 EVENTS INSTRUMENTAL IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF
----------------------
ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
----------------------
We have seen the historical development of OB in the previous section.
Various socio-economic changes and events were taking place in the society ----------------------
simultaneously, and together they ushered in the discipline of organisational
behaviour. ----------------------
1.3.1 The Great Depression ----------------------
The economy was operating in high gear just before the thundering financial ----------------------
crash of 1929. The production and organisational specialists had achieved great
results prior to the crash. After the crash, the management began to realise that ----------------------
---------------------- In India, though workers’ unions existed since the latter half of the 19th
century, they functioned under terrible legal constraints. It was only in 1926,
---------------------- with the passing of the Trade Union Act, that the managers began realising that
the trade unions had come to stay in spite of the wishes of the managers, or for
---------------------- that matter, management. The only option to avoid any probable friction with
---------------------- the trade union was to understand the human relations role of the management.
1.3.3 Hawthorne Experiments
----------------------
Western Electric Co. conducted at its factory called the Hawthorne Works,
---------------------- a research programme or a series of experiments on the factors in the work
situations, which affect the morale and productive efficiency of workers. The first
---------------------- of these, the Illumination Experiments, was conducted in cooperation with the
---------------------- National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences. In the remainder
of the studies, the company was aided and guided by Prof. Elton Mayo and his
---------------------- associates from Harvard University. As Harvard played a significant role in the
project, it is often referred to as the Hawthorne-Harvard experiments or studies.
----------------------
As Milton L. Blum, Jack C. Naylor in their treatise Industrial Psychology
---------------------- observed, “The Hawthorne studies are of utmost significance as they form an
honest and concerted attempt to understand the human factor rarely understood
----------------------
in industry, recognizing the employee attitudes, his social situation on the job
6 Organisational Behaviour
and his personal history and background”. The Hawthorne studies represent the Notes
pioneer attempts to make a systematic and intensive study of the human factor
and to demonstrate the utmost complexity in work setting where people interact ----------------------
in small groups under varied organisational conditions. The studies point out that
the needs for recognition, security and sense of belonging exert greater impact ----------------------
on workers’ productivity than the physical working conditions; that attitudes and ----------------------
effectiveness of workers are determined by the social requirements inside and
outside the factory environment. ----------------------
The Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Co., Chicago, manufactured ----------------------
equipment for the Bell Telephone System and employed 30,000 workers at
the time of the experiments. Although, in all material aspects, this was the ----------------------
most progressive company with pension and sickness schemes and numerous
recreational and other facilities, there had been a great deal of discontent and ----------------------
dissatisfaction among its employees. After a failure of investigation conducted by
----------------------
efficiency experts of the company in 1924, the company asked for the assistance
of the National Academy of Sciences, which initiated its experiments with a view ----------------------
to examining the relationship between the workers’ efficiency and illumination
in the workshop. ----------------------
Segments of Hawthorne experiments ----------------------
Like any experimental design, the researchers manipulated the independent
----------------------
variable (illumination) to observe its effects on the dependent variable
(productivity) and attempted to hold other factors under control. The following ----------------------
are the broad segments of the study:
----------------------
1. Illumination experiments (1924−1927): To study the effects of changed
illuminations on work, two groups of employees were formed. In one ----------------------
group (control group) the illumination remained unchanged throughout
the experiments whereas in other group (experimental group) the ----------------------
illumination was enhanced in intensity. As anticipated, the productivity in
experimental group showed an improvement. But strangely enough, the ----------------------
output of the control group also went up. The researchers then proceeded ----------------------
to decrease the illumination for the experimental group. The output
went up once more. This showed that some factor was operating which ----------------------
increased productivity (dependent variable) regardless of higher or lower
intensity of light. Obviously, there was something much more important ----------------------
than wages, hours of work, working conditions, etc. which influenced
----------------------
productivity. Despite their negative results, the illumination experiments
did not end up in the wastepaper basket but provided a momentum to the ----------------------
relay room phase of the studies.
2. Relay room experiments (1927−1932): The relay room experiments that ----------------------
were initiated in 1927 represent the actual beginning of the Hawthorne ----------------------
studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his Harvard colleagues. Taking a cue
from the preceding illumination experiments the researchers attempted to ----------------------
set up the test room and selected two girls for the experiments. These girls
were asked to choose other four girls, thus making a small group of six. ----------------------
The group was employed in assembling telephone relays.
----------------------
8 Organisational Behaviour
small-group piece-rate scheme. This arrangement led to a 12% rise in Notes
productivity of the experimental group.
----------------------
In the mica splitting study, although the isolated test room conditions
of the original relay study were reproduced, the workers were engaged ----------------------
under their normal individual piece rate plan rather than small group
incentive schemes employed with the relay room experimental subjects. ----------------------
The results revealed an average increase of 15% productivity during a
----------------------
period of 14 months. The outcome of these two studies was quite vague.
As Fritz J. Roethlisberger & William J. Dickson in their studies observed, ----------------------
“there was no evidence to support the hypothesis that the constant rise in
the productivity in the relay assembly test room could be attributed to the ----------------------
wage incentives variable alone.” It was concluded that the efficacy of a
----------------------
wage incentive scheme was dependent on other variables as well that it
could not be considered as the sole factor to affect the worker. ----------------------
4. Mass interviewing programme (1928−1930): Another major aspect of
----------------------
the Hawthorne studies consisted of 21,000 interviews carried out during
1928 to 1930. The original objective was to gather information, which ----------------------
could be used to improve supervisory training. Initially, these interviews
were conducted by means of direct questioning. However, this method had ----------------------
the disadvantages of either stimulating antagonism or the over simplified
----------------------
yes or no responses, which could not get to the root of the problems.
Therefore, the method was changed to “non-directive” interviewing where ----------------------
the interviewer was to listen instead of talk, argue or advice, and take on
the role of a confidant. On the basis of this interviewing programme, the ----------------------
following inferences were drawn:
----------------------
a) Only giving a person an opportunity to talk and air his grievances
had a positive impact on his morale. ----------------------
b) Complaints were no longer necessarily objective statements of job ----------------------
facts. Rather, they were symptoms of more deep-rooted disturbances.
----------------------
c) Workers were governed by the experiences obtained, both inside
and outside the company, in respect of their demands. ----------------------
d) The worker is satisfied or dissatisfied depending upon how he ----------------------
regarded his social status in the company and what he felt he was
entitled to rather than in terms of any objective reference. ----------------------
5. Bank wiring room study (November 1931−May 1932): The chief ----------------------
objective of this study was to conduct an observational analysis of the
work group. ----------------------
There were 14 men employed on bank wiring. This was the process where ----------------------
two lose wire ends were soldered. This group of 14 employees included
nine wiremen, three soldermen and two inspectors. The job involved ----------------------
attaching wires to switches for certain parts of telephone equipment. For
----------------------
some practical difficulties, the study was conducted in a separate test
room. However, the study involved no experimental changes once it had ----------------------
---------------------- Why were such contradictory results obtained in the relay room and the
bank wiring room? As pointed out earlier, in the relay room production constantly
---------------------- increased throughout the test periods and relay assemblers were greatly motivated
and equipped with positive attitudes whereas, in the bank wiring room there
---------------------- prevailed a restriction of production among dissatisfied workers who displayed
negative attitudes towards the objective of the factory. The question that arises
----------------------
is why. The answer to this question can be found in the reactions of the girls to
---------------------- the relay test room. They unanimously showed marked preference for working
in the test room rather than in the regular department, because of small group,
---------------------- nature of supervision, earnings, novelty of situation, interest in the experiment
and attention received in the test room.
----------------------
It may be noted that the last three reasons are related to the well-known
---------------------- “Hawthorne effect”, the psychological phenomenon, which leads to improved
10 Organisational Behaviour
employee performance due to positive change in the internal and external work Notes
environment. Numerous behavioural scientists tend to overlook the significance
of the first three reasons and are of the opinion that the phenomenal increase in ----------------------
the productivity in the relay room can be attributed primarily to this effect.
----------------------
It may be noted that the relay room and the bank wiring room studies
differed in the supervisory aspects. Although in the relay room there were no ----------------------
regular supervisors engaged, the girls assigned second priority to the nature of
supervision, which prompted them to increase production and made them feel ----------------------
happier. They regarded the friendly, attentive and genuinely interested observer
----------------------
as their supervisor. However, in the bank wiring room where regular departmental
supervisors were directed to maintain order and control, this arrangement caused ----------------------
inhibitions. Even the observer, who acted as the disinterested and detached
spectator, was accepted as a member of the group rather than as a supervisor. ----------------------
Therefore, it could be inferred that the quality of supervision played a vital role
in determining productivity along with the Hawthorne effect. ----------------------
A specific conclusion drawn from these studies is that in informal groups ----------------------
operating within the work settings, the group exerts strong social control over
the work habits and performances of the individual workers. Last but not the ----------------------
least, the studies revealed that supervision has a great impact on the behaviour
----------------------
of the work groups in determining as to whether they will react positively or
negatively while working towards the organisational objectives. ----------------------
The discipline of Organisational Behaviour came to be recognized as a field
of study around 1950, though no exact date can be stated. It is seen that while ----------------------
industrial psychology, scientific management, human relations have defined ----------------------
their areas of studies and research, the field of Organisational Behaviour is still
growing. OB studies not only the human behaviour within the parameters of the ----------------------
organisation but also the group dynamics. This is because the study of the human
behaviour within the organisation would be incomplete unless inter- personal ----------------------
relations and intergroup relations are studied. OB also recognizes that the external
----------------------
environment influences the internal organisational environment. The fruits of
any organisational effort are dependent upon the external environment. There ----------------------
are many factors in the external environment that influence the ultimate outcome
of the internal organisational effort. ----------------------
----------------------
Activity 2
----------------------
1. We all are aware of the fact that working in call centres may be stressful
at times and may even lead to serious disorders. After having read about ----------------------
the Hawthorne’s experiments, presume yourself as a manager of one
of India’s leading BPO. What steps would you take to ensure that your ----------------------
employees are highly productive and at the same time enjoy working in ----------------------
your company? Give five suggestions.
2. Presume that you are the manager of a company manufacturing ----------------------
precision instruments, and have about 500 blue-collar workers and 50
white-collar employees. In such an organisation, how would you see to ----------------------
it that all your employees are happy and that there is no problem arising
----------------------
from trade unionism? Mention at least five key points in this regard.
12 Organisational Behaviour
6 Participation in Introduce suggestion Prove through actions Notes
decision- making schemes to give that the employee
----------------------
everyone a voice. makes a better
performer. ----------------------
7 Mission-based Mission tells everyone Translate the
----------------------
organisation and where the company company mission into
its relation to and the employees are individual goals and ----------------------
each job headed. objectives.
----------------------
8 Relationships at Encourage Allow friendships to
work relationships to flower. They help in ----------------------
remain professional. greater productivity &
Friendships lead to stronger teams. ----------------------
long coffee breaks.
----------------------
9 Quality Set strict norms. Get teams to generate
Everyone quality management ----------------------
automatically shares processes. “People
----------------------
the standards. support what they
help create.” ----------------------
10 Need for Show the star Forget about
----------------------
encouragement performers the path to promotions. Help
and support the top, using that as every individual ----------------------
a carrot for improved realise his/her
output. potential, and to find ----------------------
the role that best suits
----------------------
him/her.
11 Progress review Whatever progress a Use progress to ----------------------
person has made only measure how well an ----------------------
brings him rewards. individual has used
His future lies in his talents, and how ----------------------
charting out a new well the company has
allowed him to do so. ----------------------
territory.
12 Growth and Provide people ample Encourage long- ----------------------
learning opportunities for term and sustainable ----------------------
training so that they learning through
can upgrade their innovation, ----------------------
skills. experimentation and
initiative. Fear of ----------------------
mistakes has no place ----------------------
here.
----------------------
The above table helps you to appreciate the paradigm shift – a totally new way
of looking at people management in business organisations. ----------------------
----------------------
---------------------- You have studied how the Hawthorne studies have contributed to the
growth and development of Organisational Behaviour. You have also understood
---------------------- the paradigm shift – a totally new way of looking at people management in
14 Organisational Behaviour
business organisations. In this section, you will learn about the key concerns in Notes
Organisational Behaviour.
----------------------
Cultural Diversity and Teamwork
The practice of working in teams is becoming more prevalent in all types ----------------------
of organisations. Interdepartmental teams are formed to engage workers in
----------------------
collaborative efforts to resolve problems, integrate new programmes and/or
processes, and engage in long-range planning. Interdisciplinary, cross-functional ----------------------
teams are formed to bring together all stakeholders in an organisation to improve
communication, increase involvement, improve quality and efficiency, and ----------------------
increase productivity.
----------------------
Merely putting people in teams, however, does not guarantee that the teams
will be effective. Getting people to work together – to listen to every member, to ----------------------
consider all viewpoints, and to exercise courtesy and respect for each other – has
----------------------
always been a challenge. In today’s society, when cultural diversity is common
in workplaces, good communication and cultural sensitivity has become an even ----------------------
greater challenge. It is commonplace today to have an Indian IT professional
reporting to an American manager and working with a Belgian colleague, all ----------------------
of who are separated by thousands of miles. Information Technology connects
----------------------
them to each other, but understanding diversity is what helps them become an
effective and truly multinational team. ----------------------
Ethical Management and Corporate Social Responsibility ----------------------
What is business ethics? The concept has come to mean various things
to various people, but generally it is coming to know what is right or wrong in ----------------------
the workplace and doing what is right − this is in regard to effects of products/ ----------------------
services and in relationships with stakeholders.
Business ethics has come to be considered a management discipline, ----------------------
especially since the birth of the corporate social responsibility movement in ----------------------
the 1960s. In that decade, social awareness movements raised expectations of
businesses to use their massive financial and social influence to address social ----------------------
problems, such as poverty, crime, environmental protection, equal rights, public
health and improving education. An increasing number of people asserted that ----------------------
because businesses were making a profit from using our country’s resources, these ----------------------
businesses owed it to our country to work to improve society. Many researchers,
business schools and managers have recognized this broader constituency, and ----------------------
in their planning and operations have replaced the word “stockholder” with
“stakeholder,” meaning to include employees, customers, suppliers and the ----------------------
community. ----------------------
The emergence of business ethics and corporate social responsibility is
----------------------
similar to other management disciplines. Organisations, for example, realized
that they needed to project a more positive image to the public and so the recent ----------------------
discipline of public relations was born. Organisations realized they needed to
manage their human resources better and so the discipline of human resources ----------------------
was born. As commerce became more complicated and dynamic, organisations
----------------------
realized they needed more guidance to ensure their dealings supported the
16 Organisational Behaviour
• Corporate social responsibility: A form of corporate self-regulation Notes
integrated into a business model. CSR policy functions as a built-in, self-
regulating mechanism whereby a business monitors and ensures its active ----------------------
compliance with the spirit of the law, ethical standards, and international
norms. ----------------------
----------------------
Self-Assessment Questions
----------------------
1. Describe the historical development of Organisational Behaviour. ----------------------
2. What do you mean by trade unionism? Name few companies that have
been largely affected by trade unionism recently. ----------------------
3. Which experiments were carried out at the Western Electric Co.? Explain ----------------------
the experiments in detail.
----------------------
4. Discuss the various implications of the Hawthorne experiments.
----------------------
5. Write short notes on:
i) The impact of the Great Depression ----------------------
ii) Industrial psychology ----------------------
----------------------
Answers to Check Your Progress
----------------------
Check your Progress 1
Multiple Choice Single Response. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
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----------------------
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18 Organisational Behaviour
Understanding Organisational Behaviour
UNIT
Structure:
2
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Fundamental Concepts of Organisational Behaviour
2.3 Models of Organisational Behaviour
2.3.1 SOBC Model
Summary
Key Words
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
20 Organisational Behaviour
Organistional Change Management, Notes
Process Culture ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
22 Organisational Behaviour
Notes
Check your Progress 1
----------------------
State True or False. ----------------------
1. In spite of the fact that all human beings are similar, everyone is different.
----------------------
2. Organisations are concerned with only hands and heads of the
employees. ----------------------
3. A stereotype is a tendency to attribute the traits of a group to an individual ----------------------
because he belongs to the said group.
----------------------
4. The concept of human dignity confirms that people are to be treated
differently from other factors of production. ----------------------
----------------------
Activity 1 ----------------------
As a team leader, you have experienced that an extremely competent and ----------------------
intelligent employee is a great individual performer but his work style and ----------------------
personality alienate all of his teammates at workplace. Give reasons to
support your views. ----------------------
----------------------
2.3 MODELS OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR ----------------------
With regard to the nature of the organisation, the key assumptions are that ----------------------
they are the social systems and they based on mutual interests of the employees
and the management, meaning thereby that there is a mutuality of interests. ----------------------
All the employees comprising organisations are the members of the society ----------------------
from which they come. Thus, the organisation becomes a social system, in which
the value systems, customs, etc. conform to those of the society at large. Any ----------------------
organisation that has an inconsistent value system with the external society,
----------------------
does not last long. That an organisation is a social system also implies that the
organisational environment is not static. All parts of the organisational system ----------------------
are interdependent and are subject to influence by other parts of the organisation
as well the society at large. ----------------------
Organisations have a human purpose. They are formed and maintained on ----------------------
the basis of some mutuality of interests among the participants. Organisations
help people achieve their own personal objectives and at the same time, people ----------------------
help organisations achieve their objectives. It is a symbiotic relation. Everybody
----------------------
must bear in mind that the organisational and employee interests are intertwined
in such a way that if the interests of one suffers, the interests of another also ----------------------
suffers. Both the employees and the organisation can prosper if they help each
other to prosper. ----------------------
----------------------
24 Organisational Behaviour
Table 2.2 Organisational Models and their Facets Notes
Criterion Autocratic Custodial Supportive Collegial
----------------------
Basis of Power Economic Leadership Partnership
model resources ----------------------
Managerial Authority Money Support Teamwork
----------------------
orientation
Employee Obedience Security Job Responsibility ----------------------
orientation performance
----------------------
Employee Dependence Dependence Participation Self-discipline
psychological on boss on organisation ----------------------
results
Employee Subsistence Maintenance Higher-order Self- ----------------------
needs met actualization ----------------------
Performance Minimum Passive Awakened Moderate
result cooperation drives enthusiasm ----------------------
----------------------
Check your Progress 2
----------------------
Match the following: ----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
----------------------
1. Models of organisational behaviour are developed by:
i. F.W.Taylor ----------------------
ii. Stephen Robbins
iii. Fred Luthans ----------------------
iv. Keith Davis
----------------------
2. Supportive model is based on the assumptions of:
i. Theory X ----------------------
ii. Theory Y
----------------------
iii. Theory XY
iv. Theory YY ----------------------
3. The model which is useful when one deals with scientific and
professional employees is: ----------------------
i. Autocratic model ----------------------
ii. Collegial model
iii. Participative model ----------------------
iv. Supportive model
----------------------
4. Of all the management skills, which skill is considered the most
important? ----------------------
i. Professional skill
----------------------
ii. Conceptual skill
iii. Technical skill ----------------------
iv. Human skill ----------------------
---------------------- 1. You are empowering your employees to give them more say in how
they perform their jobs. Although you thought this would motivate
---------------------- them, they are more frustrated and less motivated to perform their
jobs as a result. Which organisational model would you use to tackle
----------------------
this situation?
---------------------- 2. You are the newly appointed manager of a group of employees
who are older and more experienced than you, and you have “zero
----------------------
credibility” in their eyes. How will you lead them? Justify your
---------------------- choice.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
26 Organisational Behaviour
Now we summarize SOBC model as: S-Stimulus is an environmental Notes
variable that depicts the environmental situation, both contextual and
organizational. In work place behaviour these include all features of the ----------------------
work environment which activate employee behaviour. O-Organism is a
cognitive variable that understands organizational participants which link ----------------------
the environmental situation and the resulting organizational behaviour. The ----------------------
finite capacities are governed by heredity, maturity and biological needs of
an individual. These capacities can be acquired knowledge, skills, attitudes, ----------------------
intentions, sentiments and values. B-Behaviour, overt behaviours and actions
like individual performance or emotional responses and conceptual activities. ----------------------
And C-Consequence is an environmental variable that depicts organizational ----------------------
and group dynamics and the consequences of previous interactions between
environmental, personal and behavioural variables. The outcomes represent the ----------------------
activity triggered in the environment by the behaviours under study. The SOBC
model is a ‘micro’ model in that it specifies a sequence for understanding the ----------------------
behaviour of individuals. It does suggest that differences in performance are ----------------------
a function of numerous factors. Managers are concerned with an employee’s
performance (behaviour). They try to influence performance through direction ----------------------
and guidance.
----------------------
Example:
----------------------
●● Stimulus: is any event that happens in the environment, it can be a sound
(like someone shouting) a scene (a car accident, a fight. etc...), events ----------------------
(like receiving a pay check).
----------------------
●● Organism: is a person, nothing more can be said about this, so in OB you
can consider that to be an employee or an employer. ----------------------
●● Behaviour: the organism behaviour and response in regards to the stimulus
----------------------
(for example a child (Organism) may hit (Behaviour) his brother after
seeing a violent movie (Stimulus). ----------------------
●● Consequence: is the outcome that comes after the behaviour, it either
reinforces (thus repeated) the behaviour or punished (thus not repeated). In ----------------------
the child example, his mother can reprimand (Consequence: punishment) ----------------------
him for doing what he did.
Though SOBC model tries to explain the process of human behaviour, it presents ----------------------
only a bare bone sketch of the behaviour. ----------------------
Summary ----------------------
---------------------- • The Organisational Behaviour models express the shift in the outlook of
the managers towards their employees and the resultant organisational
---------------------- environment.
----------------------
Keywords
----------------------
• Organisational behaviour: The study of individual behavior in an
---------------------- organizational setting. This includes the study of how individuals behave
alone, as well as how individuals behave in groups.
----------------------
• Individual differences: The variations from one person to another on
---------------------- variables, such as self-esteem, rate of cognitive development or degree of
agreeableness, etc.
----------------------
• Organizational model: Also called an organizational structure, it defines
---------------------- an organisation through its framework, including lines of authority,
communications, duties and resource allocations.
----------------------
28 Organisational Behaviour
Check your Progress 2 Notes
Multiple Choice Single Response.
----------------------
1. Models of organisational behaviour are developed by:
----------------------
iv. Keith Davis
2. Supportive model is based on the assumptions of: ----------------------
ii. Theory Y ----------------------
3. The model which is useful when one deals with scientific and professional ----------------------
employees is:
ii. Collegial Model ----------------------
4. Of all the management skills, which skill is considered the most important? ----------------------
iv. Human skill ----------------------
----------------------
Suggested Reading
----------------------
1. Davis, Keith and J. W. Newstrom. 1989. Human Behaviour at Work. New
York: McGraw Hill. ----------------------
2. Luthans, Fred. 1973. Organisational Behaviour. New York: McGraw
----------------------
Hill.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
30 Organisational Behaviour
Perception
UNIT
Structure:
3
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Significance of Perception
3.3 Principles of Perceptual Selection
3.3.1 External Attention Factors
3.3.2 Internal Set Factors
3.4 Perceptual Set in Organisational Settings
3.5 Characteristics of Perceiver and Perceived
Summary
Key Words
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
Perception 31
Notes
Objectives
----------------------
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
----------------------
• Define perception
----------------------
• Explain the significance of perception
---------------------- • Differentiate between perception and sensation
---------------------- • Identify various factors influencing perception
----------------------
32 Organisational Behaviour
Another important judgment that the managers make about the employee Notes
is whether or not he is loyal to the organisation. The issue is not whether
organisations are right in demanding an employee’s loyalty is irrelevant here, but ----------------------
the fact is that many employers do, and the assessment of loyalty or commitment
is highly personal. What is perceived as loyalty by one decision-maker may ----------------------
be seen as excessive conformity by another. An employee who questions a top ----------------------
management decision may be seen as disloyal by some, yet caring and concerned
by others. When evaluating a person’s attitude, as in loyalty assessment, we must ----------------------
recognise that we are again involved with perception.
----------------------
This necessitates that the management understands the basic perceptual
processes involved in organisational settings and recognise its significance. ----------------------
As a great deal of the industrial conflict stem from the divergence between the
----------------------
perceptual world of the parties involved, attempts can be made to minimise the
magnitude of such conflicts by properly assessing perceptions of various aspects ----------------------
in the work settings. This implies that a better understanding of the perceptual
process should be developed. Direct applications and techniques aimed at the ----------------------
solution of the problem would automatically follow proper understanding.
----------------------
3.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF PERCEPTION ----------------------
Perception is much more complex and much broader than sensation. The ----------------------
perceptual process can be defined as “a complicated interaction of selection,
organisation and interpretation of stimuli”. Although perception depends ----------------------
largely upon the senses for raw data, the cognitive process may filter, modify or ----------------------
completely change the data. A simple illustration may be seen by looking at one
side of a stationary object, for example, a statue or a tree. By slowly turning the ----------------------
eyes to the other side of the object, the person probably senses that the object is
moving. Yet the person perceives the object as stationary. The perceptual process ----------------------
overcomes the sensual process and the person “sees” the object as stationary. ----------------------
In other words, the perceptual process adds to, and subtracts from, the “real”
sensory world. ----------------------
Sensation is concerned with the initial contact between organisms and ----------------------
their physical environment. Sensation is the first step in the perceptual process.
----------------------
A few definitions of perception are given below.
●● It is the process of receiving, selecting, organising, interpreting, checking ----------------------
and reacting to sensory stimuli or data.
----------------------
●● Perception is a process by which individuals organise and interpret their
sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environments. ----------------------
●● Perception includes all those processes by which an individual receives ----------------------
information about his environment – seeing, hearing, feeling, testing and
smelling. ----------------------
●● Blair J.Kolasa defines perception as the “selection and organisation of ----------------------
material which stems from the outside environment at one time or the
other to provide the meaningful entity we experience”. ----------------------
Perception 33
Notes There are two basic elements in the above definition.
1. Perception is a process of selection or screening, which prevents us from
----------------------
processing irrelevant or disruptive information.
---------------------- 2. There is organisation of stimuli implying that the information that is
processed has to be ordered and classified in some logical manner, which
----------------------
permits us to assign meaning to the stimuli situations. The individual tends
---------------------- to recognise the information, assemble it, as well as compare it with earlier
experience. This involves the entire history of events, which have taken
---------------------- place with him over his life span. It is the organisation of inputs through
a dynamic inner process, which shapes what comes in from the outside
----------------------
environment. Again, what comes in changes what is inside the individual.
---------------------- Thus, unlike the sensation process, which is concerned primarily with
basic elementary behaviour largely determined by physiological operation,
---------------------- perception is a highly complex and comprehensive process. It involves a
complicated interaction of selection, organisation and interpretation of
----------------------
data.
---------------------- Despite the fact that it relies upon the senses for obtaining raw data, the
process of perception tends to amalgamate, improve and entirely change this
----------------------
data because of its complexity of interaction. It adds as well as deducts from the
---------------------- sensory world. In organisational settings, we find numerous examples, which
help us in understanding perception. An experienced engineer observing a panel
---------------------- of dials in front of him gets more information than does a manager who visits
from the head office.
----------------------
Perception involves five sub-processes. They are as follows:
----------------------
1. Stimulus: The presence of a stimulus situation initiates perception. In
---------------------- organisational settings, the superior forms the stimulus situation for the
subordinate’s perceptual process.
----------------------
2. Registration: Registration involves the physiological mechanism
---------------------- including both sensory and neural. Obviously, an individual’s physiological
ability to hear and see influence his perception.
----------------------
3. Interpretation: It is a highly crucial sub-process. Other psychological
---------------------- processes assist in perceptual interpretation. For example, in work
settings, an individuals’s motivation, personality and learning process
----------------------
determine his interpretation of a stimulus situation.
---------------------- 4. Feedback: Feedback is important for interpreting the perceptual event
data. In work settings, the psychological feedback that is likely to affect a
----------------------
subordinate’s perception may be in the form of a variation in the behaviour
---------------------- of the superior.
34 Organisational Behaviour
Table 3.1: The sub-processes involved in Perception Notes
EXTERNAL
ENVIRONMENT CONFRONTATION
of specific stimulus (e.g.
REGISTRATION
of the stimulus (e.g.
----------------------
Sensual Stimulation Supervisor or his raised sensory and neural
eye brows) mechanisms) ----------------------
Physical Environment
----------------------
Office
Research Lab. FEEDBACK INTERPRETATION
Climate etc. for clarification (e.g. of the stimulus (e.g. ----------------------
kinesthetic or motivation,
Socio Cultural Environment psychological) learning, personality)
----------------------
Management Styles
Values ----------------------
Discrimination etc.
BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCE
e.g. Overt such as e.g. reinforcement, ----------------------
rushing off or covert punishment or some
such as attitude organisational
outcome ----------------------
----------------------
Obtained from Fred Luthans - Organisational Behaviour, Page - 105
----------------------
----------------------
Check your Progress 1 ----------------------
----------------------
Match the following:
Multiple Choice Single Response ----------------------
----------------------
Perception 35
Notes
Activity 1
----------------------
---------------------- You are a manager of a group of technology professionals. Within the team,
there is a group of five members, who come from a particular state of the
---------------------- country. You have often seen them going for long coffee breaks and taking
commonly planned leaves. They are good on the job but are also secretive
----------------------
about their plans. They also do not mix much with others in the team. One
---------------------- day, one of them comes to your cabin and says, “Sir, I have got a better
opportunity and I am quitting this organisation.” What would be some of
---------------------- the thoughts that immediately cross your mind?
----------------------
36 Organisational Behaviour
attention. For example, consider the following statement from your boss Notes
to you:
----------------------
Scenario 1: “Please let me have that information at your earliest
convenience.” ----------------------
Scenario 2: “You must give me the report by today evening.”
----------------------
What would most people respond to and why?
----------------------
If we want people to perceive what we are saying and act accordingly,
the intensity of our communication must be high. This could be in form ----------------------
of tone, volume, an aggressive body language, etc. Also, the same holds
good for actions. If we want our employees to perceive the growth of the ----------------------
organisation, there must be action around this message. ----------------------
2. Size: As regards the size of the stimulus, any odd size attracts attention.
A tall Great Dane attracts attention. At the same time, a pocket dog also ----------------------
attracts attention because of its size. However, generally the larger the ----------------------
object the more likely it will be perceived. The amount of attention
enhances with the size of the newspaper advertisement exposed to ----------------------
the individuals, although the increase in attention may not be directly
proportional to the increase in size. ----------------------
3. Contrast: The contrast principle states that external stimuli, which stand ----------------------
out against the background or which are not what the people expect, will
receive attention. Safety signs, which have black lettering on a yellow ----------------------
background or white lettering on a red background, are attention getting. ----------------------
Any change in the accustomed atmosphere attracts attraction. Thus, if
----------------------
one or more of the machines suddenly come to a halt, the supervisor
would immediately notice the difference in noise level. Also, a person ----------------------
who has fallen asleep in a bus because of the drone of the engine, wakes
up immediately when the engine stops. ----------------------
4. Repetition: The factor of repetition implies that a repeated external ----------------------
stimulus attracts more attention than the one that occurs at one time alone.
Perhaps, it is because of this that supervisors tend to repeat directions ----------------------
regarding job instructions several times for even simple tasks to hold
----------------------
the attention of their workers. Advertisers while putting TV or radio
advertisements repeat the brand name they are advertising. ----------------------
5. Motion: The factor of motion implies that individuals attend to changing ----------------------
objects in their field of vision than to static objects. It is because of this
advantage that advertisers involve signs, which include moving objects in ----------------------
their campaigns. At an unconscious level, the animals in the jungles make
use of this principle. A tiger lying in wait is motionless until his prey is ----------------------
nearer him and then jumps at an appropriate moment. ----------------------
6. Novelty and familiarity: A novel object in a familiar situation or a
familiar object in a novel situation tends to attract attention. Job rotation ----------------------
----------------------
Perception 37
Notes is an example of this principle. Recent research indicates that job rotation
not only increase attention but also employees’ acquisition of new skills.
----------------------
3.3.2 Internal Set Factors
---------------------- The internal set factors are as under:
---------------------- 1. Habit: Generally, a Hindu will bow and do namaskar when he sees a
temple while walking on road, because of his well-established habit. The
---------------------- motor set may cause the likelihood of inappropriate responses. These
are several instances in life when individuals tend to react with the right
----------------------
response to the wrong signals. A retired soldier may throw himself on the
---------------------- ground when he hears a sudden burst of car tyre because of his learning
and experience in armed forces.
----------------------
2. Motivation and interest: Motivational factors increase the individual’s
---------------------- sensitivity to those stimuli, which he considers as relevant to the
satisfaction of his needs in view of his experience with them.
----------------------
A thirsty individual has a perceptual set to seek a water fountain or a hotel
---------------------- to quench his thirst, which increases for him the likelihood of perceiving
restaurant signs and decreases the likelihood of visualising other objects
---------------------- at that moment in time.
---------------------- A worker, who has a strong need for affiliation, when walks into the
lunchroom, tends to perceive the table where several co-workers are
---------------------- sitting while the empty table or the table where only one person is sitting
---------------------- attracts no attention.
3. Learning and perception: The process of learning plays a crucial role
----------------------
in every organisation. However, it should be recognised that the role of
---------------------- learning is more pronounced in respect of complex forms of perception
where the symbolic content creeps into the process. Although interrelated
---------------------- with motivation and personality, learning may play the single biggest role
in developing perceptual set. Read the sentence in the triangle below:
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
---------------------- It may take several seconds to realise there is something wrong. Because
of familiarity with the sentence from prior learning, the person is perceptually
----------------------
set to read, “Turn off the engine”. This illustration shows that learning affects
---------------------- perceptual set by creating an expectancy to perceive in a certain manner.
There are many other illustrations, which are commonly used to demonstrate
----------------------
the impact of learning on the development of perceptual set.
38 Organisational Behaviour
For instance, how the figure of a woman is perceived can be radically Notes
influenced by a simple experiment. If a person is first shown a clear, unambiguous
picture of a beautiful young woman and then shown a line drawing, the person ----------------------
will almost always interpret it as a figure of a young woman. If a clear picture
of an old woman is seen first, the viewer will subsequently report seeing the old ----------------------
woman in the figure below: ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Fig 3.1: Young Woman or Old Lady? ----------------------
In addition to the above example, there is a wide variety of commonly
----------------------
used illusions that effectively demonstrate the impact of learning on perception.
An illusion may be thought of as a form of perception that badly distorts reality. ----------------------
4. Organisational role and specialisation: Modern organisations value ----------------------
specialisation. Consequently, the specialty of a person that casts him in a
particular organisational role predisposes him to select certain stimuli and ----------------------
to disregard others. Thus, in a lengthy report a departmental head will first
notice the text related to his department. ----------------------
----------------------
Activity 3
----------------------
Answer the following question: ----------------------
Imagine that you want to put up an important notice in the organisation ----------------------
concerning the change in working hours and holidays for this year. How
would you design it so that it is noticed visually and perceived in the right ----------------------
manner and why? Also, how would you ensure that it reaches all those who
need to know about this change? ----------------------
----------------------
3.4 PERCEPTUAL SET IN ORGANISATIONAL SETTINGS ----------------------
The personality of the perceiving individual, which affects what is attended ----------------------
to in the confronting situation, is closely related to learning and motivation.
There are numerous examples of perceptual sets in work settings. Individuals ----------------------
may tend to perceive the same stimulus situation in largely different manners.
----------------------
Take the example of poor production record in a manufacturing company. The
works engineer is likely to perceive the solution to the issue in the form of ----------------------
improved machine design whereas the personnel manager is likely to perceive
the solution in the form of improved personnel policies, training programmes and ----------------------
Perception 39
Notes incentive schemes. The workers are likely to perceive it as something thrilling
because it may be indicative of poor ability of their supervisor whom they dislike.
---------------------- Irrespective of who is right or wrong, it is obvious that all related individuals
tend to perceive the same situation in entirely different manner. Another popular
---------------------- example relates to the divergence of perception, which takes place between the
---------------------- union and management groups. It is widely held that perceptual divergence is a
major cause of industrial conflicts.
----------------------
Perceptual Organisation
---------------------- When we discuss perceptual organisation, the question arises as to what the
individual does with the sensory data he has received. Obviously, some organising
----------------------
processes, which give meaning to the incoming event data appear to take place
---------------------- in the nervous system and are relatively free from the effects of past experience
or motivational factors. These processes are called the primitive processes of
---------------------- organisation. The central nervous system does not simply register raw sensory
data in a passive form. Rather, it does something to them by creating a definitive
----------------------
organisation. Illusions, false interpretation or misleading organisation of sensory
---------------------- events best exemplifies the active role of the central nervous system. There are
several kinds of processes of perceptual organisations such as grouping, closure,
---------------------- figure-ground effect and constancy phenomenon.
---------------------- 1. Perceptual grouping: The grouping principle of perceptual organisation
states that there is a tendency to group several stimuli together into a
---------------------- recognisable pattern. The principle is very basic and seems largely inborn.
In the visual fields, we find that objects that are similar in appearance tend
----------------------
to be grouped together. Likewise, the individual tends to create a whole
---------------------- even when it is not there.
---------------------- 2. Closure: The closure principle of grouping is closely related to the gestalt
school of psychology. The principle is that a person will sometimes
---------------------- perceive a whole when one does not exist. The person’s perceptual
processes will close the gaps that are unfilled from the sensory inputs.
----------------------
3. Figure-ground: The objects are perceived with reference to their
---------------------- background. The figure-ground principle means simply that perceived
objects stand out as separable from their general background. When
---------------------- the reader is reading this paragraph, in terms of light-wave stimuli, the
---------------------- reader perceives patches of irregularly shaped blacks and whites. Yet
the reader perceives the shapes as letters and figures printed against the
---------------------- white background. In other words, the reader perceptually organises these
stimuli into recognisable patterns, i.e., the words.
----------------------
4. Perceptual constancy: Constancy is one of the more sophisticated
---------------------- forms of perceptual organisation. It gives a person a sense of stability
in a changing world. This principle permits the individual to have some
---------------------- constancy in a tremendously variable world. If constancy were not at
---------------------- work, the world would be very chaotic and disorganised for a person. An
organisational example would be that of a worker who must select a piece
---------------------- of material or a tool of the correct size from a wide variety of materials
40 Organisational Behaviour
and tools at varying distances from a workstation. Without perceptual Notes
constancy, the shapes, sizes, colours, etc. of the objects would keep on
changing, making the job almost impossible for the worker. ----------------------
5. Perceptual defence: Closely related to context is perceptual defence. A ----------------------
person may build a defence (a block or a refusal to recognise) against
stimuli or situational events in the context that are individually or culturally ----------------------
unacceptable or threatening. Accordingly, perceptual defence may play
----------------------
an influential role in understanding union-management relations.
Although there is some conflicting evidence, most studies verify the ----------------------
existence of perceptual defence. Two examples are classic studies
----------------------
that found barriers to perceiving personality-threatening words and
identification of thresholds for critical, emotionally toned words. In ----------------------
another study, more directly relevant to organisational behaviour, the
researchers describe how people may react with a perceptual defence ----------------------
that is activated in them when they are confronted with a fact that is
----------------------
inconsistent with a preconceived notion. In this study, college students
were presented with the word “intelligent” as a characteristic of a factory ----------------------
worker. This was contradictory to their perception of factory workers, and
they built defences in the following ways: ----------------------
i. Denial: A few of the students denied the existence of intelligence in ----------------------
factory workers.
----------------------
ii. Modification and distortion: This was one of the most frequent
forms of defence. The pattern was to explain the perceptual conflict ----------------------
by joining intelligence with some other characteristic, for example,
“He is intelligent, but doesn’t possess the initiative to rise above his ----------------------
group.” ----------------------
iii. Change in perception: Many of the students changed their
perception of the worker because of the intelligence characteristic. ----------------------
The change, however, was usually very subtle; for example, “He ----------------------
cracks jokes.” became “He’s witty.”
iv. Recognition: Very few students explicitly recognised the conflict ----------------------
between their perception of the worker and the characteristic of ----------------------
intelligence that was confronting them. For example, one student
stated, “The traits seem to be conflicting; most factory workers I ----------------------
know about aren’t too intelligent.”
----------------------
The general conclusion to be drawn from this classic study is that
people may learn to avoid perceiving certain conflicting, threatening ----------------------
or unacceptable aspects of the context.
----------------------
These and other relevant experiments have been summarised into
three general explanations of perceptual defence: ----------------------
i. Emotionally disturbing information has a higher threshold for ----------------------
recognition, that is, we do not perceive it readily than neutral
----------------------
Perception 41
Notes or non-disturbing information. This is why a chain of events
may be seen differently by those who are not personally
---------------------- involved and by those who are involved; thus, warning signs
of trouble are often not seen by those who will be most
---------------------- affected by the trouble.
---------------------- ii. Disturbing information and stimuli are likely to bring
about substitute perceptions, which are distorted to prevent
----------------------
recognition of the disturbing elements. In this way, a manager
---------------------- can perceive that workers are happy, when actually they are
disgruntled. Then when a grievance committee is formed or
---------------------- a strike takes place, the manager cannot perceive that these
“happy” workers are participating willingly and concludes
----------------------
that it is because they have fallen victim to some agitator and
---------------------- that things in the shop are still fine.
iii. Emotionally arousing incidence actually does arouse
----------------------
emotions. For example a road accident where the passersby
---------------------- gather and put blame on the owner of bigger vehicle even if it
is not his mistake. Even though the emotion is distorted and
---------------------- directed elsewhere like kicking, shouting, pelting stones etc.
---------------------- Such findings as the above help explain why some people, especially
supervisors and subordinates in an organisation, have a “blind spot”.
---------------------- They do not “see” or they consistently misinterpret certain events or
situations.
----------------------
6. Social perception: The social aspects of perception play an important
---------------------- role in organisational behaviour. Social perception is directly concerned
---------------------- with how one individual perceives other individuals, how we get to know
others.
----------------------
3.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERCEIVER AND
----------------------
THE PERCEIVED
---------------------- A summary of research findings on some specific characteristics of the
---------------------- perceiver and the perceived reveals a profile of the perceiver as follows:
1. Knowing oneself makes it easier to see others accurately.
----------------------
2. One’s own characteristics affect the characteristics one is likely to see in
---------------------- others.
---------------------- 3. People who accept themselves are more likely to be able to see favourable
aspects of other people.
----------------------
4. Accuracy in perceiving others is not a single skill.
---------------------- The above four characteristics greatly influence how a person perceives
---------------------- others in the environmental situation.
----------------------
42 Organisational Behaviour
There are also certain characteristics of the person being perceived, which Notes
influence social perception. Research has shown that:
----------------------
1. The status of the person perceived will greatly influence others’ perception
of the person. ----------------------
2. The person being perceived is usually placed into categories to simplify
----------------------
the viewer’s perceptual activities. Two common categories are status and role.
3. The visible traits of the person perceived will greatly influence others’ ----------------------
perception of the person.
----------------------
These characteristics of the perceiver and the perceived suggest the extreme
complexity of social perception. Organisational participants must realise that their ----------------------
perceptions of another person are greatly influenced by their own characteristics ----------------------
and the characteristics of the other person. If, for example, a manager has high
self-esteem and the other person is physically attractive and pleasant and comes ----------------------
from the home office, then the manager will most likely perceive this other
person in a positive and favourable manner. On the other hand, if the manager ----------------------
has low self-esteem and the other person is an arrogant, unattractive person, the ----------------------
manager is likely to perceive this other person in a negative and unfavourable
manner. Such attributions that people make of others play a vital role in their ----------------------
social perceptions and resulting behaviour.
----------------------
Perception of People
Let us examine how the basic and social factors described above are related ----------------------
to our perceptions of people. Each individual interacts with other individuals ----------------------
and establishes relationships with them. The maintenance of these relationships
necessitates knowledge of social behaviour involving constant judgment about ----------------------
the other individual’s needs, emotions and thoughts. Research results have
shown three kinds of features that affect these perceptions. These are related to ----------------------
the person perceived, the perceiver and the situation. ----------------------
First, consider the person who is perceived. The features of the individual
----------------------
with whom one tends to interact, exert considerable impact on his evaluation
and behaviour in all interpersonal situations. These features are of four kinds − ----------------------
physical, social, historical and personal.
----------------------
The important physical features include gestures, posture, facial expression
and colour of the skin. The social features that assume significance in perception ----------------------
are the qualities of voice and appearance. An individual with long hair and
casual dress is called a “hippie” involving judgments about his political, social ----------------------
and moral values accordingly. Likewise, historical features, such as sex, age,
----------------------
occupation, religion, race, etc. largely influence an individual’s evaluations of
others. There are also numerous personality features attributed to others that ----------------------
affect an individual’s evaluation of them. Individuals tend to be attracted to
others whom they perceive to be identical to them. ----------------------
This leads us to the perceiver’s features. There seem to be two kinds ----------------------
of general features of the perceiver, which are crucial in understanding an
individual‘s perception of others. They are: ----------------------
Perception 43
Notes • An individual’s own social and personality features cause a divergence.
• The complexity of an individual’s perception of other individuals is also
----------------------
crucial.
---------------------- Obviously, individuals tend to differ in the manner in which they describe
others. Some individuals describe others as tricky, ruthless, etc. When further
----------------------
complexity is involved, they tend to describe others as friendly, aggressive,
---------------------- honest etc. A still higher level of complexity involves traits, such as passive,
charming, etc. These latter features involve a more complex mode of perceiving
---------------------- than physical features. Research results have shown that the leader’s complexity
of perceiving his fellow workers is markedly associated with his group’s
----------------------
performance, depending upon the situation where they are engaged.
---------------------- The features that are associated with an individual’s perception of others
involve the situation in which he finds himself. Individuals tend to make
----------------------
judgments regarding the behaviour of others as indicators of their personality
---------------------- and these judgments are markedly associated with the suitability of the behaviour
to the given situation. Thus, our perception of individuals as well as objects
---------------------- depends upon certain historical, current and situational factors, our experience;
culture and learning exert a wide impact on these judgments, as do our current
----------------------
needs and feelings along with the physical and social environmental factors. This
---------------------- understanding of perceptual process provides an insight as to why we behave
in the manner we do.
----------------------
Table 3.2: Common Perceptual Errors
----------------------
A rater forms an overall impression
---------------------- about anobject and then uses the
impression to bias ratings about the
---------------------- object.
----------------------
The tendency to remember recent
information. If the recent
---------------------- Recency Effect information is negative, the person or
object is evaluated negatively.
----------------------
44 Organisational Behaviour
Notes
Check your Progress 3
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response. ----------------------
1. Which term refers to our own unique understanding of how the work
----------------------
world operates?
i. Audience selectivity ----------------------
ii. Culture clash
----------------------
iii. Personal construct
iv. Halo effects ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Summary ----------------------
• Perception is an important cognitive process deciding how a person will ----------------------
behave. Through this complex process people interpret the world to
themselves. ----------------------
• Perception is a unique phenomenon, influencing people behave differently. ----------------------
• Externally stimuli selectivity is affected by such factors as the intensity,
----------------------
size, movement, repetition etc. Internally perceptual selectivity is
influenced by learning, culture, experience, interest, motivation etc. ----------------------
• The social context plays an important role in understanding human
----------------------
behaviour in organisations. Of particular importance to social perception
is how people cause of another’s or their own behaviour. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Perception 45
Notes Keywords
----------------------
●● Stimuli: Events in the environment that influence behaviour or something
---------------------- that causes an individual to respond or react in a certain way.
●● Perceptual set: A tendency to perceive or notice some aspects of the
---------------------- available sensory data and ignore others.
---------------------- ●● Perceptual defence: The process by which it is thought that certain
stimuli are either not perceived or are distorted due to their offensive,
---------------------- unpleasant or threatening nature.
---------------------- ●● Perceptual grouping: The human visual ability to extract significant
image relations from lower-level primitive image features without any
---------------------- knowledge of the image content and group them to obtain meaningful
---------------------- higher-level structure.
●● Perceptual error: Every person sees things in his own way and as
---------------------- perceptions become a person’s reality this can lead to misunderstandings,
---------------------- which further lead to incorrect decisions.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
46 Organisational Behaviour
Answers to Check your Progress Notes
Check your Progress 1 ----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response. ----------------------
1. The process which involves the physiological mechanism including both
sensory and neural is called: ----------------------
----------------------
Suggested Reading
----------------------
1. Agarwal, Kaushal. Perception Management ‘The Management Tactics’.
New Delhi: Global India Publications Pvt. Ltd. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Perception 47
Notes
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
48 Organisational Behaviour
Personality
UNIT
Structure:
4
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Definition of Personality
4.3 Determinants of Personality
4.4 Personality Theories
4.4.1 Intrapsychic Theory
4.4.2 Type Theories
4.4.3 Trait Theories
4.4.4 Social Learning Theory
4.4.5 Self Theory
4.5 Personality and Organisation
4.6 Personality Structure
4.7 Personality and Behaviour
Case Study
Summary
Key words
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
Personality 49
Notes
Objectives
----------------------
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
----------------------
• Define the meaning of personality.
----------------------
• Analyse the importance of personality in work life.
---------------------- • Explain various theories about the formation of personality
---------------------- • Illustrate how the knowledge about differences in personality helps
a manager better perceive the human behaviour at work
----------------------
----------------------
4.1 INTRODUCTION
----------------------
Personality factors are extremely important in organisational settings.
---------------------- Often the “wrong” kind of personality proves disastrous and causes undesirable
tensions and worries in organisations. The costs of such tensions and worries are
---------------------- enormous when we interpret them from the point of view of employee-employer
---------------------- relations, peer relations and superior-subordinate relations. Sometimes, the
personality difficulties are the root cause of organisational conflicts and often
---------------------- lead to turnover and job dissatisfaction. A consideration of personality differences
of focal persons is important for at least three reasons.
----------------------
Some people arouse hostility and aggression in their associates, while
---------------------- others invoke sympathy and supportive responses because of their personality
features. Likewise, some people encourage and others discourage free and
---------------------- open communication in view of their personality traits as perceived by their
---------------------- subordinates and associates.
Personality characteristics tend to produce differential emotional reactions
----------------------
to stress. Some people tolerate severely stressful situations, while tensions and
---------------------- anxieties and similar circumstances swamp others.
Individual personalities lead to individual differences in styles of coping
----------------------
with stress. When exposed to tension producing situations, some people tend to
---------------------- be problem oriented, others happen to deal with the emotional experience which
the stress arouses in them rather than with the determinants of the experience.
---------------------- Still others tend to deal with derivative problems, which may be created by their
efforts to cope with the stress. They may happen to project hostility on to others
----------------------
and thus make easier guilt-free aggression against them. The dangers inherent in
---------------------- such a hostile counterattack are obvious. Thus, it appears personality matters very
significantly from the standpoint of human relations and organisational behaviour.
----------------------
Every day in conversation we hear such statements as − “he has no
---------------------- personality at all”. If we analyse such usages, we discover that the phrase “a lot
of personality” refers to the physical appearance of the individual, especially
---------------------- on initial contact. “A poor personality” ordinarily indicates that the person has
----------------------
50 Organisational Behaviour
characteristics not approved of generally. The term “no personality” is saved for Notes
the “run-of-the-mill” individual who is little noticed by others.
----------------------
The unique ways of responding to day-to-day life situations is at the heart
of human behaviour. Accordingly, personality embraces all the unique traits and ----------------------
patterns of adjustment of the individual in his relationship with others and his
environment. ----------------------
The word “personality” has been traced back by etymologists to the Latin ----------------------
words “per” and “sonare”. The term “per sonare” means, “to sound through”. The
----------------------
word persona derived from these two words originally meant an actor’s mask,
through which the sound of his voice was projected. Later persona was used to ----------------------
mean not the mask itself but the false appearance, which the mask created. Still
later it came to mean the characters in the play (dramatis personae). ----------------------
It is interesting to note that the word “personality” by derivation should ----------------------
mean, “what an individual only appears to be, not what he really is”. This meaning
is almost the exact opposite of what the word means in modern psychology. ----------------------
We find that to some extent personality is defined in terms of a specific ----------------------
theoretical frame of reference. However, most psychologists agree generally with
Gordon Allport’s definition, in which personality is “the dynamic organisation ----------------------
within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine his unique
----------------------
adjustments to his environment”.
About a decade after Allport’s formulation R.W. White simplified it by ----------------------
substituting “tendencies” for “psycho-physical systems”. White’s definition ----------------------
states that “personality is the organisation of an individual’s personal pattern of
tendencies”. ----------------------
Behaviour involves a complex set of interactions between the person and ----------------------
the situation. Events in the surrounding environment (including presence and
behaviour of others) strongly influence the way people behave at any particular ----------------------
time; yet people always bring something of their own to the situation. This
“something”, which is unique, is what personality is. ----------------------
Personality 51
Notes Second, the phrase “commonalities and differences” suggests an important
aspect of human beings. In certain respects, every person is like all other people,
---------------------- some other people and no other person.
---------------------- Thus, each employee in an organisation is unique and may or may not
respond as others do in a particular situation. This complexity makes managing
---------------------- and working with people extremely challenging. Therefore, to understand, predict
and control behaviour, it is important to study personality.
----------------------
Finally, Maddi’s definition refers to personality as being “stable” and
---------------------- having continuity in time. If your entire personality could change suddenly
and dramatically, your family and friends would meet a stranger. Personality
----------------------
development occurs to a certain extent throughout life, but the greatest changes
---------------------- occur in early childhood.
---------------------- ii. Brain: Another biological factor that influences personality is the
role of the brain of an individual. The psychologists are unable to
---------------------- prove empirically the contribution of human brain in influencing
personality. Preliminary results from the electrical stimulation of
---------------------- the brain (ESB) research gives indication that better understanding
---------------------- of human personality and behaviour might come from the study of
the brain.
---------------------- iii. Physical features: Perhaps the most outstanding factor that
---------------------- contributes to personality is the physical stature of an individual. An
individual’s external appearance is proved to be having a tremendous
---------------------- effect on his personality. For instance, the fact that a person is
short or tall, fat or skinny, handsome or ugly, black or whitish will
---------------------- undoubtedly influence the person’s effect on others and in turn,
52 Organisational Behaviour
will affect the self-concept. A person’s physical characteristics Notes
may be related to his approach to the social environment, to the
expectancies of others, and to their reactions, to him. These in turn ----------------------
may have impacts on personality development.
----------------------
Psychologists contend that the different rates of maturation will also
influence an individual’s personality. ----------------------
2. Cultural factors: Culture is traditionally considered as the major ----------------------
determinant of an individual’s personality. The culture largely determines
what a person is and what a person will learn. The culture within which ----------------------
a person is brought up is a very important determinant of behaviour of a ----------------------
person.
----------------------
The personality of an individual, to a marked extent, is determined by
the culture in which he is brought up. According to Paul H. Mussen “... ----------------------
each culture expects, and trains, its members to behave in the ways that
are acceptable to the group.” In spite of the importance of the culture on ----------------------
personality, researchers are unable to establish correlation between these ----------------------
two concepts of personality and culture.
----------------------
3. Family and social factors: In order to understand the effects of a family
on individual’s personality, we have to understand the socialisation ----------------------
process and identification process.
----------------------
i. Socialisation process: The contribution of family and social group
in combination with the culture is known as socialisation. In the ----------------------
words of Mussen, “socialisation is the process by which an individual
----------------------
infant acquires, from the enormously wide range of behavioural
potentials that are open to him at birth, those behavioural patterns ----------------------
that are customary and acceptable according to the standards of his
family and social group.” Socialisation initially starts with contact ----------------------
with the mother and later on the other members of the family (father, ----------------------
sisters, and close relatives) and the social group play influential role
in shaping an individual’s personality. ----------------------
ii. Identification process: Identification starts when a person begins to ----------------------
identify himself with some other members of the family. Normally
a child tries to emulate certain actions of his parents. Identification ----------------------
process can be examined from three angles. It can be viewed as:
----------------------
(a) the similarity of behaviour between the child and the model,
(ii) the child’s motives or desires to be like the model and (iii) the ----------------------
process through which the child actually takes on the attributes of
the model. ----------------------
Apart from the socialisation and identification processes, the home ----------------------
environment influences the personality of an individual. There is
----------------------
substantial empirical evidence to indicate that the overall environment at
home created by parents is critical to personality development. ----------------------
Personality 53
Notes 4. Situational factors: Many a times the actions of the person are
determined more by the situation, rather than his behaviour. Heredity,
---------------------- family and friends, siblings and environment are no doubt important to
personality but it must be recognised that it is the immediate situation or
---------------------- circumstances which may predominate finally. Let us take an example
---------------------- of an employee whose developmental history has shaped a personality
which incorporates a high need for power and achievement. When
---------------------- placed in a highly bureaucratic work situation, this individual may
become frustrated and behave apathetically or aggressively. Thus, on the
---------------------- surface, this employee appears to be indifferent or a trouble maker; yet
---------------------- the developmental history would predict that the individual would be a
very hard employee, striving to progress ahead.
----------------------
Therefore, the situation may potentially have a very big impact on the
---------------------- actions and expressions of an individual.
54 Organisational Behaviour
structures within the human mind: the id, the ego and the superego. These parts Notes
of the mind are primarily responsible for originating human actions and reactions
and modifications. ----------------------
i. Id ----------------------
It is the original and the most basic system of human personality. At
----------------------
the base of the Freudian theory lies the id that is primitive, instinctual
and governed by the principles of greed and pleasure. Id represents a ----------------------
storehouse of all instincts, containing in its dark depths all wishes and
desires that unconsciously direct and determines our behaviour. Id is ----------------------
largely childish, irrational, never satisfied, demanding and destructive
----------------------
of others. However, id is the foundation upon which all other parts of
personality are erected. Like a newborn, id has no perception of reality. It ----------------------
is primitive, immoral, insistent and rash. Id is the reservoir of the “psychic
energy” which Freud calls “libido”. According to Freud, id is totally ----------------------
oriented towards increasing pleasure and avoiding pain, and it strives for
----------------------
immediate satisfaction of desires.
One notable characteristic of id is that it cannot tolerate uncomfortable ----------------------
levels of tension within it and seeks to release the tension as soon as
----------------------
it develops. The methods for dealing with tension by id are primary
processes and reflex actions. The former attempts to discharge tension by ----------------------
forming a mental image of the desirable means of releasing the tension.
However, this kind of tension release is temporary and mental, and would ----------------------
not satisfy the real need. If, for instance, a person is hungry, the id deals
----------------------
with the situation by creating a mental image of desirable and good food
that is palatable. The later method (reflex actions) of tension release is ----------------------
reflected in the behaviour of individuals such as blinking of eyes, raising
eyebrows, rubbing the cheeks, etc. Id, in fact, is capable of resolving the ----------------------
tension in reality. Id basically represents an individual’s natural urges and
----------------------
feelings.
ii. Ego ----------------------
Personality 55
Notes a) Observing accurately what exists in the outside world (perceiving).
b) Recording these experiences carefully (remembering).
----------------------
c) Modifying the external world in such a way as to satisfy the instinctual
---------------------- wishes (acting).
---------------------- iii. Superego
---------------------- Superego represents noblest thoughts, ideals, feelings that are acquired
by a person from his parents, teachers, friends, religion, organisation
---------------------- and colleagues, etc. As a child grows and absorbs parental and cultural
attitudes and values, he develops superego. Superego is the moralistic
---------------------- segment of the human personality. The primary concern of superego is
---------------------- to determine whether the action proposed by “ego” is right or wrong so
that the individual acts in accordance with the values and standards of
---------------------- the society. If people violate the prohibitions of superego they may feel
guilty.
----------------------
The superego acts as a censor on the individual and as a censor, a too
---------------------- strong superego is likely to be in constant and pronounced battle with the
id. Freud says that the ego’s role is to mediate between the id and superego.
---------------------- A personality becomes disorderly when either the id or superego becomes
---------------------- dominant. At the same time, it should be noted that when too much
energy is consumed by ego in mediating between the id and superego, an
---------------------- individual’s personal development will suffer (or adversely affected).
---------------------- The superego, in some respects, is the antithesis of id. Psychologist Duane
Schult notes that id is pressing for satisfaction, the ego is trying to delay
---------------------- it and the superego urges morality above all. Freud’s human being is,
therefore, described as “basically a battlefield”.
----------------------
Psychoanalysis, while acknowledged as having a powerful influence, has
---------------------- been seriously questioned as a scientific theory. This theory is criticised
on methodological grounds. Further Freud’s theory is criticised because
----------------------
it is largely untestable since his constructs are difficult to define and are
---------------------- ambiguous.
4.4.2 Type Theory
----------------------
Personality type theory aims to classify people into distinct categories.
---------------------- Personality types are synonymous with “personality styles”.
---------------------- Types refer to categories that are distinct and discontinuous. For example,
you are one or the other. This is important to understand, because it helps to
---------------------- distinguish a personality type approach from a personality trait approach, which
---------------------- takes a continuous approach.
To clearly understand the difference between types and traits, consider the
---------------------- example of the personality dimension of “introversion”. We can view introversion
---------------------- as:
• A personality type approach says you are either an introvert or an extrovert.
----------------------
56 Organisational Behaviour
• A personality trait approach says you can be anywhere on a continuum Notes
ranging from introversion to extroversion, with most people clustering in
the middle, and fewer people towards the extremes. ----------------------
4.4.3 Trait Theories ----------------------
Trait theorists view personality from the standpoint of understanding traits.
----------------------
Among trait theorists are included Gordon Allport, Raymond Barnard Cattell
and William Sheldon. ----------------------
Allport is of the opinion that each individual possesses a set of traits that are
----------------------
not shared by any other individuals. He emphasises the uniqueness of personality.
Cattell has extensively worked on traits in various work settings employing ----------------------
a number of psychological measures. Based on factor analysis, he developed ----------------------
factor concepts, such as tender-mindedness, somatic anxiety, dominance, etc.
Sheldon extended physical structuring by asserting that physique consists ----------------------
of three components: endomorphs (soft and spherical structure), mesomorphs ----------------------
(tough and muscular body), and ectomorphs (linear and fragile). The relative
existence of these three physical elements indicates specific personality ----------------------
patterns. Corresponding to these physical aspects, he assumed three aspects of
temperament: viscerotonia (love of comfort and affection), somatotonia (love of ----------------------
physical adventure and risk taking) and cerebrotonia (restraint and inhibition). ----------------------
Although he assumed a close relationship between respective aspects of structure
and personality, there is no evidence to support this view. ----------------------
4.4.4 Social Learning Theory ----------------------
Learning can be defined as the process leading to relatively permanent
----------------------
behavioural change or potential behavioural change. In other words, as we learn,
we alter the way we perceive our environment, the way we interpret the incoming ----------------------
stimuli, and therefore the way we interact or behave. This new way of approaching
a very successful theory marked a transition away from strict behaviourism and ----------------------
toward a concept known as social learning theory. As this occurred, researchers
----------------------
began to recognise the fact that people sometimes exhibit a behaviour without
any external reward or reinforcement. The idea then, was that, perhaps internal ----------------------
thoughts could be rewarded just as external behaviours.
----------------------
4.4.5 Self Theory
The intrapsychic, type and trait theories represent the traditional approaches ----------------------
to understanding the complex human personality. Self theory rejects both ----------------------
psychoanalytic and behaviouristic conception of human nature as too mechanistic,
portraying people as creatures helplessly tossed about by internal instincts or ----------------------
external stimuli. Carl Rogers and his associates have developed the self theory
that places emphasis on the individual as an initiating, creating, influential ----------------------
determinant of behaviour within the environmental framework. ----------------------
To understand Rogers’ theory, we have to understand: a) the self-concept,
b) the organism and c) the development of self. ----------------------
----------------------
Personality 57
Notes i. Self-concept: The most important concept in Rogers’ theory is the self.
The self consists of all the perceptions, ideas, values and characteristics
---------------------- that characterise “I or Me”. It includes “What I am” and “What I can do”.
Rogers’ defines the self-concept as “an organised, consistent, conceptual
---------------------- gestalt composed of perceptions of the characteristics of the I or me and
---------------------- the perceptions of the relationships of I or me to these perceptions”. Here
“I” refers to the personal self and “me” refers to the social self.
----------------------
Personal self consists of a person’s psychological processes, such as
---------------------- perception, motivation and attitudes, etc. that result in a composed whole.
On the other hand, the social self is the way an individual appears to others
---------------------- and the manner this person thinks he appears to others. The perceived self
influences the person’s perception of the world and his behaviour. An
----------------------
individual with a strong, positive self-concept is quite likely to view world
---------------------- quite differently from one whose self-concept is weak. One important
thing to remember here is that self-concept does not necessarily mean or
---------------------- reflect reality. The essence of this theory is that individuals normally are
active creators and initiators rather than passive reactors to the pressures
----------------------
of the environment.
---------------------- There is yet another self in Rogers’ self theory. That is the ideal self. It
represents the type of person an individual likes to be. This concept is
----------------------
similar to Freud’s ego ideal. If the ideal self is closer to the real self, then
---------------------- the individual will be more fulfilled and happy.
ii. Organism: The organism is essentially the locus of all experience. The
----------------------
totality of experience is the field known to the person himself and is
---------------------- frequently referred to as frame of reference. Behaviour of an individual is
largely determined by this field and not by the stimulating conditions of
---------------------- events in the external field or environment.
---------------------- The individual evaluates every experience in relation to his self-concept.
The experiences may be symbolised or unsymbolised. When they are
---------------------- symbolised they become part of individual’s consciousness. Conversely,
---------------------- when they are unsymbolised they remain outside the confines of the
awareness or consciousness of an individual. The important thing here is
---------------------- that distorted symbolisation gives rise to inappropriate behaviour.
---------------------- iii. Development of self-personality: Rogers feels that the fundamental force
motivating the human organism is self-actualisation, i.e., “a tendency
---------------------- toward fulfillment, toward the maintenance and enhancement of the
organism”. The tendency of self-actualisation of both the organism and
---------------------- the self is subject to the profound influence of the social environment. In
---------------------- the childhood itself, when the child’s behaviour is evaluated continuously
by his parents, he will be in a position to discriminate between thoughts
---------------------- and actions that are considered “worthy” and “unworthy”. He will be able
to exclude the unworthy experiences from his self-concept.
----------------------
Rogers maintains that the innate tendency toward self-actualisation often
---------------------- runs counter to two needs – the need for their regard and the need for
58 Organisational Behaviour
positive reward. It is true that the latter need is universal whereas the Notes
former one is the internalisation of those actions and values that others
approve. The regard may be conditional and unconditional. Ideally, the ----------------------
more completely the individual is given positive regard acceptance that is
not conditional to specific behaviours the more congruence there will be ----------------------
between his self-concept and his actual experience, as well as between his ----------------------
self-concept and ideal self.
----------------------
Check your Progress 1 ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Personality 59
Notes
Activity 1
----------------------
---------------------- 1. Recollect your favourite personality from any field. What makes him/
her your favourite personality?
----------------------
2. In the above response, can you identify the things that this person
---------------------- does that makes you believe he/she has an influencing personality?
----------------------
60 Organisational Behaviour
their subordinates and team members are just like themselves in Notes
terms of societal norms, values and personality.
----------------------
b. Family: The primary vehicle for socialising an individual into a
particular culture is the person’s immediate family. In particular, ----------------------
parents and family influence the development of their children in
four important ways: ----------------------
• Through their own behaviours, they present situations that ----------------------
bring out certain behaviours in children.
----------------------
• They serve as role models with which children often strongly
identify. ----------------------
• They selectively reward and punish certain behaviours. ----------------------
• The family’s situation is also an important source of personality
differences. Situational influences include the family’s size, ----------------------
socio-economic levels, race, religion, parent’s education, and ----------------------
so on.
c. Group membership: The first group to which most individuals ----------------------
belong is their family. People also participate in various groups in ----------------------
their lives. The numerous roles and experiences that people have as
members of groups represent another important source of personality ----------------------
differences. Although playmates and school groups early in life may
have the strongest influences on personality formation, social and ----------------------
group experiences in the later life continue to influence and shape ----------------------
personality.
----------------------
d. Life experiences: Each person’s life is also unique in terms of
specific events and experiences, which can serve as important ----------------------
determinants of personality. The development of self-esteem,
for example, depends on a series of experiences that include the ----------------------
opportunity to achieve goals and meet expectations, evidence of
----------------------
ability to influence others, and clear sense of being valued by others.
----------------------
4.6 PERSONALITY STRUCTURE
----------------------
The number and variety of specific personality traits or dimensions is
bewildering. The term “personality trait” typically refers to the basic components ----------------------
of personality. Trait simply refers to the terms people use to describe each other. ----------------------
To be useful, these terms need to be organised into small sets of concepts or
descriptions. ----------------------
Five main factors summarise the personality structure. These Big Five ----------------------
factors, as they often are referred to, describe an individual’s adjustment,
sociability, conscientiousness, agreeableness and intellectual openness. As shown ----------------------
in the figure below, each factor includes a potentially large number and range of
----------------------
specific traits or dimensions.
----------------------
Personality 61
Notes
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
62 Organisational Behaviour
high internal LOC (internals) believe that their own behaviour and actions Notes
primarily, but not necessarily totally, determine many of the events in
their lives. On the other hand, individuals who have a high external LOC ----------------------
(externals) believe that chance, fate or other people primarily determine
what happens to them. ----------------------
Personality 63
Notes By contrast, individuals with a strong learning goal orientation are
more likely to exhibit “mastery-oriented” responses to work challenges.
---------------------- Employees with a strong learning goal orientation strive to overcome
failure and setbacks by increasing their efforts and seeking new solutions
---------------------- to the problem. They treat failure as a form of useful feedback, typically
---------------------- maintain their composure when challenged, and sustain or increase
performance even when they face obstacles that are difficult to overcome.
----------------------
Although an individual’s goal orientation can vary somewhat in different
---------------------- situations, there is strong evidence that a significant amount of goal
orientation can be considered to be an aspect of individual’s personality.
---------------------- A strong learning goal orientation may be summed up by the slogan often
placed by coaches on the walls of locker rooms: When the going gets
----------------------
tough, the tough get going.
---------------------- A medical supplies distributor investigated the relationship between goal
orientation and job performance in a study of sales people employed. As
----------------------
expected, superior sales performance was associated with a learning goal
---------------------- orientation. Researchers concluded that simply “wanting to look good” (a
performance goal orientation) would not allow sales people to succeed.
---------------------- These sales people needed to have the desire to develop the skills needed
for success (a learning goal orientation). One recommendation to the
----------------------
organisation was to seek evidence of a learning goal orientation when
---------------------- selecting employees for their sales force.
4. Introversion and extroversion: In everyday usage, the words introvert
----------------------
and extrovert describe a person’s congeniality. An introvert is shy and
---------------------- retiring, whereas an extrovert is socially gregarious and outgoing. The
terms have similar meanings when used to refer to personality dimensions.
----------------------
One of the most striking implications of the introversion-extroversion
---------------------- personality dimension involves task performance in different
environments.
----------------------
Introversion is a tendency to be directed inward and have a greater affinity
---------------------- for abstract ideas and sensitivity to personal feelings. Introverts are quiet,
introspective and emotionally unexpressive.
----------------------
Extroversion is an orientation towards other people, events and objects.
---------------------- Extroverts are sociable, lively, impulsive and emotionally expressive.
Extroverts are well represented in managerial occupations because the
---------------------- manager’s role often involves working with others and influencing them
---------------------- to attain organisational goals.
Evidence suggests that introverts perform better alone and in a quiet
----------------------
environment, whereas extroverts perform better in an environment with
---------------------- greater sensory stimulation, such as a noisy office with many people and
a high level of activity.
----------------------
Although some people exhibit the extremes of introversion and
---------------------- extroversion, most are only moderately introverted or extroverted or are
64 Organisational Behaviour
even relatively balanced between the extremes. Introverts and extroverts, Notes
appear in all educational, gender, and occupational groups. Research even
suggests that some extroversion or extreme introversion can interfere ----------------------
with an individual’s effectiveness in an organisation.
----------------------
Recall our discussion of the sources of personality differences among
people (nature versus nature). Interestingly, many experts consider ----------------------
introversion and extroversion to be personality dimensions with a
----------------------
relatively high genetically determined component.
5. Dogmatism: Dogmatism refers to the rigidity of a person’s beliefs. The ----------------------
highly dogmatic individual perceives the world as a threatening place,
----------------------
often regards legitimate authority as absolute and accepts or rejects
other people on the basis of their agreement with accepted authority or ----------------------
doctrine. The high-dogmatic (HD) individual is close-minded, and the
low-dogmatic (LD) person is open-minded. As a result, HDs appear to ----------------------
depend more on authoritative figures in the organisation for guidance and
----------------------
direction and are more easily influenced by them.
Some relationship between the degree of dogmatism and group behaviour ----------------------
also seem to exist. HDs, for example, typically need more group structure
----------------------
than do LDs to work effectively with others. Hence, the performance of HDs
assigned to task forces and committees may vary somewhat, depending ----------------------
on how the group goes about its work. A high degree of dogmatism is
related to a limited search for information in decision-making situations, ----------------------
which sometimes leads to poor managerial performance.
----------------------
6. Authoritarianism: The authoritarian personality describes someone who
adheres to conventional values, obeys recognised authorities, exhibits a ----------------------
negative view of society, respects power and toughness and opposes the ----------------------
expression of personal feelings.
In organisations, the authoritarian personality probably is subservient to ----------------------
authority figures and may even prefer superiors who have a highly directive, ----------------------
structured leadership style. Both dogmatism and authoritarianism are
related to the intellectual openness factor. ----------------------
7. Organisational implications: It should be evident by now that the ----------------------
personality dimensions discussed, and the specific relationship for each,
have important implications for organisational behaviour. However, ----------------------
managers and groups should not try to change or otherwise directly control
employees’ personality. Even if such control were possible, it would be ----------------------
highly unethical. Rather, the challenge for managers and employees is ----------------------
to understand the crucial role played by personality in explaining some
aspects of human behaviour in the workplace. Knowledge of important ----------------------
individual differences provides managers, employees, and students of
organisational behaviour with valuable insights and a framework that ----------------------
they can use to diagnose events and situations. ----------------------
8. The person and the situation: Although understanding differences in
----------------------
personality is important, behaviour always involves an interaction of the
Personality 65
Notes person and the situation. Sometimes the demands of the situation may be
so overwhelming that individual differences are relatively unimportant.
---------------------- If, for example, an office building is burning, everyone in it will try to flee.
However, the fact that all employees behaved the same way says nothing
---------------------- about the personalities of those individuals. In other cases, individual
---------------------- differences may explain more about behaviour.
The relative importance of situational versus dispositional (personal)
----------------------
determinants of behaviour continues to be debated, but considerable evidence
---------------------- exists for roles by both.
----------------------
Activity 1
----------------------
1. Some questions are given below. Take your time and think about your
---------------------- answers. For each of your answers, write down a number 1 to 5.
---------------------- 1. Strongly disagree/Not at all/That’s not me.
66 Organisational Behaviour
Notes
g. Can people teach themselves to be more intelligent? ____________
h. Can you change the outcome of a failure to make it a success in the ----------------------
future? __________
----------------------
i. If you are successful, does chance have more of an impact over your
skills? ________ ----------------------
15 17 ----------------------
18 20 ----------------------
Total = Total =
----------------------
For each question, add the numerical value (1−5) next to the question
number in the above columns. ----------------------
Add up the numerical values you just entered. Each column should have a ----------------------
value between 5 and 25. The highest number between Internal and External
is your Locus of Control type. ----------------------
----------------------
Personality 67
Notes
2. What’s my basic personality?
---------------------- Listed below is a set of 15 pairs of adjectives. For each, select the number
---------------------- along the scale that most closely describes you or your preferences.
1 Quiet 12345 Talkative
----------------------
2 Tolerant 12345 Critical
---------------------- 3 Disorganised 12345 Organised
---------------------- 4 Tense 12345 Calm
5 Imaginative 12345 Conventional
---------------------- 6 Reserved 12345 Outgoing
---------------------- 7 Uncooperative 12345 Cooperative
8 Unreliable 12345 Dependable
----------------------
9 Insecure 12345 Secure
---------------------- 10 New 12345 Familiar
11 Sociable 12345 Aloof
----------------------
12 Suspicious 12345 Trusting
---------------------- 13 Undirected 12345 Goal-oriented
---------------------- 14 Enthusiastic 12345 Depressed
15 Changing 12345 Unchanging
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Analysis:
---------------------- • Extraversion: Someone who is sociable, talkative and assertive. High
---------------------- scores indicate an extravert; low scores indicate an introvert.
• Agreeableness: Someone who is good-natured, cooperative and trusting.
---------------------- This is a measure of your propensity to defer to others. High scores
---------------------- indicate you value harmony; low scores indicate you prefer having your
say or way on issues.
---------------------- • Conscientiousness: Someone who is responsible, dependable, persistent,
---------------------- and achievement-oriented. High scores indicate that you pursue fewer
goals in a purposeful way; low scores indicate that you are more easily
---------------------- distracted, pursue many goals and are more hedonistic.
68 Organisational Behaviour
• Emotional stability: Someone who is calm, enthusiastic and secure. Notes
High scores indicate positive emotional stability; low scores indicate
negative emotional stability. Openness to experience. Someone who is ----------------------
imaginative, artistically sensitive and intellectual. High scores indicate
a wide range of interests and a fascination with novelty and innovation; ----------------------
low scores indicate that you are more conventional and find comfort in ----------------------
the familiar.
----------------------
Case Study ----------------------
Cisco beats a path to disabled workers. ----------------------
The high-tech giant has seen the good business sense of scouting for hires
in the disabled community. ----------------------
Students at the Rochester Institute for the Deaf might have a Cisco Systems ----------------------
career in their future. The high-tech juggernaut is looking to set up a recruiting
----------------------
relationship with the technical training departments of the school as part of an
ongoing push to hire more disabled employees. ----------------------
Sounds like a nice press release. But this initiative is hardly a token effort.
----------------------
In fact, Cisco is not only a NASDAQ bellwether but also a leader in recruiting
and employing the disabled. The San Jose (Calif.)-based company, which makes ----------------------
the computer routers that direct traffic on the Internet, also recruits disabled
employees through disability organisations, including regional groups such as ----------------------
Project Hired, TransAccess, Sensory Access and national groups, such as the
----------------------
National Disability Business Council.
In fact, the company recently took the extra step of developing and ----------------------
implementing its own curriculum for teaching disability etiquette and outreach
----------------------
techniques to Cisco recruiters. The aim was to increase their ability to
communicate effectively and comfortably with disabled potential hires. Bottom ----------------------
line? Cisco gets it when it comes to working with the disabled.
----------------------
Customer advantage
Cisco’s logic here is simple. Employees with disabilities are good for ----------------------
business. They add diversity to a workforce, something that Cisco CEO John ----------------------
Chambers has long trumpeted as a factor in improved productivity and creativity.
Furthermore, some of the company’s customers have disabled employees. So ----------------------
acclimating Cisco’s workers to professional contact with disabled workers inside
the company has the added benefit of enabling them to work productively with ----------------------
Cisco clients. ----------------------
“We have employees with disabilities, and we have customers with
disabilities whose information needs must be met. As a result, we do our best ----------------------
to accommodate their communications needs,” says Nancy Cruz, who oversees ----------------------
Cisco’s disability policies and recruiting efforts.
----------------------
That’s a nice sound bite. But the truth is Cisco really practises what it
preaches. I spoke to dozens of people and could not find anyone who had bad ----------------------
Personality 69
Notes things to say about the company with regard to its efforts to both employ and
accommodate disabled workers.
----------------------
Here are some examples of how Cisco puts its money where its mouth is.
---------------------- It has taken pains to keep its website completely accessible, a rarity in the
tech field, where Byzantine sites often frustrate screen-reading software. It is
----------------------
moving toward even further accessibility by integrating audio and video files into
---------------------- the recruiting portion of Cisco.com. “We do not use frames on our Web pages,
which are what makes it difficult for someone using screen-reader technology
---------------------- to translate,” says Cruz.
---------------------- Proactive approach
70 Organisational Behaviour
Part of Cisco’s drive likely has come from CEO Chambers, who himself is Notes
dyslexic and under Section 508 of the Americans with Disabilities Act, companies
bear a legal responsibility to ensure that their hiring practices and workplaces are ----------------------
accessible to the disabled. Cisco sees that as an opportunity. “Companies will
have to employ more disabled people to meet the accessibility requirements of ----------------------
508. The best testers and developers of assistive-technology hardware, software ----------------------
and accessibility issues are disabled people,” says Cruz.
----------------------
How many Lee Mudrocks has Cisco hired? That remains unclear, as the
company declines to divulge how many disabled people it employs. Number of ----------------------
disabled employees in the tech sector as a whole is likewise murky, but possibly
in the thousands. Project Hired’s Kuczler says, though, that she regularly places ----------------------
workers with Cisco.
----------------------
Thus far, the company has failed to promote anyone with disabilities into
the very top executive ranks. That’s not unusual, however. Few technology ----------------------
companies have taken that step − a glass ceiling still blocks the executive suites
----------------------
of Silicon Valley. Perhaps Cisco can set a standard there, too, by hiring the first
top executive with a disability. It would be a crowning achievement for a company ----------------------
that has already thrown its doors wide open to the disabled.
[Source: fastcompany.com] ----------------------
----------------------
Summary
----------------------
• Personality is an important cognitively-oriented variable in the study
of OB. Personality represents the whole person. It includes perception, ----------------------
learning, physique and a lot more of a person. ----------------------
• The Determinants of Personality of an individual can be studied under the
four broad headings: Biological, Cultural, Familial & Situational. ----------------------
----------------------
Personality 71
Notes • Locus of control: A theory in personality psychology referring to the
extent to which individuals believe that they can control events that affect
---------------------- them.
---------------------- • Dogmatism: Arrogant assertion of opinions as truths.
• Id, ego and superego: The three parts of the psychic apparatus defined
----------------------
in Sigmund Freud’s structural model of the psyche; they are the three
---------------------- theoretical constructs in terms of whose activity and interaction, mental
life is described. According to this model of the psyche, the id is the set
---------------------- of uncoordinated instinctual trends; the ego is the organised, realistic part;
and the superego plays the critical and moralising role.
----------------------
72 Organisational Behaviour
Multiple Choice Multiple Response. Notes
1. The biological factor, which determines personality are:
----------------------
i. Heredity
----------------------
ii. Brain
iii. Physical features ----------------------
----------------------
Check your Progress 2 ----------------------
State True or False
----------------------
1. True
----------------------
2. True
3. False ----------------------
----------------------
Suggested Reading
----------------------
1. Khanka S.S. Organisational Behaviour. S. Chand & Co.
----------------------
2. Aswathappa, K. Organisational Behaviour. Himalaya Publishing House.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Personality 73
Notes
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
74 Organisational Behaviour
Attitudes
UNIT
Structure:
5
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Nature of Attitude
5.3 Arousal of Attitude
5.4 Attitudes and Values
5.5 Attitudes and Opinions
5.6 Attitudes, Beliefs and Ideology
5.7 Attitudes and Prejudices
5.8 Characteristics of Attitude
5.9 Attitude Formation
5.10 Measurement of Attitude
5.10.1 Problems in Attitude Measurement
5.11 Changing Attitudes
5.12 Attitudes and Behaviour
5.12.1 Sources of Job Satisfaction
5.12.2 Job Satisfaction and Employee Performance
5.12.3 Commitment to Organisation
Summary
Key Words
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
Attitudes 75
Notes
Objectives
----------------------
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
----------------------
• Describe the nature and importance of attitude
----------------------
• Analyse the differences between attitudes, opinion, value, ideology, etc.
---------------------- • Appraise how attitudes are formed and how attitudes can be changed
---------------------- • Justify work attitudes like job satisfaction and organisational
commitment
----------------------
----------------------
5.1 INTRODUCTION
----------------------
Developing climate for teamwork and mutually supporting atmosphere
----------------------
in organisation calls for predicting and estimating the individual’s responses to
---------------------- certain organisational stimuli. Individuals react to different stimuli on the basis
of learned preferences. An individual’s behaviour is a function of attitudes. An
---------------------- attitude is a cognitive element; it always remains inside a person. In organisational
context, employees have attitudes related to job security or uncertainty, prestige
----------------------
of the department and the work that they do, etc. The individual’s attitudes toward
---------------------- these factors are indicative of his apathy or enthusiasm toward the activities and
objectives of the organisation.
----------------------
The notable feature of attitude is that it varies in direction, (favourable-
---------------------- unfavourable) intensity, (how strongly they are held) and the extent of
consciousness (awareness of individual concerning his attitude).
----------------------
76 Organisational Behaviour
arises when his country is threatened from an external aggression or if the National Notes
Anthem is sung, and so on.
----------------------
Attitudes are for or against things. We tend to have favourable attitudes
toward sources of gratification and unfavourable attitudes toward sources of ----------------------
punishment and frustration. It is possible, of course, that our attitude toward an
object may not be uniformly favourable or unfavourable. We, for example, may ----------------------
admire and respect American technical accomplishments and yet resent other
----------------------
aspects of its system.
----------------------
5.3 AROUSAL OF ATTITUDE
----------------------
What kinds of events are likely to arouse attitudinal reactions? The
following principles outline conditions for attitude arousal: ----------------------
Attitudes 77
Notes perceptual reactions, judgements), and action tendencies. The latter are actually
motives for doing particular things.
----------------------
Suppose, for example, we consider someone’s internal reactions to
---------------------- situations involving higher education. He likes (affective reaction) the company of
well-educated people, enjoys (affective reaction) spending time in the university
---------------------- library, believes (cognition) that industrial society depends upon what universities
do, judges (cognition) that college professors are capable people, and wants
----------------------
(action tendency) to contribute to a campaign to raise the university endowment.
---------------------- Thus, an aroused attitude can be regarded as having affective, cognitive and
action components.
----------------------
The set of implicit responses that is aroused on a particular occasion
---------------------- depends upon the person and the stimulus situations. Sometimes we have strong
emotional reactions to a situation but lack definite beliefs and action tendencies
---------------------- in relation to it. We, for example, might deeply resent a foreigner’s criticism of
our country’s policies but not have any systematic belief about the significance of
----------------------
his actions or any definite action tendencies. In some people affective reactions
---------------------- and beliefs may play a large part in their religious attitudes while their action
tendencies are minimal.
----------------------
The greater the degree of arousal of the affective component of an attitude,
---------------------- the greater is the strength of reaction to other attitude-related stimuli. If a person
is already stirred up about something relevant to an attitude, he will tend to
---------------------- react to some new attitude stimulus more strongly than he would otherwise do.
A community that is angry about a “communal incident” will be likely to be
----------------------
sensitised to new threats to its values. It is not even necessary that the affective
---------------------- arousal be related to an attitudinally relevant stimulus for its effect to occur.
78 Organisational Behaviour
5.4 ATTITUDES AND VALUES Notes
Attitudes 79
Notes 5.6 ATTITUDES, BELIEFS AND IDEOLOGY
---------------------- A belief is a judgment about something. A belief, for example, that the
---------------------- world is round is a judgment about its form. Many of our beliefs, of course, are
emotionally neutral; others are definitely favourable or unfavourable toward
---------------------- some object. A favourable attitude towards religion, for example, may involve
beliefs that religion helps to curb delinquency, worshippers’ are better citizens
---------------------- than non-devotees, that people who stay away from temples are unhappy and
---------------------- immoral, and so on.
When beliefs become organised into systems, they are called ideologies.
---------------------- The capitalist ideology, for example, is a set of beliefs that a free enterprise
---------------------- economy is maximally productive; that competition in the long run brings down
prices and raises quality; and that events in the marketplace do and should
---------------------- determine what is produced.
---------------------- Related to this is a disbelief system – the set of beliefs that one rejects. An
individual committed to capitalist ideology would disbelieve that industry can
---------------------- be run efficiently without the profit system; that people will work primarily out
of a desire to serve others; or that public ownership of all utilities is necessary
---------------------- for the common good.
---------------------- There are ideologies pertaining to all the major institutions of society, such
as the family, the law, the government, and the economic system. Although these
----------------------
ideologies are difficult to verify, we feel strongly about them and, as long as
---------------------- things go well, have great confidence in them. They give us an interpretation and
a justification for our practices. Like religion, they are matters of faith. They give
---------------------- us an interpretation and a justification for our practices. Like religion, they are
matters of faith. They give us social definition of reality. It is an interesting thing
----------------------
about human behaviour that some of the beliefs that we hold most tenaciously
---------------------- with the strongest feelings are not readily subject to proof or disproof.
80 Organisational Behaviour
2. Affective prejudice: Affective prejudice points to people’s likes and Notes
dislikes.
----------------------
3. Conative prejudice: Conative prejudice refers to how people are inclined
to behave. Note that this is still an attitude because people don’t actually ----------------------
act on their feelings. An example of conative prejudice might be found in
----------------------
the statement “If I were in charge I’d send all those whom I dislike back
to wherever they came from." ----------------------
While these three types of prejudice are correlated, all don’t have to ----------------------
be present in a particular individual. Someone, for example, might believe a
particular group possesses low level of intelligence, but harbour no ill- feeling ----------------------
toward that group. On the other hand, one might not like a group because of ----------------------
intense competition for jobs, but still recognise no inherent differences between
groups. ----------------------
----------------------
5.8 CHARACTERISTICS OF ATTITUDE
----------------------
Attitudes can be characterised by their valence, multiplexity, relation to
needs and centrality. ----------------------
a) Valence: It refers to the magnitude or degree of favourableness or ----------------------
unfavourableness towards the object/event. While measuring the attitudes
we are basically concerned with valence. If a person is relatively indifferent ----------------------
towards an object then his attitude has low valence. On the other hand, if ----------------------
a person is extremely favourable or unfavourable towards an object, then
his attitude will have a high valence. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Attitudes 81
Notes
Check your Progress 2
----------------------
----------------------
Activity 1
----------------------
---------------------- Your organisation has procured a very challenging project and you are in
charge of delivering it successfully. You know that the only way it will
---------------------- happen is when you have a strong and committed team. There is a project
team, which is currently available for working on this project. However, you
----------------------
know that this team comprises members who are known for inconsistent
---------------------- performance, unruly behaviour on the job and wavering commitment levels.
You have no choice but to work with this team. The only strength you see
---------------------- in this team is that every member is technically brilliant and fits perfectly
with the requirements of this project. The only thing you will need to work
----------------------
on as a manager is their attitude. How will you do that?
----------------------
82 Organisational Behaviour
them through “processes of learning”. Attitudes reflect a person’s previous Notes
reinforcement history.
----------------------
The sources of a person’s attitude are a mixture of:
a) Personal experiences: People form attitudes by coming in direct contact ----------------------
with an attitude object. By the time a person goes for work in a specified
----------------------
organisation, he holds many attitudes toward the type of the job that is
acceptable to him, the expected pay, working conditions and supervision. ----------------------
Through job experiences, people develop attitudes about such factors
as salary, performance reviews, job design, work group, affiliation and ----------------------
managerial capabilities, etc. Previous work experience can account for
----------------------
the individual differences in attitudes, such as loyalty, commitments,
performance, etc. Many managers in work organisations frequently notice ----------------------
these differences in attitudes.
----------------------
b) Association: People are highly influenced by the major groups or
associations to which they belong. Geographic region, religion, ----------------------
educational background, race, sex, age, income and class, all strongly
influence attitudes. The nearer the group the stronger is the group influence ----------------------
on the attitudes of the individual.
----------------------
c) Family: Family is the primary group that an individual belongs to.
Family exerts influence on the initial core of attitudes held by an ----------------------
individual. Individuals develop certain attitudes from family members ----------------------
– parents, brothers, sisters, etc. The family characteristics influence the
individual’s early attitude patterns. Researchers have found a high degree ----------------------
of relationship between parents and children in attitudes than they found
between children and their peers. They also empirically observed low ----------------------
correlation between attitudes of the children and their teachers. ----------------------
d) Peer groups and society: As people approach their adulthood, they
increasingly rely on their peer groups for approval/attitude. How others ----------------------
judge an individual largely determine his self-image and approval- ----------------------
seeking behaviour. Social class and religious affiliation also play vital
role in forming attitudes of an individual. The culture, language and the ----------------------
structure of society, all provide an individual with the boundaries of his
initial attitudes. At the very early age an individual is taught that certain ----------------------
attitudes are acceptable and certain others are unacceptable in the society. ----------------------
What seem to be appropriate in one individual’s culture and society may
be totally unacceptable in another culture. ----------------------
e) Models: Some of the attitudes are developed through imitation of models. ----------------------
The process is something like this. In a particular situation, we see how
another person behaves. We correctly or incorrectly interpret his behaviour ----------------------
as representing certain attitudes and beliefs. If we identify with him and
respect his judgment, we tend to accept his way of perceiving and feeling ----------------------
about the situation. Children are often quite observant about how their ----------------------
parents react to different people and situations. They learn by watching
whom their parent’s respect, which they treat with condescension, whom ----------------------
Attitudes 83
Notes they regard as friends and whom they dislike. Such evaluations maybe
acquired without the child’s directly interacting with such people. Instead
---------------------- of using a simple model, children (and adults) may seek to emulate
different characteristics of different people. In this way their values,
---------------------- attitudes and beliefs may be derived from many other people. Those that
---------------------- are functional for them tend to be retained.
f) Institutional factors: Many institutional factors function as sources
----------------------
of and support for our attitudes and beliefs. For example, consider the
---------------------- description of a certain temple prayer. When people come into this temple,
they bow down to pray, sit with heads bowed. Their clothes are clean and
---------------------- freshly washed. When the Pujari signals, all start singing Bhajan and clap.
The entire process is devoted to ritual. From this, we can get an idea as to
----------------------
the general character of the religious attitudes and beliefs. There is implicit
---------------------- attitude of reverence, an orientation towards a deity, a ritualised rather
than spontaneous expression of feeling, a sharp differentiation between
---------------------- Pujari and devotees and so on. The different parts of the institution –
the architecture, furnishings, people’s clothing, and behaviour – have a
----------------------
meaning, which fits in with certain beliefs and attitudes. There are many
---------------------- other institutions in our society – schools, military organisations, and
the like, which also function as sources of and support for attitudes and
---------------------- beliefs.
----------------------
5.10 MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDE
----------------------
Though attitude is a hypothetical construct, it is also subject to measurement.
----------------------
The most common and frequently used measures of attitudes are
---------------------- questionnaires, which ask the respondents to evaluate and rate their attitude
towards a particular object directly and to respond favourably or unfavourably
---------------------- about his belief regarding the attitude object. Generally, bipolar scales are used
to assess the attitudes of individual employees in an organisation. Different types
----------------------
of scales are in use with respect to measurement of attitudes, viz., Thurstone’s
---------------------- scale, Likert’s scale, Bogardus’s social distance scale, Guttman’s scale, etc. Let
us throw some light on these scales.
----------------------
a) Thurstone’s scale: The statements, both favourable and unfavourable,
---------------------- relating to the area in which attitudes are to be measured are placed into
11 piles; one representing the most favourable one and one representing
---------------------- the unfavourable. Individuals are then asked to check those statements
with which they agree. The average of the scale values of the items, which
----------------------
they accepte, will give an indication of the placement of a person along
---------------------- the attitude continuum.
b) Likert’s scale: Another scale that is relatively easy when compared to the
----------------------
earlier is the one developed by Rensis Likert.
---------------------- Likert’s scale consists of five boxes ranging from “strongly agree” to
---------------------- “strongly disagree”. Under each statement of attitude, the respondent
84 Organisational Behaviour
will be given a chance to tick in one of the five boxes and finally all the Notes
ratings are summed up. The Likert’s scale is also known as summed-
rating measure, because several statements are collected in an attitude ----------------------
area, such as one’s attitude about a job, and the scales are added up or
summed to obtain a person’s attitude toward his job. The summed-rating ----------------------
scale provides a means of measuring the intensity of one’s attitude toward ----------------------
a particular object/event in addition to the direction.
----------------------
c) Bogardus’s social distance scale: Perhaps the most simple scale of
measuring attitudes is the social distance scale developed by Bogardus in ----------------------
1925. The scale is composed of a large number of statements regarding
national, racial or ethnic groups. ----------------------
d) Guttman’s scale: Guttman in 1950 developed cumulative scaling ----------------------
technique to measure attitude. In the scale of one’s attitude towards
work, an employee might be presented with six statements displaying ----------------------
successively higher degrees of dissatisfaction. It is assumed that the
----------------------
employee will reach some point beyond which he can no longer agree.
The main threshold is considered to be the degree of satisfaction. ----------------------
e) Projective tests: Another method to measure attitudes is the projective
----------------------
test, which requires a person to respond to an unstructured stimulus
situation. The rationale behind such tests is that, when the stimulus ----------------------
situation is unstructured, mainly his motives, expectations and other
personal factors determine the individual’s responses. Projective tests ----------------------
of attitude are particularly valuable in the study of prejudice, since so
----------------------
many of our prejudices operate at an unconscious level or are deliberately
disguised to conform to prevailing taboos – against the expression of ----------------------
overt prejudice.
----------------------
There are many other good scales to measure attitudes. From a practical
standpoint, one should either use a standard questionnaire or consult an expert ----------------------
to obtain a valid estimate of attitudes of the employees in an organisation.
----------------------
5.10.1 Problems in Attitude Measurement
Attitudes cannot be precisely measured. Behavioural scientists have tried to ----------------------
understand, analyse and measure attitudes but these methods suffer from certain ----------------------
drawbacks as follows:
----------------------
i) When paper and pencil (questionnaire / descriptive) or interview methods
are used to assess attitudes, there are certain matters, which require special ----------------------
care. Leading questions, which induce the subject to give a certain answer,
should be avoided, for example, questions like “How do you feel about ----------------------
TV shows which feature violence, cheating and immoral conducts?” It
----------------------
would be impossible to express agreement with such TV shows.
ii) The questions to assess attitude should be understandable to the respondent ----------------------
and should take into account the respondent’s way of thinking about the
----------------------
matter in question. Open-ended questions, as distinct from structured set
of questions, are often used so that the respondent does not have to choose ----------------------
Attitudes 85
Notes between fixed alternatives and may respond freely according to how he
thinks and feels about the subject. Then, depending on his answers, he is
---------------------- asked further questions which are intended to find out how he feels about
specific aspects of the subject.
----------------------
iii) Respondents sometimes consciously or unconsciously distort their
---------------------- answers. Conscious distortion or faking is most likely to occur when
a person has some motive to misrepresent his attitude, such as fear of
----------------------
reprisal, embarrassment or guilt at feeling a certain way or a desire to
---------------------- please or impress the questioner. We may answer attitude questions by
giving what we consider to be the socially desirable answer instead of
---------------------- expressing feelings we think others would reject.
---------------------- iv) One must be careful to get a representative sample of whatever group or
population to which one wishes to generalise his findings.
----------------------
---------------------- A whole set of influences, some of which are favourable and others
unfavourable to the object, usually determines an attitude.
----------------------
In principle, an attitude change is attributable to a change in the relative
---------------------- strength of these influences. When the influences in a given direction become
relatively stronger than those in the opposite direction, the attitude will tend to
---------------------- shift. Weakening the opposing forces can also bring about such a shift.
---------------------- Attitude changes may be roughly classified into congruent and incongruent
changes. By congruent change we mean a movement in the same direction. To
---------------------- take an example, a less serious student may be converted into a more serious
student by resorting to attitude change. On the other hand, an incongruent
----------------------
attitude change involves a change towards the other end of the continuum. For
---------------------- example, conversion of a dull and non-intelligent student into an interesting and
intelligent student constitutes this incongruent attitude change. Similarly turning
---------------------- dislike into like, unfavourable into favourable, etc. are examples of incongruent
attitude changes.
----------------------
A manager attempting to change an individual employee’s attitude should
---------------------- keep in mind that the attitude change depends on following factors:
---------------------- 1. Characteristics of the communicator: The most important thing in
attitude change is the characteristics of the communicator. These include
---------------------- the status and prestige of the communicator, whether according to the
---------------------- employee, the communication is biased or dispassionate, etc.
One very important variable is status of the manager. The higher the status
---------------------- of the manager, the higher is the probability that he will be able to change
---------------------- the employee’s attitude.
Changing attitude is also a function of the trust in the communicator
----------------------
by the employees. If the employees trust their manager they accept the
---------------------- message and may try to change their attitudes correspondingly. On the
86 Organisational Behaviour
other hand, if a manager has insignificant prestige, trust, and is not shown Notes
considerable respect by his peers and subordinates, he will be in a difficult
position to change the attitudes of his employees. One of the most reliable ----------------------
research findings is that the greater the prestige of the communicator, the
more is his ability to change the attitude of employees. ----------------------
2. Method of communication: Another influential factor in attitude change ----------------------
is the way the manager communicates the message to his employees.
People, when presented with two-sided views, will be more convinced as ----------------------
they perceive that the argument is not biased.
----------------------
Another method of communication is through “fear appeals”. By
communicating the terrible consequences of the continuance of the ----------------------
present attitudes, a manager can bring change in attitudes. Anti-smoking
----------------------
advertisement, by constantly emphasising the dangerous possibility of
cancer attacks, are famous examples of “fear appeals”. Research results ----------------------
indicate that fear appeals can be effective, especially when the target
cannot do something constructive to reduce the fear on the spot. ----------------------
3. Characteristics of the target: The single most important factor influencing ----------------------
attitude change is the degree of commitment of the target (employee)
to the initial attitude. Further, attitudes that are publicly expressed are ----------------------
more difficult to change because the person concerned has already shown
commitment and to change the attitude would be to admit the mistake. ----------------------
Research reveals that attitudes represented by public statements are more ----------------------
resistant to change than those stated privately. Also firmly held attitudes
to which people are behaviourally or morally committed are difficult to ----------------------
change.
----------------------
4. Situational factors: Situational factors are not only extensive but also
play a major role in influencing the change in attitudes of people. How ----------------------
one perceives the message is dependent on the situation or the prevailing
context. If the employee believes that the group (his colleagues) is more ----------------------
favourable to the manager, then he will have less hesitation in changing his
----------------------
attitude. Further, when the person feels the group and the group members
are important he will have an “easy go” in changing his attitude towards ----------------------
the group.
----------------------
5. New experiences: Whether or not new experiences (or information) will
change our attitudes depend partly upon the strength of the initial attitudes ----------------------
and beliefs and partly upon how strongly favourable or unfavourable the
experiences may be. ----------------------
If we already have strong attitudes, we are likely to resist changing them. ----------------------
Indeed, we can be so strongly prejudiced that we interpret what would otherwise
be favourable experiences as exceptions. Moreover, we may be especially ----------------------
sensitive to any experience, which is unfavourable. Nevertheless a prolonged
series of strikingly favourable or unfavourable experiences can effect a change. ----------------------
Attitudes 87
Notes A person may resist changing his attitude because of ego. This is because
of a need to enhance and defend our self-esteem.
----------------------
When our self-esteem is threatened we are very likely to resist vigorously
---------------------- any attempt to change our attitude. We may reject another’s evaluation simply
because agreeing would appear to admit his superiority. Sometimes, however,
---------------------- when the threat is removed, we may consider the situation more objectively.
----------------------
5.12 ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOUR
----------------------
The importance of attitude-behaviour relationship can best be demonstrated
---------------------- by examining two key work attitudes: job satisfaction and organisational
commitment. Of interest also are the complex relationships between job
---------------------- satisfaction and job performance.
---------------------- In organisational behaviour, perhaps the attitude of greatest interest is the
general attitude of employees towards work or towards a job, which is often
----------------------
called job satisfaction. The sources of job satisfaction are of particular interest
---------------------- because they often suggest corrective action that can be taken.
5.12.1 Sources of Job Satisfaction
----------------------
Job satisfaction is sometimes regarded as a single concept, i.e., a person is
---------------------- satisfied or not satisfied with the job. However, it actually is a collection of specific
job attitudes that can be related to various aspects of the job. For example, a
----------------------
popular measure of job satisfaction − the Job Descriptive Index (JDI) − measures
---------------------- satisfaction in terms of five specific aspects of a person’s job: pay, promotion,
supervision, the work itself and co-workers. Obviously, an employee may be
---------------------- satisfied with some aspects of the job and, at the same time, be dissatisfied with
others.
----------------------
The following points determine job satisfaction:
----------------------
• Mentally challenging work
---------------------- • Equitable rewards
---------------------- • Supportive working conditions
---------------------- • Supportive colleagues
• Personality-job fit
----------------------
• Heredity/genes
----------------------
However, the sources of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction vary from
---------------------- person to person. Sources important for many employees include the challenge
of the job, the degree of interest that the job holds for the person, the extent
---------------------- of required physical activity, the characteristics of working conditions (e.g.
---------------------- temperature, humidity, proximity to others and so on), the types of rewards
available from the organisation (e.g. the level of pay), the nature of co-workers
---------------------- and the like.
----------------------
88 Organisational Behaviour
Table 5.1 lists work factors that are often related to levels of employees’ job Notes
satisfaction.
----------------------
Table 5.1 Effects of Various Work Factors on Job Satisfaction
----------------------
Work Factors Effects
Work itself Mentally challenging work that the individual can ----------------------
successfully accomplish is satisfying.
----------------------
Physical demands Tiring work is dissatisfying
----------------------
Personal interest Personally interesting work is satisfying.
Reward structure Rewards that are equitable and that provide accurate ----------------------
feedback for performance are satisfying.
----------------------
Working conditions
----------------------
Physical needs Satisfaction depends on the match between working
conditions and physical needs. ----------------------
Goal attainment Working conditions that promote goal attainment are ----------------------
satisfying.
Self High self-esteem is conducive to job satisfaction. ----------------------
----------------------
Attitudes 89
Notes These principles explain, at least in part, why the expected relationships
often do not exist. Overall job satisfaction, as a collection of numerous attitudes
---------------------- towards various aspects of the job, represents a general attitude.
---------------------- Performance of a specific task, such as preparing a particular monthly
report, can’t necessarily be predicted on the basis of a general attitude. Even
---------------------- though tight linkage between satisfaction and specific task performance cannot
always be drawn, job satisfaction is often important in terms of organisational
----------------------
effectiveness. For example, studies have shown that levels of job satisfaction in
---------------------- the workforce and organisational performance are linked. That is, organisations
with satisfied employees tend to be more effective than organisations with
---------------------- unsatisfied employees. Further, many organisations appreciate the linkage
between customer satisfaction and the satisfaction of employees who interact
----------------------
with their customers.
---------------------- Job satisfaction is also important for the following reasons in addition to
the points mentioned above:
----------------------
i) Since satisfaction represents an outcome of the work experience, high
---------------------- levels of dissatisfaction help to identify organisational problems that need
attention.
----------------------
ii) Job dissatisfaction is strongly linked to absenteeism, turnover and physical
---------------------- and mental health problems. Research, for example, clearly shows that
---------------------- highly dissatisfied employees are more likely to be absent from work than
are satisfied employees.
---------------------- iii) Further, dissatisfied employees are more likely to leave a job for other
---------------------- employment. High levels of absenteeism and turnover are costly for
organisations. Many management experts suggest that the strong
---------------------- relationship between dissatisfaction and absenteeism and turnover
is a compelling reason for paying careful attention to employee job
---------------------- satisfaction.
---------------------- 5.12.3 Commitment to Organisation
---------------------- Another important work attitude that has a bearing on organisational
behaviour is commitment to the organisation.
----------------------
Organisational commitment refers to the strength of an employee’s
---------------------- involvement in the organisation and identification with it. Strong organisational
commitment is characterised by:
----------------------
i) A belief in and acceptance of the organisation’s goals and values.
---------------------- ii) A willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organisation
---------------------- iii) A desire to remain with the organisation.
Organisational commitment goes beyond loyalty to include active
---------------------- contribution to accomplishing organisational goals. The concept of organisational
---------------------- commitment represents a broader work attitude than job satisfaction because it
applies to the entire organisation than just a job. Further, it is likely to be more
---------------------- stable than job satisfaction because day-to-day events are not likely to affect it.
90 Organisational Behaviour
Sources of organisational commitment Notes
As with job satisfaction, sources of organisational commitment may vary from
----------------------
person to person.
i) Employees’ initial commitment to the organisation is determined largely ----------------------
by their individual’s characteristics (personality, values, etc.) and how
----------------------
well their early job experiences match their expectations.
ii) Pay, relationships at workplace, working conditions, opportunities for ----------------------
advancement. etc.
----------------------
iii) Over time, it becomes stronger because:
----------------------
a) Individuals develop deeper ties with the organisation and their co-
workers. ----------------------
b) Seniority often brings advantages that tend to develop more positive ----------------------
work attitudes.
----------------------
c) Opportunities in the market may decrease with increasing age and
hence, employees may become more attached with the current ----------------------
organisation.
----------------------
Check your Progress 3 ----------------------
----------------------
Attitudes 91
Notes
Activity 2
----------------------
---------------------- Shyam was an average performer in the organisation. He did his job with
sincerity and dedication but could not go up the ladder for a few years.
----------------------
----------------------
There was a critical project situation. The customer was being very rude
---------------------- and difficult. He was agitated because the project milestone was not met by the
team for the last two times. Shyam had worked with this customer earlier and
---------------------- hence he was sent to the customer location to meet up and calm things down.
What is the type of attitude he must have for this difficult assignment? Use the
----------------------
following survey in case of Shyam.
---------------------- Tip: Attitude reflects in behaviour. So you can also list the key behaviours
Shyam must and must not demonstrate to handle the situation favourably.
----------------------
Sample Attitude Survey
----------------------
Answer each of the following statements using the following rating scale.
---------------------- 5 = Strongly agree 2 = Disagree
---------------------- 4 = Agree 1 = Strongly disagree
---------------------- 3 = Undecided
92 Organisational Behaviour
along a continuum; and they are directed towards an object about which Notes
a person has some feelings.
----------------------
• An attitude is an amalgam of personal experience, family, society, peers,
models and the institutional factors. ----------------------
• Though attitude is a hypothetical construct it is also subject to measurement.
----------------------
Various scales like Thurstone’s, Likert’s, Guttman’s scales are available.
• Every manager is concerned with the issue if the attitudes can be changed. ----------------------
If so, then how? Change in the attitude depends on the characteristics of
----------------------
the communicator, the method of communication, the characteristics of
the person to be influenced, situational factors, etc. ----------------------
• Job satisfaction and organisational commitment reflect work attitudes of ----------------------
employees. These have a large bearing on their behaviour and ultimately
their performance. ----------------------
----------------------
Keywords
----------------------
• Behaviour: The range of actions and mannerisms made by people in
conjunction with their environment. ----------------------
• Prejudice: Preconceived, usually unfavourable, judgments towards ----------------------
people or a person because of gender, social class, age, disability,
religion, sexuality, race/ethnicity, language, nationality or other personal ----------------------
characteristics.
----------------------
• Job satisfaction: The extent of pleasurable emotional feelings individuals
have about their jobs. ----------------------
• Job attitude: A set of evaluations of one’s job that constitute one’s ----------------------
feelings toward beliefs about, and attachment to one’s job.
----------------------
• Values: Broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of action or
outcomes. As such, values reflect a person’s sense of right and wrong or ----------------------
what ought to be.
----------------------
1. Define attitude. How does attitude differ from opinion, ideology, beliefs ----------------------
and values?
----------------------
2. What leads to the formation of attitude? Give the various characteristics
of attitude. ----------------------
3. “Attitudes can be changed.” If so, how? Explain the various factors that ----------------------
lead to change in attitude.
4. Explain the different ways of measuring attitude. What are the problems ----------------------
faced during attitude measurement?
----------------------
5. Define job satisfaction. What are the sources of job satisfaction? Explain
the effect of various work factors on job satisfaction. ----------------------
Attitudes 93
Notes 6. Write short notes on:
a. Attitude and prejudice
----------------------
b. Job satisfaction
----------------------
c. Sources of organisational commitment
----------------------
Answers to Check your Progress
----------------------
Check your Progress 1
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response
----------------------
1. For a management staff who has unfavourable attitude towards labour
---------------------- union, which of the following item stimulates negative attitude?
----------------------
Check your Progress 2
----------------------
State True or False.
----------------------
1. True
---------------------- 2. False
---------------------- 3. True
----------------------
Check your Progress 3
---------------------- State True or False.
---------------------- 1. False
---------------------- Multiple Choice Single Response.
1. Attitudes are reflected when:
----------------------
i. One talks about something
----------------------
94 Organisational Behaviour
Multiple Choice Multiple Response. Notes
1. Values and attitudes play an important role in organisational behaviour
----------------------
because:
i. They indicate the motives inherent in behaviour. ----------------------
ii. They are the essential keys to understand individual behaviour. ----------------------
iii. They are manifestations of explicit behaviour. ----------------------
----------------------
1. Gordon Judith R. A Diagnostic approach to Organizational Behaviour.
Allyn & Bacon. ----------------------
2. Robins, Stephen P. Organisational Behaviour. Prentice Hall.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Attitudes 95
Notes
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
96 Organisational Behaviour
Motivation: The Driving Forces of Human Behaviour
UNIT
Structure:
6
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Characteristics and Classification of Motives
6.3 Intrapersonal Conflicts
6.3.1 Defence Mechanism
6.4 Money as a Motivator
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
----------------------
----------------------
6.1 INTRODUCTION
98 Organisational Behaviour
whenever certain behaviour is to be discouraged, give punishment. This is the Notes
theory of “reward and punishment”. Unfortunately this takes a simplistic view
of human behaviour. Humans are not always motivated either by reward or ----------------------
by punishment or both. Adherence to “reward and punishment” or “carrot and
the stick” as it is sometimes called, does not cause continuance of desired and ----------------------
sustained behaviour over a long time. ----------------------
It was William James, who in the first decade of the last century, disputed
----------------------
the basic assumptions of hedonistic concept. He thought that much of human
behaviour is based on instincts. These instincts are unlearned and are innate ----------------------
drives of human beings.
----------------------
William McDougal, the pioneering social psychologist, further developed
the instinctive theory. He defined an instinct as “an innate disposition which ----------------------
determines the organism to perceive or to pay attention to any object” which
causes behaviour. In other words, instincts are the behaviours taught to us by ----------------------
Mother Nature. A partial list of instincts would include jealousy, love, anxiety,
----------------------
fear, hatred, lust, fear of dark places, etc.
Implicit in the instinctual approach to human behaviour is the hint that ----------------------
human behaviour is unconscious behaviour. It was Sigmund Freud, however,
----------------------
who shaped the theory of “unconscious behaviour”.
Freud reasoned that human behaviour is like an iceberg; only a small part ----------------------
of which is visible. However, the part of iceberg, which is not seen, controls the ----------------------
seen part. So is the case of human behaviour. To Freud, a person is constantly
in conflict with the self. The three constructs of human personality are always ----------------------
conflicting. The final outcome, which is the observable behaviour, is the product
of this conflict. According to Freud, this is the reason why many a time a person ----------------------
cannot verbalise his or her motivations. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Fig 6.1 Motivational Framework
----------------------
6.2 CHARACTERISTICS AND CLASSIFICATION OF MOTIVES ----------------------
Modern psychologists are prepared to recognise the existence of unconscious ----------------------
behaviour, but not in the sense implied by Freud. They believe human behaviour
is sparked by a motive. A motive is a felt need. Human behaviour is directed ----------------------
----------------------
In the discussion of the characteristics of motives it was said that motives
are ubiquitous. If that is so, the question arises as to how a human satisfies his ----------------------
motive. The concept of coping behaviour says the human changes his behaviour
until he gets what he wants. The behaviour continues on the way leading to need ----------------------
satisfaction. ----------------------
However, human life is not a bed of roses. Many a time situations arise
----------------------
in such a way that human beings do not understand what they should do; or
many times their self- image is likely to be criticised by the world; or the need ----------------------
fulfillment gets continually blocked. When this occurs, a phenomenon known
as intrapersonal conflict arises. ----------------------
Intrapersonal conflicts are of three types: role conflict, goal conflict and ----------------------
frustration.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
6.4 MONEY AS A MOTIVATOR ----------------------
“Managers tend to use compensation as a crutch. After all, it is far easier ----------------------
to design an incentive system that will do the management’s work than it is to
articulate a direction persuasively, develop agreement about goals and problems ----------------------
and confront difficulties when they arise,” says Michael Beer, Harvard professor
----------------------
of business administration, researcher and author of papers and books on
organisational change. ----------------------
Decades of research and dozens of studies show that while money can be ----------------------
a demotivator, it is rarely a good motivator. Money always shows up as fourth
or fifth on any list of motivational factors. Pay gets people to show up for work, ----------------------
but it doesn’t get many to excel. More important is interesting, challenging or
----------------------
meaningful work, recognition and appreciation, a sense of accomplishment,
growth opportunities and the like. ----------------------
However, the big problem is that managers have consistently listed money ----------------------
as the number one factor that they think motivates people. So they keep fiddling
with pay, bonus and financial incentives in a futile attempt to find the elusive ----------------------
combination that will motivate people to higher performance.
----------------------
Bribing people to perform turns them into mercenaries. It debases, degrades
and demeans work. It sets a vicious, self-perpetuating cycle into motion — ----------------------
incentives, inducements, rewards and the like leave people feeling manipulated ----------------------
and overly focused on what they get for complying with management’s goals
and direction − tuned only to “what’s in it for me” (WIFM). The emptier the ----------------------
work is, the more people look elsewhere for fulfillment; so we demand more
----------------------
money and incentives to continue working in such a meaningless, unfulfilling job
(which then “proves” to managers that people won’t improve their performance ----------------------
unless they’re bribed to do so). Money is rarely an effective rallying point for
high performance. That’s because money doesn’t provide deeper meaning and ----------------------
inspiration for a bigger cause and purpose. ----------------------
----------------------
---------------------- Activity 3
----------------------
Is monetory compensation a motivator or a demotivator? Analyse suitable
---------------------- examples from professional and personal life to support your point.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Summary ----------------------
• Motivation is not only the explanation of human behaviour. It interacts ----------------------
and acts in conjunction with mediating processes and environment.
----------------------
• A motive is a felt need. One of the most important characteristics of
motives is that they are ubiquitous. ----------------------
• Role conflict arises as a result of a person performing two contrary or ----------------------
contradictory roles at the same time.
• Three types of goal conflicts are approach-approach, approach-avoidance ----------------------
and avoidance-avoidance conflicts. ----------------------
• When need fulfillment is continually blocked or when the self-image is
----------------------
threatened, frustration arises. Defence mechanisms are the ways to deal
with frustration. ----------------------
----------------------
Keywords
----------------------
• Motivation: The internal condition that activates behaviour and gives it
direction. ----------------------
• Drive: The trait of being highly motivated. ----------------------
• Motive: Corresponds to a want or a preference that is sufficiently strong
that it moves to action or deliberate inaction. ----------------------
• Goal conflict: The strategy that is made but cannot be effectively ----------------------
completed because of inherent differences and problems between goals.
----------------------
• Frustration: Related to anger and disappointment, it arises from the
perceived resistance to the fulfillment of individual will. The greater the ----------------------
obstruction and the greater the will, the more the frustration is likely to
----------------------
be.
----------------------
Self-Assessment Questions ----------------------
1. What do you mean by the term “Hedonism?” Explain it with historical ----------------------
context of motivation.
----------------------
2. Explain the characteristics of motives.
3. What are the types of motives? Explain each of the motives in detail. ----------------------
----------------------
Suggested Reading
1. Herbert, Theodore T. Dimensions of Organisational Behaviour.
---------------------- MacMillan.
---------------------- 2. Luthans, Fred. Organisational Behaviour. McGraw Hill.
Structure:
7
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Abraham Maslow’s Theory of Need Hierarchy
7.2.1 Criticism of Maslow’s Theory
7.3 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation
7.3.1 Criticism of Herzberg’s Theory
7.4 Alderfer’s ERG Theory
7.5 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory of Motivation
7.5.1 Criticism
7.6 The Porter-Lawler Model
7.7 Equity Theory of Work Motivation
7.8 Attribution Theory
7.9 Theory X and Theory Y
7.10 Pygmalion in Management
Case Study
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
----------------------
7.1 INTRODUCTION
----------------------
Approaches to work motivation can be broadly classified as content and
----------------------
process theories.
---------------------- Content theories are concerned with identifying the needs that people have
and how needs are prioritised. They are concerned with the types of incentives
----------------------
that drive people to attain need fulfillment. Maslow’s Hierarchy Theory, Fredrick
---------------------- Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory and Alderfer’s ERG Needs Theory fall in this
category. Although such a content approach has logic, is easy to understand, and
---------------------- can be readily translated in practice, the research evidence points out limitations.
There is very little research support for these models’ theoretical basis and
----------------------
predictability. The trade off for simplicity sacrifices true understanding of the
---------------------- complexity of work motivation. On the positive side, however, the content models
have given emphasis to important content factors that were largely ignored by
---------------------- human relationists. In addition the Alderfer model allows more flexibility and
the Herzberg model is useful as an explanation for job satisfaction and as a point
----------------------
of departure for job design.
---------------------- Process theories provide a more sound theoretical explanation of work
motivations. The Expectancy Model of Vroom and the extensions and the
----------------------
refinements provided by Porter and Lawler help explain the important cognitive
---------------------- variables and how they relate to one another in the process of work motivation.
The Porter-Lawler Model also gives specific attention to the important
---------------------- relationship between performance and satisfaction. A growing research literature
is somewhat supportive of these expectancy models, but conceptual and
----------------------
methodological problems remain. Unlike the content models, these expectancy
---------------------- models are relatively complex and difficult to translate into actual practice, and,
consequently, they have generally failed to meet the goals of prediction and
---------------------- control of organisational behaviour.
---------------------- Process theories are concerned with identifying the variables that go into
motivation and more importantly, how they are related to one another.
----------------------
----------------------
It was Abraham Maslow who thought that human needs that spark off ----------------------
an activity can be arranged in a hierarchy of pre-potency and probability of ----------------------
occurrence. Maslow based his theory on the belief that a need that is not satisfied
dominates the behaviour, sparking off an activity for its satisfaction. This need, ----------------------
when satisfied, in its turn activates the higher need. This sequence can be denoted
as under. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
---------------------- The least the management can do is to recognise the fact that informal
groups can be an asset to them and can be instrumental in furthering the
---------------------- goals of the organisation. Management does not create informal groups
and the management cannot destroy them.
----------------------
The fixation for the fulfillment of these need results in what is known as
---------------------- group think.
---------------------- 4. Esteem needs (self-worth): This need arises because it is not sufficient
for a human being to just “belong”. What he craves for and strives
---------------------- towards is that others should recognise his worth. An employee stays in
an organisation not merely because he gets his salary and other material
---------------------- rewards but he is there because others recognise that he is worthy of the
---------------------- job and other material benefits that he gets. This need manifests itself in
three forms: (i) the need for status; (ii) the need for power and (iii) the
---------------------- need for recognition.
---------------------- The scuffle in the organisation for achieving the organisational status and
the power that goes with it is the essence of esteem needs. A promotion is
---------------------- a recognition of one’s capability to shoulder higher responsibilities.
---------------------- 5. Self-actualisation needs: In the words of Maslow, these needs denote
“what a man can be should be.” A self-actualised person has a cause;
---------------------- an ideology to fight for the goal set for himself. He concentrates on the
feedback, which is task oriented, and is not taken in by personal criticism
----------------------
or praise.
----------------------
b) Long deprivation of a given need results in fixation for that need. ----------------------
c) Higher needs may emerge not after gratification, but rather by long ----------------------
deprivation, renunciation or suppression of lower needs.
----------------------
d) Human behaviour is multi-determined and multi-motivated.
----------------------
----------------------
When talking about job enlargement in his article “One more time, how ----------------------
do you motivate your employee?”,[Harvard Business Review; Jan-Feb
----------------------
’68], Herzberg talks in arithmetical terms and ultimately comes to the
conclusion that the theory of “job enlargement” does not give dividends ----------------------
for a long period of time. He, therefore, advocates job enrichment.
----------------------
2. Job enrichment: The principles of job enrichment according to Herzberg
are as under: ----------------------
Table 7.3: Different Principles of Job Enrichment ----------------------
Principle Motivators involved ----------------------
1. Removing some controls while 1. Responsibility and
----------------------
retaining accountability personal achievement
2. Increasing accountability for 2. Responsibility and ----------------------
individual’s own work recognition ----------------------
3. Giving a person a complete natural 3. Responsibility and
unit of work [Module] area etc.] recognition ----------------------
---------------------- Activity 1
----------------------
Mehul is a team member in the Sales Department of an organisation. She has
---------------------- been performing as expected by her manager in the last few assignments.
Her manager realises that she is a very hard worker and gives in her best.
----------------------
However, she is not extraordinary. One day she realises that her performance
---------------------- for the last two quarters has been dipping. In her conversation with Mehul,
the manager realises that the reason is that Mehul is not motivated enough.
---------------------- “After all, she is paid for what she does,” her manager thinks. Is her thought
in the right direction? Comment based on your understanding of the above
----------------------
theories.
----------------------
----------------------
Relatedness Needs ----------------------
----------------------
Existence Needs
----------------------
Fig. 7.4 ERG Model of Motivation
----------------------
Criticism of Alderfer’s theory:
----------------------
The fact that the needs are not strictly demarcated goes against the theory.
Probably this is one of the important reasons for lack of popularity of Alderfer’s ----------------------
theory. The term ‘relatedness’ used in the theory is particularly confusing and
like other content theories, it fails to contribute effectively to human resources ----------------------
management.
----------------------
7.5 VROOM’S EXPECTANCY THEORY OF MOTIVATION ----------------------
Process theories are concerned with the cognitive antecedents that go into
motivation and with the way they are related to one another. The theories given ----------------------
by Vroom, Porter and Lawler fall in this category. ----------------------
Unlike content theories, which attempt to identify human needs, Vroom
considers what leads to effort. He gives the following equation: ----------------------
M = (V x E) ----------------------
M is motivation, which is the sum total of the multiplication of valence
and expectancy. V, i.e., valence stands for the preference of an individual for ----------------------
a particular outcome. Thus, when an individual desires a particular outcome
----------------------
the value of V is positive. On the other hand, when he does not desire a certain
outcome, the value of V is negative. ----------------------
----------------------
Vroom has suggested what leads to effort. The Porter-Lawler Model,
however, goes a step ahead and postulates that effort does not necessarily lead ----------------------
to performance and satisfaction. While efforts are determined by the value of
reward and the perceived reward probability, performance, i.e., accomplishment ----------------------
is influenced by an individual’s abilities and role perceptions. In the ultimate
----------------------
analysis, an employee derives satisfaction, which is an amalgam of effort leading
to performance interacting with rewards. ----------------------
The model can be diagrammatically explained as under:
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Fig. 7.2 The Porter-Lawler Model ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
---------------------- Tick in the right column and put your reasons in brief.
---------------------- When my perception of equity is… High Low Reason
• The manager has given my colleague better
---------------------- rating in the performance appraisal and I don’t
---------------------- see why?
• I feel I have got better rewards as compared
---------------------- to others in my team and obviously I deserved
---------------------- them.
----------------------
7.8 ATTRIBUTION THEORY
----------------------
The study of attribution was initially associated with Fritz Heider (1896–
---------------------- 1988) (1958). Later Bernard Weiner (1935–) of the University of California at
----------------------
7.9 THEORY X AND THEORY Y
----------------------
A powerful influence for maturity on organisational behaviour was
Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y, first published in 1957 in his ----------------------
book The Human Side of Enterprise. These two theories clearly distinguished
----------------------
traditional autocratic assumptions about the nature of people (Theory X) from
behavioural assumptions (Theory Y). The usefulness of the McGregor theories ----------------------
is his convincing arguments that most management actions flow directly from
whatever theory of human behaviour managers hold. Management personnel ----------------------
practice decision-making, operating practices, and even organisational design
----------------------
flow from assumptions about human behaviour. The table below gives the
assumptions of both these theories ----------------------
Table 7.5
----------------------
Theory X Theory Y
----------------------
The typical person dislikes Work is as natural as play orrest.
work and will avoid it if ----------------------
possible.
----------------------
The typical person lacks People are not inherently lazy. They
responsibility, has little have become that way as a above all. ----------------------
ambition, and seeks security result of experience.
----------------------
Most people must be coerced, People will exercise self-direction and
controlled, and threatened self-control in the service of objectives ----------------------
with punishment to get them to which they are committed.
to work. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
People have potential. Under proper
conditions they learn to accept and seek
---------------------- responsibility. They have imagination,
ingenuity, and creativity that can be
---------------------- applied to work.
---------------------- With these assumptions the With these assumptions the managerial
managerial role is to coerce and role is to potential in employees and
---------------------- control employees. help them release that potential toward
---------------------- common objective.
----------------------
Check your Progress 2
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Check your Progress 3 ----------------------
---------------------- Imagine the cost. E&Y was losing not only talent but also continuity with its
clients. And it was spending hundreds of thousands of dollars to fill each vacant
---------------------- position. Holmes told E&Y’s leaders that if they wanted to buck that trend, they
would have to make sweeping changes in the way they conducted business, and
----------------------
that such an effort would require the full-time attention of at least one person
---------------------- and probably more than one person.
---------------------- That was when Laskawy, 59, threw down the gauntlet. “So what are you
doing for the next five years?” But it wasn’t until Laskawy called Holmes at
---------------------- her office later that she finally realised how serious he was. She knew she was
staring at what could be an opportunity of a lifetime − a chance to see whether
---------------------- the ideas that she had been developing for the past seven years as a work-life
---------------------- consultant would work in the real world.
“You realise that I’m not guaranteeing anything. My ideas may not work,”
----------------------
Holmes hedged. Laskawy agreed. This was no layup. But “whoever cracks this
---------------------- code will be a winner with this workforce,” Holmes remembers him saying. “So
let’s give it a try.”
----------------------
Today, more than three years later, Ernst & Young still hasn’t cracked the
---------------------- code, but it certainly has made progress. Laskawy and Holmes are reshaping the
work lives of 34,000 professionals in an industry where customer focus is crucial
----------------------
to survival. How do you bring balance to a profession that, by definition, demands
---------------------- brutally long hours? How can work be flexible when a client sets a tight deadline
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
---------------------- 4. The needs that are concerned with an individual’s intrinsic desire for
personal development are:
---------------------- iv. Growth needs
----------------------
---------------------- 2. What occurs when a person perceives that the ratio of his outcome to
inputs and the ratio of a relevant other’s outcome to inputs are unequal?
----------------------
iii. Inequity
---------------------- 3. The theory which is concerned with the cognitive processes by which
an individual interprets behaviour as being caused by certain parts of the
----------------------
relevant environment is:
---------------------- ii. Attribution theory
---------------------- State True or False.
---------------------- 1. True
2. False
----------------------
----------------------
Answers to Check your Progress 3
---------------------- Multiple Choice Multiple Response.
---------------------- 1. Work motivation approaches can be broadly classified as:
----------------------
----------------------
Suggested Reading
----------------------
1. Steers R.W. and L.W. Porter. Motivation and Work Behaviour. McGraw-
----------------------
Hill
2. Vroom V.H. Work and Motivation. New Delhi: Weley Eastern. ----------------------
----------------------
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Structure:
8
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Indicators of Morale
8.3 Various Aspects of Morale
8.4 Improving Employee Morale
8.5 Work and Conditions of Work
8.6 Relationship among Job Characteristics, Working Conditions and Job
Performance
8.7 Characteristics of Work
8.8 Creating a Favourable Work Environment
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
----------------------
----------------------
Job satisfaction
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Fig 8.1: The Productivity Curve
In the above graph, ----------------------
In the second situation, when morale is high but productivity is low, slowly ----------------------
people distance themselves from the Organization because of the disillusionment
----------------------
about the management abilities. In this situation, after some time, the morale
comes down. Thus in both these situations ultimately morale as well as ----------------------
productivity are at their nadir.
----------------------
Every manager is always interested in curve ‘B’indicating high morale as
well as productivity. But morale is not a static phenomenon. Today the morale ----------------------
high but something may go wrong and the morale might start coming down. In
other words, a manager must have his fingers on the morale in the Organization. ----------------------
No doubt, a manager can know the level of morale in his organization by morale
----------------------
surveys. These morale surveys involve drafting of questionnaires, interview
people, tabulate and analyze the data. This may be time-taking process. Instead ----------------------
he may pay due attention to some of the morale indicators that give an idea about
the status of morale at a particular time. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
8.4 IMPROVING EMPLOYEE MORALE
----------------------
Improving employee morale benefits everyone involved in a work place.
Boosting employee morale means that people will take more pride in their work, ----------------------
call in sick less often and be more productive. Happier employees mean happier
----------------------
employers, since the employer will not lose money due to inefficiency and lost
time. Improving employee morale can be accomplished fairly easily. ----------------------
Most people thrive on feeling appreciated. You can improve employee ----------------------
morale by showing your appreciation in simple ways, such as rewarding an
employee by saying, “job well done,” or, “thank you for the good work.” It is a ----------------------
grave mistake on the part of employers to only interact with their workers when
there is a problem. ----------------------
Another way to show appreciation and boost employee morale is by being ----------------------
friendly and interested in your employees. A warm smile and a sincere query
about how one is doing will in turn motivate employees. Knowing people’s names ----------------------
and personalizing the work environment inspires employees to want to help you. ----------------------
Encouraging social interaction between employees and immediately
resolving conflict is another way to improve employee morale. Social events ----------------------
----------------------
Check your Progress 2
----------------------
---------------------- Summarise the key points after going through the following article
----------------------
Employee Morale: Role of Leadership
---------------------- Even in the best of times, morale is a delicate, unpredictable thing. Will
---------------------- one employee sulk when another receives a promotion? Will a canceled project
throw a team into a tailspin of recrimination and apathy? Will a switch from coke
---------------------- to lemon water in the company cafeteria cost you your best worker? Threading
your way through these problems can be like negotiating a minefield. At any
---------------------- moment, something can blow up in your face and send productivity tumbling
---------------------- even as your employees commence to mumbling and grumbling. Of course,
these are not the best of times.
----------------------
Bad morale is insidious. Bad morale sulks, it lurks, and it simmers just
---------------------- beneath the conversation at the water cooler. But if you keep your eyes and ears
open, you will know when its there.
----------------------
It is not the Economy; it is you
---------------------- Morale is more than a people issue; it is a business issue. Low morale
increases turnover, and turnover (when unplanned) is bad for you and your
----------------------
reputation, department and efficiency
---------------------- – and, of course, the bottom line. Low morale also causes declines in
---------------------- productivity and quality. No figures exist to quantify those declines, says Anne
Reustle, leader of the work- life consulting group at William M. Mercer in
---------------------- Philadelphia, but the correlation between morale and business functioning is
self-evident.
----------------------
”Stress and illness caused by excessive demands in work and personal life
---------------------- can seriously reduce a worker’s productivity and have a direct impact on the
bottom line,” Reustle asserts.
----------------------
Before the problem of morale can be tackled, a couple of ground rules
---------------------- need to be understood. There are no easy fixes or blanket solutions. Morale is not
like a buggy software program – there are no service packs or patches. It cannot
---------------------- be fixed in one day or one week, and it will not be solved by pizza parties, free
---------------------- mugs or wacky Hawaiian shirt day.
Lack of communication and bad management, or lack of confidence in
----------------------
management, are the two biggest causes of low morale. It does not matter what
---------------------- the economy is like.
– Rick Chapman, CIO and chief administrative officer, Kindred Healthcare.
----------------------
What you need to understand about morale is this: The mood of your
---------------------- employees can be brought down by external factors, such as the state of the
economy, but it is your leadership skills – or lack thereof – that will tip the morale
----------------------
----------------------
---------------------- Unpleasant environmental conditions have both direct and indirect effects
on employee job performance. The concentration to tasks of an employee who is
---------------------- exposed to these impacts decreases, which leads to low employee performance
including productivity, quality, emotional stress, and in turn, this causes high
---------------------- cost. Hazards are unavoidable direct or indirect exposure to light wound/scald,
---------------------- flammable danger, electrical hazards, occupational disease and mortal hazards.
It is believed that ergonomic deficiencies are the root causes of workplace
---------------------- health hazards, low level of safety. The application of the relevant human factor
principles can reduce the likelihood of accidents and injuries. These reduce
---------------------- worker productivity and cause high absenteeism.
----------------------
8.7 CHARACTERISTICS OF WORK
----------------------
As a basis for discussion, it will be helpful to examine work performance
---------------------- pictorially in terms of its basic concepts. By obtaining measures of production
---------------------- and plotting them against time, we come up with a work curve, which looks
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Fig 9.1 Hypothetical Work Curve showing Common Characteristics ----------------------
[Source: R. Von Haller Gilmer –Industrial Psychology McGraw Hill Book Co.]
----------------------
The work curve shows that before peak productivity is reached, there
is an initial warming-up period (Point A-B). In Point B to C, the productivity ----------------------
levels off. Eventually there is a decrement or falling off in productivity (Point
C-D). Often, may be, in anticipation of the end of the workday, there is a spurt ----------------------
(Point D onwards). A word of caution about work curves is in order. There are
----------------------
variations in the curves from day to day for the same worker and also variations
among workers. Also, different kinds of work − heavy muscular work, light task ----------------------
or work of a clerical nature – do not yield identical curves. It is for these reasons
that we will talk of a representative work. ----------------------
Avoiding Decrement in Work Curve ----------------------
The work curve shows that from the beginning of the shift people start ----------------------
warming up and consequently there is a continuous rise in the output. After
some time the curve levels off. Approximately one and a half hour to two hours ----------------------
from the start of the shift, the decrement sets in. Every manager is interested in
avoiding this decrement in the output. ----------------------
There are two main reasons for this decrement to occur: fatigue and boredom. ----------------------
1. Fatigue: Fatigue can be defined as the tiredness of the body as a result of ----------------------
continuous physical activity. Fatigue can be avoided by introduction of
authorised rest pauses. ----------------------
In India, we find that around one and a half hour or two hours after the ----------------------
shift starts, the canteen boys come to sell snacks and tea to the workers. A
worker is provided a stool to sit on and the worker takes a rest pause. ----------------------
Work supervisors sometimes argue that most employees take unauthorised ----------------------
rests when there are no regularly scheduled rest periods. Are there any
advantages of authorised rest periods over periods of unauthorised rest? ----------------------
How can we account for the beneficial effects of rest pause on production? ----------------------
Rest provides the opportunity to recover from fatigue. The physiologist has
demonstrated that work causes an accumulation of waste products within ----------------------
the organism that reduces work capacity. Rest provides a period during ----------------------
----------------------
Activity 1
----------------------
Give five ways in which you can make your workplace energetic.
----------------------
----------------------
8.9 CREATING A FAVOURABLE WORK ENVIRONMENT
----------------------
There is no doubt that people generally prefer pleasant surroundings to
----------------------
unpleasant ones and when attention is paid to creating a favourable working
environment as well as to actual job performance methods, overall pleasantness ----------------------
prevails. However, one must be somewhat cautious in accepting all the claims
made as to the result of creating favourable work environment. Much of the work ----------------------
----------------------
Check your Progress 1
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response. ----------------------
1. The tiredness of the body as a result of continuous physical activity is ----------------------
defined as:
i. Sickness ----------------------
ii. Exhaustion ----------------------
iii. Boredom
iv. Fatigue ----------------------
2. The reaction of the mind in having to do the same work continuously ----------------------
is:
----------------------
i. Depression
ii. Monotony ----------------------
iii. Boredom ----------------------
iv. Fatigue
----------------------
3. Ideal temperature for sedentary work in summer is:
i. 60 to 65°F ----------------------
ii. 65 to 70°F ----------------------
iii. 70 to 75°F
----------------------
iv. 75 to 80°F
4. What is regarded as a distraction and an interference with work ----------------------
efficiency?
----------------------
i. Illumination
ii. Music ----------------------
iii. Noise ----------------------
iv. Atmospheric effects
----------------------
5. What has a positive direct co-relationship to boredom?
i. Productivity ----------------------
ii. Humidity ----------------------
iii. Intelligence
----------------------
iv. Temperature
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Activity 2
---------------------- With the advent of globalisation, larger organisations are trying to enter
global markets due to which employees have heavy workload. In such a
----------------------
situation, you being an employee, what would you suggest to the company
---------------------- so that there are less employee exits or absenteeism and higher employee
retention.
----------------------
----------------------
Summary
----------------------
• Morale indicates the happiness of the employees with the organizational
---------------------- environment.
---------------------- • It refers to the preparedness of the groups of the employees to subordinate
the individual and the group goals to the goals of the organization.
----------------------
• Relationship between morale and productivity need not always be direct.
---------------------- Sometimes even when the morale is high, there can be low productivity
and vice-versa.
----------------------
• A manager is interested in high morale in the organization. Therefore, he
---------------------- must know the level of morale in the organization.
---------------------- • Morale can be measured by morale surveys, which might take some time.
Therefore, a manager has to understand some of the morale indicators in
---------------------- the organization. An attention to these indicators may enable him to take
some corrective action on time.
----------------------
• Work curve is the representation of productivity against time spent at
---------------------- work.
---------------------- • The work curve differs from individual to individual and for the same
individual from time to time.
----------------------
• As a result of fatigue, boredom and monotony, productivity declines after
---------------------- some time. Fatigue can be avoided by introducing rest pause.
----------------------
----------------------
Keywords
----------------------
• Morale: (also known as esprit de corps) is the capacity of a group's
members to maintain belief in an institution or goal, particularly in the ----------------------
face of opposition or hardship.
----------------------
• Elitism: is the belief or attitude that some individuals, who form an elite
— a select group of people with a certain ancestry, intrinsic quality or ----------------------
worth, higher intellect, wealth, specialized training or experience, or ----------------------
other distinctive attributes — are those whose influence or their authority
is greater than that of others ----------------------
• Productivity: is a measure of the efficiency of production. Productivity is ----------------------
a ratio of production output to what is required to produce it (inputs). The
measure of productivity is defined as a total output per one unit of a total ----------------------
input.
----------------------
• Exit interview: is a survey conducted with an individual who is separating
from an organization or relationship. ----------------------
• Fatigue: The tiredness of the body as a result of continuous physical ----------------------
activity.
----------------------
• Boredom: An emotional state experienced when an individual is left
without anything in particular to do, and he is not interested in the ----------------------
surroundings.
----------------------
• Productivity: A ratio of production output to what is required to produce
it (inputs). ----------------------
----------------------
Self-Assessment Questions
----------------------
1. Define Morale. Give suitable examples for increasing the morale of your
employees at work. ----------------------
2. “Morale has a positive relation with productivity.” Is it true or false? ----------------------
Explain with the help of a graph.
----------------------
3. What do you mean by Morale indicators? Provide some indicators of
morale at work. ----------------------
4. How can we boost the morale of our employees in any organization? ----------------------
5. Explain in detail the various aspects of morale.
----------------------
---------------------- 4. What motivates people to do things but does not raise morale?
ii. Money
----------------------
Check your Progress 2
----------------------
1. Management basics to deal with the problem of low morale are;
---------------------- i. Communication
---------------------- ii. Leadership
iii. Training
----------------------
2. Employees of an organization with high morale;
---------------------- i. Consider themselves winners
---------------------- ii. Express admiration for their leaders
iv. Voluntarily come early and stay late
----------------------
State True or False.
----------------------
1. True
---------------------- 2. True
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Suggested Reading
----------------------
1. http://www.forbes.com/sites/robertsher/2012/08/03/why-you-need-
dissatisfied-employees/ ----------------------
2. Kaur, Harinder Bir. Organisational Culture & Employee Morale. Delhi: ----------------------
Saujanya Books.
----------------------
4. Clark J.M. Ed. Introduction to working conditions and environment. ILO
Publication. ----------------------
5. Working environment: Sixth item on the agenda. Vol. 2, ILO Publication. ----------------------
----------------------
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Structure:
9
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Principles of Emotional Intelligence
9.3 Daniel Goleman on EI in the Workplace
9.4 Significance of EQ at the Workplace?
9.5 Examples of High and Low EQ at Work
9.6 EQ Impacts Communication in the Workplace
9.7 Leading with Emotional Intelligence in Management
9.8 Emotional Intelligence for Project Managers
9.9 Using EI in HR (Human Resources)
9.10 Emotional Intelligence Interview Questions
9.11 Improving Your Emotional Quotient
Summary
Key Words
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
----------------------
9.1 INTRODUCTION
----------------------
Emotional intelligence (EQ) – Base Concepts
---------------------- In this unit, we will define emotional intelligence in the context of the
---------------------- workplace, describe its components, explore its correlates in the workplace, and
look at how to improve it for both individual employees and the organization
---------------------- as a whole.
---------------------- Scholars may have coined the term “emotional intelligence” in the early
1990s, but business leaders quickly took the concept and made it their own. EQ,
---------------------- is a term that is being used more and more within Human Resources departments
and is making its way into executive boardrooms.
----------------------
A study by Pearson of thousands of managers and employees concluded
---------------------- the following:
---------------------- ●● Two-thirds of employees said their performance declined
●● Four out of five employees lost work time worrying about the unpleasant
----------------------
incident
---------------------- ●● 63% wasted time avoiding the low EQ offender
---------------------- ●● More than 75% of respondents said that their commitment to their
employer had declined
---------------------- ●● 12% resigned due to the low EQ behaviour
---------------------- The Hay Group states that one study of 44 Fortune 500 companies found
that sales people with high EQ produced twice the revenue of those with
---------------------- average or below average scores. In another study, technical programmers
---------------------- demonstrating the top 10 percent of emotional intelligence competency were
developing software three times faster than those with lower competency were.
---------------------- A Fortune 500 company in financial services proved that its high EQ salespeople
produced 18% more than the lower EQ salespeople produced. One recent study
---------------------- conducted by a Dallas corporation measured that the productivity difference
---------------------- between its low-scoring emotional intelligence employees and its high-scoring
“EQ refers to someone’s ability to perceive, understand and manage their own ----------------------
feelings and emotions”
----------------------
(Chignell, 2018).
----------------------
Emotional Intelligence Skills (EQ) can be explained as the talent
or capability to know the name as well as manage personal emotions while ----------------------
analysing and understanding the emotions of other people as well. Thus, EQ
helps in linking up with others in a highly successful manner both professionally ----------------------
as well as personally, that too in a wider range of roles as well as contexts. ----------------------
There are five pillars of Emotional Intelligence, and; on these pillars, a ----------------------
person can be evaluated at the time of hiring. ----------------------
●● Self-Awareness: Defined as “the ability to decode one’s emotion”. If a
person is capable of regulating their emotion is usually better at handling ----------------------
constructive criticism. ----------------------
●● Self-Regulation: Defined as “the ability to regulate one’s emotion”. If
a person manages their emotion and expresses it properly and tactfully, ----------------------
then they are less likely for an emotional outburst. ----------------------
●● Motivation: Defined as “an inner force that drives to work towards
satisfaction and accomplishment”. Emotionally Intelligent people are ----------------------
self-motivated, and they are usually optimistic and resilient. ----------------------
●● Empathy: Defined as “the ability to connect with the emotions of other
people”. This does not mean showing sympathy or any sort of agreement ----------------------
to their behavior; it’s just that you can understand a thing from their ----------------------
perspective on a more professional front.
●● Social Skills: Defined as “the ability to interact with peer group to fulfill ----------------------
each other needs and demands”. This skill is by default present in people ----------------------
3. Extraversion (personality trait that makes people more open and better at ----------------------
establishing relationships with others)
----------------------
4. Ability EI (individuals’ ability to perform emotion-related behaviors, like
expressing emotions, empathizing with others, and combine emotion with ----------------------
reasoning)
----------------------
5. Cognitive ability (IQ; studies suggest there is at least some overlap
between the IQ and EQ) ----------------------
6. General self-efficacy (confidence in the ability to cope with the demands ----------------------
of our job)
----------------------
7. Self-rated job performance
----------------------
9.5 EXAMPLES OF HIGH AND LOW EQ AT WORK
----------------------
We know that high EI/EQ in the workplace is an advantage, but how do ----------------------
we know it when we see it? What does it look like?
Here are some good examples of high vs. low EI/EQ at work : ----------------------
---------------------- Speaking of too little EI/EQ, you might be wondering what a lack of
emotional intelligence in the workplace looks like. There are two main ways
---------------------- that a lack of EI/EQ can negatively impact the workplace:
---------------------- 1. Communication
2. Decision Making
----------------------
There are many applications for EI/EQ at work, but there are three ----------------------
interesting areas where emotional intelligence interventions can be especially
----------------------
effective:
●● Leadership and management ----------------------
●● Project management ----------------------
●● Social work
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
---------------------- Talk to the supervisor at the workplace and identify employees with
High and Low EQ respectively. Try to analyse their communication and
---------------------- behavioural pattern at workplace. Determine the reasons of their difference
in interpersonal relations at workplace and try to suggest the plan of action
----------------------
for better performance at work.
----------------------
---------------------- All of this leads directly (and indirectly) to a more efficient, effective, and
productive workplace.
----------------------
To learn more about emotional intelligence in leadership and management,
---------------------- see the EI/EQ training resources towards the end of this piece.
----------------------
State True or False
1. Conscientiousness is a tendency to be diligent, hardworking and to ----------------------
control impulses ----------------------
2. Extraversion is a personality trait that makes people more open and
better at establishing relationships with others ----------------------
----------------------
9.9 USING EI IN HR (HUMAN RESOURCES) ----------------------
HR is one of the most effective places to apply what we know about ----------------------
emotional intelligence. Besides contributing to better communication,
relationships, and problem-solving among current employees, emotional ----------------------
---------------------- ●● Get references for the candidate-and actually call them! Letters of reference
don’t cut it when it comes to gauging a candidate’s EI/EQ, because they
---------------------- are carefully prepared, static, and usually pretty general. When you get
the chance to speak with a candidate’s references, you can ask them
---------------------- questions that really get to the heart of EI/EQ and its subcomponents and
---------------------- competencies. Get as many examples as you can and press for details.
Above all, be sure to ask for examples of how your candidate treats other
---------------------- people.
---------------------- ●● Interview for emotional intelligence. This might sound easy or like it’s
something you are already doing, but chances are you aren’t actually
---------------------- assessing EI/EQ. In interviews that aren’t strictly structured, we usually
let people be vague in their responses-even to the point of not really
---------------------- answering the question-and we often fail to ask good follow-up questions.
Behavioral event interviewing is a method that allows you to see their EI/ ----------------------
EQ competencies almost firsthand.
----------------------
Annie McKee from the Harvard Business Review explains how to do it:
----------------------
1. Start the interview off on the right foot; make it as warm, friendly, and
comfortable as possible. This will help you get the candidate in a frame ----------------------
of mind conducive to sharing the information you want to get.
----------------------
2. Ask a few traditional questions about the candidate’s experience,
background, and education. ----------------------
3. Next, ask the candidate about a recent situation where she and some of her
----------------------
peers (co-workers, teammates, etc.) faced a difficult challenge that needed
solving, and encourage her to pick one where she’s the “protagonist” of ----------------------
the story and one where she was ultimately successful and/or proud of her
solution. ----------------------
4. Ask her to tell the story in a few brief sentences first. Once you have the ----------------------
outline, have her go over the story in detail and ask her specific, detailed
questions about it (e.g., what she thought at a certain point, how she felt ----------------------
about what happened, what she did about it). ----------------------
5. Ask her to share a similar story except this time it should be about a time
when she failed and learned a valuable lesson. Again, have her give a ----------------------
brief overview then go more in-depth, and ask detailed questions. ----------------------
6. Finally, end on a positive note-ask for another positive story.
----------------------
This technique will give you insight into your candidate’s thought
processes, her awareness of her own emotions, how she thinks and feels about ----------------------
others, what she does during a conflict, and how she handles disagreements and
----------------------
challenges with other people (McKee, 2016).
You may not be great at this method right away, but practice makes perfect! ----------------------
----------------------
9.10 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE INTERVIEW
QUESTIONS ----------------------
There are tons of good questions you can ask to gauge emotional ----------------------
intelligence. These six were identified by Karla Cook, editor and team manager ----------------------
at HubSpot Marketing, as some of the best ones to get an indicator of EI/EQ:
●● Can you tell me about a time you tried to do something and failed? ----------------------
●● Tell me about a time you received negative feedback from your boss. ----------------------
How did that make you feel?
----------------------
---------------------- ●● What is one of your weaknesses? How do you overcome that weakness?
●● What motivates you to do your work?
----------------------
●● Describe a stressful work situation you’ve had. How did you resolve that
---------------------- situation?
●● What are one or two things that make you angry or frustrated at work?
----------------------
What do you do when you get angry or frustrated at work?
---------------------- ●● Tell me about a time when you received feedback on your performance,
and you disagreed with the feedback. How did you handle the situation?
----------------------
●● Tell me about a setback you had at work. How did you handle it?
---------------------- ●● Describe a time when you made a big mistake at work. How did you
---------------------- handle the situation?
●● Tell me about a time when you had to handle multiple work assignments
---------------------- at once. How did you feel? How did you handle the situation?
---------------------- ●● Tell me about a time when you took on a task at work that was new to you.
How did you feel doing it?
----------------------
●● How would you handle a coworker who consistently does not pull his
---------------------- weight on group assignments?
●● How do your colleagues benefit from working with you?
----------------------
●● Tell me about a time when you did or said something that had a positive
---------------------- impact on an employee, coworker, or customer.
---------------------- ●● Have you ever noticed that someone at work was having a bad day? How
did you know? What did you do?
----------------------
●● Tell me about a time when you had a dispute with a colleague. What did
---------------------- you do to deal with the situation?
●● Describe a time when a colleague came to you with a problem. How did
---------------------- you respond?
---------------------- ●● Tell me about a time when understanding someone else’s perspective
helped you accomplish a task or resolve an issue.
----------------------
●● Tell me about a time when you motivated someone to accomplish a task.
---------------------- How did you motivate him or her?
---------------------- Summary
---------------------- ●● Emotional Quotient is primarily your ability to understand other people
and what motivates them as well as your own motivations and emotional
---------------------- intelligence. In addition to this, the ability to monitor and manage your
---------------------- own emotions also ties in with your level of emotional intelligence.
●● It is crucial to determine your emotional intelligence as it impacts almost
---------------------- everything you do and say each day.
---------------------- ●● Being in touch with your feelings allows you to manage stress levels and
communicate effectively with other people, two skills that enhance your
---------------------- life both personally and professionally.
---------------------- ●● Unlike IQ, which remains constant throughout your life, EQ can be
developed and honed over time.
----------------------
---------------------- Keywords
---------------------- ●● Emotional Quotient: is defined as a set of competencies demonstrating
the ability one has to recognize his or her behaviors, moods, and impulses,
---------------------- and to manage them best according to the situation.
---------------------- ●● Intelligent quotient: The term ‘IQ’ was coined in 1912 by the psychologist
William Stern in relation to the German term Intelligenzquotient. At that
---------------------- time, IQ was represented as a ratio of mental age to chronological age
x 100. So, if an individual of 10 years of age had a mental age of 10,
----------------------
their IQ would be 100. However, if their mental age was greater than
---------------------- their chronological age (e.g., 12 rather than 10), their IQ would be 120.
----------------------
Answers to Check your Progress:
----------------------
Check your progress 1:
----------------------
Multiple choice single response:
1. EQ is defined as a set of competencies demonstrating the ability one has ----------------------
to recognize his or her;
----------------------
a) Behavior
----------------------
2. Self-Awareness is defined as;
a) the ability to decode one’s emotion ----------------------
3. True ----------------------
4. False ----------------------
----------------------
Suggested Reading
----------------------
There are other emotional intelligence books that can give you a succinct
overview, an in-depth exploration, or an understanding that is somewhere in ----------------------
between the two. Check out these seven books to get started:
----------------------
●● Harvard Business Review Everyday Emotional Intelligence: Big Ideas
and Practical Advice on How to Be Human at Work ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
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----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
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----------------------
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Structure:
10
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Levels of Conflict in Organisational Behaviour
10.3 Types of Conflict
10.4 Interpersonal Conflict Handling Styles
10.5 Intrapersonal Conflict and ways to Manage Intrapersonal conflicts
10.6 Negotiations in Conflict Management
10.6.1 Intra Personal Conflict
10.7 Mediation
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
---------------------- 2. We have incompatible needs. Resources are limited but we need them at
the same time and in maximum quantity.
----------------------
3. We look at the same picture but with our own eyes. So, we have different
---------------------- perceptions.
4. Different people value different things.
----------------------
5. Beliefs are varied.
----------------------
6. Cultural differences
---------------------- 7. Job design.
---------------------- However, what comes out of the conflict depends on what we do with it
and how we handle it.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Stage 1: Potential Opposition or Incompatibility
----------------------
The first step in the conflict process is the presence of conditions that
create opportunities for conflict to develop. These cause or create opportunities ----------------------
for organizational conflict to rise.
----------------------
They need not lead directly to conflict, but one of these conditions is
necessary if the conflict is to surface. ----------------------
---------------------- In this context, the term structure is used to include variables such as
size, the degree of specialization in the tasks assigned to group members,
---------------------- jurisdictional clarity, members/goal compatibility, leadership styles,
reward systems and the degree of dependence between groups.
----------------------
The size and specialization act as forces to stimulate conflict. The larger
---------------------- the group and the more specialized its activities, the greater the likelihood
of conflict. Tenure and conflict are inversely related.
----------------------
The potential for conflicts tends to be greatest when group members are
---------------------- younger and when turnover is high.
---------------------- In defining where responsibility for action lies; the greater the ambiguity
is the greater the potential for conflict to the surface. Such Jurisdictional
---------------------- ambiguity increases inter-group fighting for control or resources and
territory.
----------------------
3. Personal Variables
----------------------
Certain personality types- for example, individuals who are highly
---------------------- authoritarian and dogmatic- lead to potential conflict. Another reason for
the conflict is the difference in value systems.
----------------------
Value differences are the best explanations of diverse issues such as
---------------------- prejudice disagreements over one’s contribution to the group and rewards
one deserves.
----------------------
Stage 2: Cognition and Personalization
---------------------- Conflict must be perceived by the parties to it whether or not the conflict
---------------------- exists is a perception issue, the second step of the Conflict Process.
If no one is aware of a conflict, then it is generally agreed that no conflict
----------------------
exists. Because conflict is perceived does not mean that is personalized.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Stage 4: Behavior
This is a stage where conflict becomes visible. The behavior stage includes ----------------------
the statements, actions, and reactions made by the conflicting parties.
----------------------
These conflict behaviors are usually overt attempts to implement each
party’s intentions. ----------------------
When most people think of conflict situations, they tend to focus on Stage 4. ----------------------
Why?
----------------------
Because this is a stage Where conflict becomes visible. The behavior stage
includes the statements, actions, and reactions made by the conflicting parties; ----------------------
These conflict behaviors are usually overt attempts to implement each
----------------------
party’s intentions. But these behaviors have a stimulus quality that is separate
from intentions. ----------------------
As a result of miscalculations or unskilled enactments, overt behaviors
----------------------
sometimes deviate from original intentions.
It helps to think of stage 4 as a dynamic process of interaction. ----------------------
---------------------- 2. Interpersonal: This occurs when two or more individuals perceive that
their attitudes, behaviours or preferred goals are in opposition. Individuals
---------------------- manage this type of conflict by using various styles. These styles are
discussed in the next section.
----------------------
3. Intragroup: This refers to disputes among some or all of group’s
---------------------- members, which often affect the group’s dynamics and effectiveness.
4. Inter-group: This refers to opposition, disagreements and disputes
---------------------- between groups and teams. Under high levels of competition and conflict,
---------------------- the parties develop attitudes towards each other that are characterised by
distrust, rigidity, a focus only on self-interest, failure to listen, etc.
----------------------
10.3 TYPES OF CONFLICT
---------------------- There are four varieties of conflicts. The common aspect of all these is
---------------------- incompatibility.
1. Goal conflict: It stems from incompatible preferred or expected outcome.
---------------------- It also includes inconsistencies between the individual’s or group’s values
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
----------------------
1. The conflict that occurs within an individual and involves some form
of goal, cognitive or affective conflict is: ----------------------
i. Intragroup
----------------------
ii. Intrapersonal
iii. Inter-group ----------------------
iv. Interpersonal ----------------------
2. The conflict that occurs when two or more individuals perceive that
their attitudes and behaviours are in opposition is: ----------------------
i. Intragroup ----------------------
ii. Intrapersonal
----------------------
iii. Interpersonal
iv. Inter-group ----------------------
3. What stems from incompatible preferred or expected outcome? ----------------------
i. Goal conflict
ii. Procedural conflict ----------------------
iii. Interpersonal conflict ----------------------
iv. Affective conflict
----------------------
4. When individuals differ in their process to achieve an objective, it
leads to: ----------------------
i. Cognitive conflict
----------------------
ii. Goal conflict
iii. Affective conflict ----------------------
iv. Procedural conflict ----------------------
----------------------
10.4 INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT HANDLING STYLES
----------------------
Individuals manage their conflicts depending on how they perceive it. What
---------------------- they do in a conflict situation is a function of the following aspects:
---------------------- 1. Personality of the individuals, whether passive, aggressive or assertive.
2. Favourable or unfavourable situation.
----------------------
3. Strength of the other party.
----------------------
4. Stakes involved, i.e., concern for self-interest or interests of others.
---------------------- 5. Positive or negative attitude.
---------------------- Although an individual may have a natural tendency towards one or two
styles, he may use all of them as the above factors change.
----------------------
There are five basic styles of managing conflicts used by individuals.
----------------------
a. Competing Style: It refers to assertive and uncooperative behaviours and
---------------------- represents a win-lose approach to interpersonal conflict. Those who use
this style try to achieve their own goals without concern for others. It
---------------------- includes coercion and dominance. These individuals assume that conflict
resolution means one person wins and the other person loses. This style by
----------------------
manager may lead to demotivation of subordinates. Thrusting decisions
---------------------- will also mean lower commitment by others in its execution.
---------------------- However, sometimes competing style becomes necessary. Such situations may
include:
---------------------- i. When emergencies require quick action.
---------------------- ii. Unpopular courses of action must be taken for long-term
organisational effectiveness, such as dismissal of employee for
---------------------- non-performance, introduction of cost-cutting measures, etc.
---------------------- iii. When professional stakes are very high and you cannot get a group
to agree on one thing
----------------------
b. Accommodating Style: It refers to cooperative and unassertive
---------------------- behaviours. It is a lose-win approach. Accommodation may represent an
unselfish act, a long-term strategy to encourage cooperation by others or
----------------------
a submission to the wishes of others. Others typically evaluate individuals
---------------------- with this style favourably, but they may also be perceived as weak and
submissive. They may be taken for granted and lose their credibility in the
---------------------- long run. This style may be effective in the short run when the individual
The Thomas Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument is a model for handling conflict: ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Attitude towards conflicts
----------------------
Attitude plays a very important role in conflict management. Nothing can
be achieved unless and until you believe in yourself and have a positive attitude. ----------------------
An individual must avoid finding faults in others. Always remember, if you are
pointing towards someone else, four fingers are towards you as well. It is wrong ----------------------
to always assume that the other person is at fault.
----------------------
Adopt a positive attitude towards work and life on the whole. Be a little
more flexible and adjustive. No one has ever gained anything out of conflicts; ----------------------
it has all the adverse consequences. Individuals tend to lose control on their
----------------------
emotions and overreact hurting the sentiments of the other person.
1. Positive Attitude: Conflicts in organisations can be a positive force. The ----------------------
creation and/or resolution of conflict may lead to constructive problem
----------------------
solving. The need to resolve conflict can lead people to search for ways
of changing how they do things, perceive the world around, understand ----------------------
and maintain relationships. The conflict resolution process can stimulate
innovation and positive change, as well as make change more acceptable. ----------------------
The benefits of this attitude towards conflict may be on three fronts −
----------------------
beneficial effects on productivity, relationship outcome and constructive
organisational change. ----------------------
2. Negative Attitude: Conflicts may also have serious negative effects, ----------------------
diverting effects from the goals of the organisation and draining of
organisational resources, especially time and energy. Conflicts also have ----------------------
an adverse impact on the psyche of the employees, which lead to stress
and strain the interpersonal relationships at the workplace. This affects ----------------------
----------------------
Check your Progress 3
----------------------
Multiple Choice Multiple Response.
----------------------
1. Joint problem solving to achieve results benefiting both parties is
called: ----------------------
i. Attitudinal structuring ----------------------
ii. Distributive negotiation
----------------------
iii. Integrative negotiation
iv. Intra-organisational negotiation ----------------------
2. Styles dominant in integrative negotiations are as follows: ----------------------
i. Collaborative
----------------------
ii. Distributive
iii. Integrative ----------------------
iv. Compromise ----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. The common aspect of all varieties of conflict is ____________.
----------------------
2. An individual using ___________ approach tends to see conflict as
natural, helpful and positive. ----------------------
3. __________ provides only partial satisfaction to the conflicting party. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Activity 3
----------------------
Analyse the industrial unrest incident at Maruti Udyog Limited. ----------------------
----------------------
10.7 MEDIATION ----------------------
Mediation is a process by which a third party helps two or more other parties ----------------------
resolve one or more conflicts. Most of the actual negotiations occur directly
between the involved individuals. However, when the parties appear likely to ----------------------
---------------------- Summary
---------------------- • Conflict is a natural disagreement arising between two or more people. It
---------------------- exists when they have incompatible goals and one or more believe that the
behaviour of the other prevents them from their own goal achievement.
----------------------
• Four primary levels of conflicts generally observed in organisations are
---------------------- intrapersonal, interpersonal, intra-group and intergroup conflict.
• There are four types of conflicts. They are goal conflict, cognitive conflict,
----------------------
affective conflict and procedural conflict. The common aspect of all these
---------------------- conflicts is incompatibility.
• There are five basic styles of managing conflicts used by individuals.
----------------------
They are competing style, accommodating style, collaborating style,
---------------------- compromising style and avoiding style.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
• Conflict: A natural disagreement arising between two or more people.
It exists when they have incompatible goals and they believe that the ----------------------
behaviour of the other prevents them from their own goal achievement.
• Attitude: An expression of favour or disfavour toward a person, place, ----------------------
thing or event. ----------------------
• Negotiation: A process in which two or more individuals or groups,
having both common and conflicting goals, state and discuss proposals ----------------------
for a specific term of a possible agreement. ----------------------
• Mediation: A process by which a third party helps two or more other
parties resolve one or more conflicts. ----------------------
----------------------
Self-Assessment Questions
----------------------
1. What is conflict? Give five reasons for the cause of conflict in an
----------------------
organisation.
2. At which levels of the organisation can conflicts occur? Explain the ----------------------
various types of conflict in an organisation.
----------------------
3. With the help of a flow chart, explain the process of conflict. Describe the
various styles of conflict management. ----------------------
4. What is negotiation? Describe the types of negotiations. ----------------------
5. What is mediation? Define the role of a mediator.
----------------------
6. Short notes on:
i. Interrogative negotiation ----------------------
ii. Negotiation on merits ----------------------
iii. Reasons for occurrence of conflict
----------------------
2. The conflict that occurs when two or more individuals perceive that their ----------------------
attitudes and behaviours are in opposition is:
----------------------
iii. Interpersonal
----------------------
3. What stems from incompatible preferred or expected outcome?
i. Goal conflict ----------------------
Structure:
11
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Classification of Groups
11.3 Teams and Types of Teams
11.4 Developmental Stages of Groups
11.5 Influences on Team Effectiveness
11.6 Team Diversity
11.7 Groupthink and Remedies to Overcome Groupthink
11.8 Group Maturity
11.9 Groups: A Sociological View
11.10 Effective Team Working
Case Study
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
---------------------- 2. Balance: Similar attracts. People are attracted to others with similar
attitudes towards common interests and then try to maintain a balance
---------------------- between the attraction and common attitudes/values. A relationship lasts
as long as the balance is maintained.
----------------------
3. Exchange: People form/join groups where they get greater benefits than
---------------------- costs paid. Benefits include satisfaction of needs and costs include effort,
anxiety, frustration, embarrassment, etc. Membership lasts as long as a
---------------------- positive balance is maintained.
----------------------
11.2 CLASSIFICATION OF GROUPS
----------------------
Most individuals belong to various types of groups, which can be classified
---------------------- in many ways.
---------------------- Groups classified according to evaluation of primary goals are:
Activity 1 ----------------------
----------------------
Think of five points of distinction between formal and informal groups.
Based on these points, try to analyze which group has influenced you as an ----------------------
individual the most. Explain the group’s influence on you briefly. ----------------------
----------------------
11.3 TEAMS AND TYPES OF TEAMS
----------------------
A team “is a small number of employees with complementary competencies
(abilities, skills and knowledge) who are committed to common performance ----------------------
goals and working relationships for which they hold themselves mutually
accountable”. ----------------------
Two or more people who are interdependent, who share responsibility for ----------------------
outcomes, who see themselves as (and who are seen by others as) an intact social
entity in a larger social system are also called teams. ----------------------
When teams are formed, its members must have (or quickly develop) the ----------------------
right mix of complementary competencies to achieve the team’s goals. Also its
----------------------
members need to be able to influence how they will work together to accomplish
those goals. ----------------------
Types of Teams
----------------------
In view of their widespread popularity, various types of teams have to
come to stay. One of the easy ways to classify teams is by the functions they ----------------------
---------------------- They are often more effective in situations that require adaptability, speed
and a focus on responding to customers’ needs.
---------------------- 4. Self-managed teams: They normally consist of employees who must
---------------------- work together effectively daily to manufacture an entire product (or
major identifiable component) or service. These teams perform a variety
---------------------- of managerial tasks, such as:
---------------------- i. Scheduling work and vacations by members.
ii. Rotating tasks and assignments among members.
----------------------
iii. Ordering materials.
----------------------
iv. Deciding on team leadership.
---------------------- v. Setting key team goals.
---------------------- vi. Budgeting.
---------------------- vii. Hiring replacements for departing team members.
viii. Evaluating one another’s performance.
----------------------
Functional, problem solving, cross-functional and self-managed teams
---------------------- have gradually started operating as “virtual teams”. A “virtual team”
is a group of individuals who collaborate through various information
----------------------
technologies on one or more projects while being at two or more locations.
---------------------- Their team members may be from one or multiple organisations.
Activity 2 ----------------------
----------------------
Visit an orgnisation and its various departments to observe their functioning.
Based on your observations, try to list down the difference between ----------------------
functional team and cross functional team
----------------------
----------------------
11.4 DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF GROUPS
----------------------
Groups are formed through several stages. They do not form overnight. The
process of developing from a group of strangers to a unit of cohesive and well ----------------------
coordinated team members requires time and great deal of interaction among
group members. Groups pass through a standard sequence of five stages: Forming, ----------------------
Storming, Norming, Performing and Adjourning. These are explained as under: ----------------------
1. Forming stage: Under this, group members often focus on defining or
understanding goals and developing procedures for performing their ----------------------
tasks. Group development at this stage involves getting acquainted and ----------------------
understanding leadership and other members’ roles.
2. Storming stage: During this stage, conflicts emerge over work behaviours, ----------------------
relative priorities of goals, who is to be responsible for what and the task- ----------------------
related guidance and direction of the leader. Some members may withdraw
or try to isolate themselves from the emotional tensions generated. The ----------------------
key is to manage the conflicts and not to suppress or withdraw from it.
This process involves the development of decision-making, interpersonal ----------------------
and technical competencies when they are lacking. ----------------------
3. Norming stage: Work behaviours at this stage evolve into a sharing of
----------------------
information, acceptance of different options and positive attempts to
make decisions that may require compromise. During this stage, group ----------------------
members set the rules by which the group will operate. Cooperation and
a sense of shared responsibility develop among group members. ----------------------
4. Performing stage: In this, the group members show how effectively and ----------------------
efficiently they can achieve results together, that the roles of individual
members are accepted and understood. The members have learned when ----------------------
---------------------- 1. Context: The context (external environment) can directly affect each
of the six other factors because it comprises the conditions that affect
---------------------- a team. The teams’ context might include technology, value orientation
of members, physical working conditions, management practices and
---------------------- formal organisational rules, strategies developed by higher management
---------------------- and organisational rewards and punishments.
2. Goals: They can be either team goals or superordinate goals wherein
---------------------- team goals are the outcomes desired for the team as a whole, not just the
---------------------- individual goals of the individual members. Superordinate goals are those
where two or more individuals, teams or groups might pursue but cannot
---------------------- achieve a goal without their interaction and cooperation.
---------------------- 3. Team size: The effective size of a team can range from two members to
a normal upper limit of 16 members. Probably 12 members is the largest
---------------------- size that allows each member to interact easily with each other face to
face.
----------------------
---------------------- vii) Poor me: Tries to get the group’s attention to deal with personal
concerns, discomfort, bad luck, etc.
----------------------
----------------------
Activity 3 ----------------------
Imagine you are the team leader of your group and you are working in a BPO ----------------------
(Call Centre) handling a US Process (i.e., working late night hours). Tell ----------------------
us how will you sustain your group’s enthusiasm and work continuously
without interruptions. ----------------------
----------------------
11.6 TEAM DIVERSITY ----------------------
We have noted earlier how the issue of cultural diversity is gaining ----------------------
importance at the workplace. The composition of workforce is undergoing
continuous change in terms of age, gender, race, cultural values, physical ----------------------
well-being, lifestyle preferences, ethnicity, educational background, religion
preference, occupational background and the like. The goal of achieving diversity ----------------------
creates unique challenges in making it work for the long-term interests of ----------------------
individuals, teams and organisations.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
11.8 GROUP MATURITY
----------------------
Group maturity is defined as “the ability and willingness of group members
to set goals and work toward their accomplishment”. ----------------------
Characteristics of a Mature Group ----------------------
The following are the characteristics of a mature group:
----------------------
a) An increasing ability to be self-directed (not dependent on the leader).
----------------------
b) An increased tolerance in accepting that progress takes time.
c) An increasing sensitivity to their own feelings and those of others. ----------------------
d) Improvement in the ability to withstand tension, frustration and ----------------------
disagreement.
----------------------
e) A perception of the common denominators, which bind the group as well
as areas of individual difference. ----------------------
f) A better ability to anticipate realistic results of behaviour and to channel ----------------------
emotions into more socially acceptable ways of expressing these emotions.
----------------------
g) An increased ability to change plans and methods as new situations
develop. ----------------------
h) A decrease in time needed to recover from threatening group situations.
----------------------
Peaks and valleys of emotional group crises become less personal.
---------------------- High levels of joking, teasing and “fooling around” are a major source of
job and social satisfaction.
---------------------- Colleagues and superiors can play a major role – more than a spouse − in
---------------------- reducing work stress, because they can “do something about it”.
Most work relationships are not much beyond “easy cooperation” (“Get
---------------------- along…”). Some must be suffered,, i.e., must be sustained despite dislike. So
---------------------- they may erupt into occasional conflict.
Rules of work relationships
----------------------
i. Accept fair share of work.
----------------------
ii. Cooperate in sharing resources.
---------------------- iii. Help when asked.
---------------------- iv. Don’t denigrate superiors.
---------------------- v. Ask for help and advice.
vi. Don’t be over-inquisitive, especially about private life.
----------------------
This perspective has useful pointers, such as:
----------------------
i. Superiors tend to be role models or benchmarks for behaviour at the
---------------------- workplace.
The verbal components are also visible, but do not tell the whole story. ----------------------
The non-verbals add valuable insights into our understanding of the group’s ----------------------
effectiveness, thus enriching our judgment. So, to understand groups in action,
we need to look at both. ----------------------
Group Cohesiveness or Unity ----------------------
Factors that help unite a group are:
----------------------
i. Sharing premises.
----------------------
ii. Similar backgrounds.
iii. Rewarding experiences (shared success). ----------------------
iv. Activities requiring cooperation. ----------------------
v. A skilled leader who preserves harmony. ----------------------
vi. Absence of hostile or disturbed people.
----------------------
Unified groups perform better and have high participation but may socialise
excessively and become clannish and hostile, i.e., favour insiders at the expense ----------------------
of outsiders.
----------------------
In groups, men strive for “hierarchy dominance” (power orientation) and
women strive for “inclusion”. ----------------------
The weak in a group tend to collaborate against the strong. ----------------------
A “deviate”, a member who does not follow group norms, immediately ----------------------
attracts attention of others who first persuade and pressurise the deviate to do
so. The deviate is then rejected if s/he persists. This is intense, if the norm ----------------------
challenged is vital.
----------------------
----------------------
11.10 EFFECTIVE TEAM WORKING ----------------------
Teams are becoming important components of modern organizations. ----------------------
Teams add to organisational effectiveness. The peculiarity of effective team
working is as follows: ----------------------
1. Good Teams ----------------------
a) Spend a lot of time together at work and at play.
----------------------
b) Talk, talk, talk.
----------------------
c) Are quick to apologise and quick to appreciate.
d) Never rescue, never lie. ----------------------
---------------------- 8. The role of a ‘leader’ in a team may progress from teacher to tutor to
coach and colleague.
----------------------
CASE STUDY
----------------------
Total Teamwork - Imagination Ltd.
----------------------
“Teamwork is a harder way of doing the work. But when it clicks, the
---------------------- result is a seamless experience.”
---------------------- The line would be 700 people long. Although they would be waiting to get
into one of Britain’s greatest attractions, most of the people in the line would be
---------------------- restless or tired, irritable or impatient. Everyone would know that the wait would
---------------------- not last for more than 15 minutes. But knowing how long the wait will be often
makes it that much more unbearable.
---------------------- The final irony: The point of waiting in the 700-person line would be to
---------------------- have fun. Everyone would be waiting to take a seat at Skyscape, an attraction
inside Britain’s Millennium Dome, a sprawling, one-year exhibition that is part
---------------------- theme park, part architectural wonder and part edutainment venue. Once inside
Skyscape, visitors would watch a special 30-minute episode of a popular British
---------------------- comedy series, “Blackadder” – a kind of “Seinfeld” meets “Monty Python”.
---------------------- That is the scene that the people at British Sky Television – Skyscape’s
sponsor and a leader in multi-channel entertainment in the UK – foresaw playing
----------------------
out at the attraction, if they did nothing to avoid it. “We knew that the film would
---------------------- be terrific,” says Andrea Sullivan, the director of corporate affairs for Sky who
is running the project. “But to be a truly entertaining experience, it had to be fun
---------------------- from the moment that visitors walked through the door.”
---------------------- The possibility of a long line was a problem. After all, comedy works
better when people start out with a smile on their faces. As it happened, just
---------------------- when Sky was worrying about the line problem, company officials were talking
to an unusual British outfit – a 22-year-old design firm with the daring name
----------------------
Imagination Ltd. Sky needed someone to “manage the line” and, while not many
---------------------- companies would know where to begin with such a project (even Disney, master
of crowds, does little more with its legendary lines than disguise their length),
---------------------- Imagination offered to tackle the job.
---------------------- Imagination does all kinds of design work: graphic design, Web sites,
product introductions, visitor centers – even the dramatic lighting of the famous
---------------------- Lloyd’s building in London. Its 1999 revenues of £101.5 million or about $160
---------------------- million (up 25% from 1998), make it larger than its top two competitors –
---------------------- The most apt metaphor, however, is a circus. The company occupies two
Edwardian-era buildings that the firm bought and restored 10 years ago (the
---------------------- restoration won awards), and the buildings are now connected across a private
alley. A white, Teflon-coated tarp covers the buildings and encloses a six-storey
---------------------- atrium. “It is a bit like a circus,” says Martin Brown, 31, a graphic designer. We
---------------------- have got a lot of performers and a few clowns. Enough to make it funny.
The Total Teamwork Agenda
----------------------
Imagination is funny. The company may be Britain’s largest design firm, but its
---------------------- interdisciplinary approach puts it more on par with a theater troupe or a circus
than with a traditional design company. The official Imagination brochure lists
----------------------
26 disciplines used to attack projects − a range of talent that gives Imagination’s
---------------------- work its special texture. However, creative people are notoriously independent
and notoriously difficult to manage. How does Imagination herd its extraordinary
---------------------- collection of talent into fast-working, high-performance teams?
----------------------
---------------------- Keywords
---------------------- ●● Group: An association of two or more humans who interact with one
another, share similar characteristics and collectively have a sense of
---------------------- unity.
---------------------- ●● Teams: Normally have members with complementary skills and generate
synergy through a coordinated effort, which allows each member to
---------------------- maximise his/her strengths and minimise his/her weaknesses.
---------------------- ●● Team diversity: The significant uniqueness of each individual in a team.
Groupthink: A psychological phenomenon that occurs within groups
---------------------- of people in which the desire for harmony in a decision-making group
overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.
----------------------
---------------------- 3. Explain the developmental stages of teams and describe the types of
teams.
---------------------- 4. Explain what you mean by team diversity.
---------------------- 5. Influences on team and group effectiveness are interrelated. Explain.
---------------------- 6. What is groupthink? Suggest some remedies to overcome groupthink.
7. Define group maturity and explain the characteristics of a mature group.
----------------------
8. What are the benefits of effective team working? Explain how teams can
---------------------- be made to work better.
----------------------
Answers to Check your Progress
----------------------
Check your Progress 1
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
---------------------- 1. In which stage, do members focus on defining or understanding goals and
---------------------- developing procedures for performing their tasks?
iii. Forming
----------------------
2. The termination of work behaviours and disengagement from social
---------------------- behaviours occur during the stage of:
---------------------- iii. Adjourning
----------------------
6. Individuals who bring together the knowledge and skills of people from ----------------------
various work areas to identify and solve mutual problems are known as:
----------------------
ii. Cross-functional teams
----------------------
Check your Progress 2
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response.
1. The degree of attraction of the members towards each other, desire to ----------------------
remain in a team and their commitment to it is called: ----------------------
i. Cohesiveness
----------------------
2. An agreement-at-any-cost mentality that results in ineffective team
decision-making and poor decisions is called: ----------------------
iii. Groupthink ----------------------
3. The ability and willingness of group members to set goals and work ----------------------
toward their accomplishment is known as:
iii. Group maturity ----------------------
4. Members from which team may be from one or multiple organisations ----------------------
across geographical boundaries?
----------------------
i. Virtual team
----------------------
5. What emerges when decision-making teams are both conforming and
cohesive? ----------------------
iii. Groupthink
----------------------
Suggested Reading ----------------------
1. Feldman, D.C. and H. J. Arnold. Managing Individual and Group ----------------------
Behaviour in Organisations. Mc Graw Hill.
----------------------
2. Robins, Stephen P. Organisational Behaviour. Prentice Hall of India.
----------------------
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Structure:
12
12.1 Introduction
Case Study
Summary
Key Words
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
----------------------
12.1 INTRODUCTION
----------------------
The existence and importance of stress in industry was first recognised
---------------------- in America in 1956. A machine operator named James Carter cracked up while
---------------------- working on the General Motors production line in Detroit. Mr Carter had what
is now commonly known as a nervous breakdown and he sued General Motors,
---------------------- claiming that the stress of his job had contributed to his condition. It was an
important lawsuit. Carter won and from that day onwards most executives and
---------------------- all lawyers and the physicians in America took the relationship between stress
---------------------- and industry very seriously indeed. However, executives around the rest of the
world have been slow to recognise the importance of stress in industry.
---------------------- Indeed, in some ways it is difficult to blame company executives for
---------------------- failing to understand the importance of stress as a trivial problem and laugh
at any suggestion that there could be a link between problems in the mind and
---------------------- problems affecting the body.
---------------------- In the last few years, evidence has been accumulated from around the
world to show that the most common cause of destructive ill health is stress
---------------------- at work. Researchers have not only built up evidence showing links between
industrial stresses in general and ill health but have even accumulated evidence
---------------------- showing that it is possible to link specific occupations with specific types of
---------------------- stress-induced disease. No one is immune. The man or woman on the shop floor
is just as vulnerable as the man or woman on the board of directors.
----------------------
Although there is absolutely no doubt that stress is killing many people,
---------------------- disabling many more and costing the industry crores of rupees every year, there
is one important question that has to be asked. Why are we so susceptible to
---------------------- stress these days?
---------------------- The problem is that our environment has changed far more rapidly than
we have evolved. We have changed our world much faster than our bodies have
---------------------- been able to adapt. At no other time in the history of the world has there been
such a constant progression of ideas and technology. Fashions, themes and
----------------------
attitudes have never changed as rapidly as they have in the last 100 years or
---------------------- so. Never before have expectations and pressures been so great. Revolutionary
changes in agriculture, navigation, medicine, military tactics, design, transport,
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Stressors are more likely to affect an individual's health when they are ----------------------
"chronic, highly disruptive, or perceived as uncontrollable". The more stressors,
----------------------
the more severe they are and the longer the exposure to them, the more demands
are placed upon the person to cope. ----------------------
----------------------
Check your Progress 1
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
12.3 MANAGEMENT OF STRESS
----------------------
Since stress affects an individual’s body and mind, that individual must
----------------------
do something about his stress.
---------------------- 1. Know your personality type: Stress can affect different people in
different ways. Two types of personalities can be identified in relation to
----------------------
coping stress.
---------------------- Type A people are the people who create unnecessary stress for themselves.
---------------------- On the contrary, type B people are the ones who are mild mannered and
take life as it comes. Type B persons are not stress-prone individuals.
---------------------- However, people are not purely type A or type B; instead people tend
toward one or the other type. Also the relationship between personality
---------------------- and health problems (such as heart disease) is unclear.
---------------------- 2. Recognition is half the solution: One must remember an important
facet of stress. Most of the time a person does not understand that he is
---------------------- under stress. How do you recognise that you are under stress? Self-report
---------------------- measure provides clear indication that people who know us closely and
observe us frequently can say with certain degree of accuracy, whether
---------------------- we are under stress or not. To the question, “Did anyone tell you that
you are under stress?” Most of the executives would agree that it is their
---------------------- wives, friends and colleauges who told them that they are under stress.
---------------------- Correct detection is possible by these people because of some specific
symptoms when stress still operates at behavioural and psychosomatic
---------------------- level. Awareness of these symptoms will help us to recognise when we
are under stress.
----------------------
Some behavioural symptoms of stress are:
----------------------
i. Low productivity, decreased work performance
---------------------- ii. Tendency to remain absent from work
---------------------- iii. Interpersonal conflict
The figure below gives the strategies that can be adopted by an individual to ----------------------
cope with stress. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
---------------------- 2. Love your mind: We have already said that the happy as well as unhappy
situations cause secretion of adrenaline. The remedy is to keep the mind
---------------------- tranquil. It is realised that keeping the mind tranquil is easier said than
done. The Indian tradition has always been stressing on the importance of
---------------------- meditation. The idea is that in meditation a person takes away his mind
---------------------- for some time from the usual surroundings, which serves as a respite.
In modern times, many new methods of meditation have come into
---------------------- existence Transcendental meditation, Siddha Samadhi Yoga, Sahaj Marg, etc. to
---------------------- name a few. All are intended to initiate a person into the art of meditation, which
results in a peaceful and strong mind.
----------------------
Western countries are so convinced of the utility of meditation as a way
---------------------- of keeping the mind tranquil that some firms have reserved separate rooms for
meditation for their executives. In India, organisations are slow to catch up with
---------------------- this. Nonetheless, it can be practiced at the individual levels.
---------------------- Organisational strategies for managing employee stress are:
---------------------- i. Creating supportive organizational climate.
ii. Convincing employees that their contributions are significant.
----------------------
iii. Rotating employees out of potentially stressful positions and not allowing
---------------------- them to overwork.
----------------------
Activity 1 ----------------------
----------------------
Interview the HRD manager of a big organization to know about how
they identify the need of organizing workshops / programs on Stress ----------------------
Management for their employees.
----------------------
----------------------
Vijay is a 39-year-old Commercial Producer working for a major
broadcasting organization. He has been married to Lesley for 11 years and ----------------------
they have two boys, aged 7 and 4. Vijay describes himself as having Type A
Personality, i.e. he is very driven, works long hours and is a perfectionist. He ----------------------
has worked for the same organization for the past 7 years, and has been very
----------------------
successful and happy.
Recently, there were some changes in the organization and among other ----------------------
things, Vijay's boss was fired and another person, an outsider, got his job. Vijay
----------------------
had a very good relationship with his previous boss. They got along well, both
professionally and personally. They even used to socialize together quite often. ----------------------
When the new boss arrived, he said there were many things that needed to be
changed. He started a process of evaluation whereby he would follow people ----------------------
---------------------- When Vijay's boss scheduled a private meeting with him, Vijay was sure
he was going to fire him. A few hours before the meeting, Vijay started having
---------------------- chest pain, breathing problems and indigestion. Half an hour before the scheduled
meeting, Vijay was admitted to the ER of the local hospital with a suspected
----------------------
heart attack.
---------------------- On admission, Vijay had high blood pressure and rapid heartbeat, but he
---------------------- did not have a heart attack. "What is wrong with me?" Vijay asked the attending
doctor. "Nothing really," said the doctor, "but tell me what is going on in your
---------------------- life right now…" After they talked for a few minutes, the doctor said, "I believe
you have been having a reaction to ongoing stress. Take it easy for a few days
----------------------
and seek some counselling."
---------------------- Vijay did seek counselling and learned to manage his stress better. He started
---------------------- exercising regularly, learned some new relaxation and breathing techniques and
did some cognitive work with his therapist. Specifically, he learned to identify
---------------------- how his thoughts were related to his feelings and behaviours and vice versa. After
a few weeks in therapy, Vijay reported feeling much better. Things at work had
----------------------
calmed down and his boss even made a couple of positive remarks regarding
---------------------- his performance. His sleep was getting better and his overall mood was good.
There were still times at work when he would feel a little panicky, but using his
---------------------- new tools, he managed to calm himself down and focus on the task. Vijay was
---------------------- well on his way to a full adjustment to the changes in his work place and to a
regained sense of well being.
----------------------
Questions:
---------------------- 1. What was the actual problem of Vijay?
---------------------- 2. How the new boss contributed to the stress level of Vijay?
---------------------- 3. If you are a manager, how would you ensure stress free work environment?
----------------------
●● Stress takes a heavy toll on a person’s health and his capacity to adjust ----------------------
with others. Modern life is full of stressors. The job life contains many
----------------------
stressors. Some of the stressors are intrinsic to the job life; some relate to
the structure of the job and so on. ----------------------
●● There are stressors in the personal and the social life of an individual. In
----------------------
a nut shell, stress is ubiquitous these days.
●● Stress has become chronic. As a result, an individual faces many ----------------------
psychological as well as psychosomatic disorders.
----------------------
●● One can cope with stress by regular exercise, not using tobacco, taking
the right kind of food and adequate calories, regular medical examination ----------------------
and meditation.
----------------------
Keywords ----------------------
----------------------
Self-Assessment Questions
----------------------
1. Define stress. What are the types of stress?
----------------------
2. Point out any seven symptoms of stress.
3. How would you overcome stress? Explain in detail. ----------------------
4. Is stress related only to work? Explain. ----------------------
5. Do you think men and women are equally exposed to stress at work?
Support your answer giving three points. ----------------------
6. What remedies should organisations provide to overcome stress? ----------------------
----------------------
Answers to Check Your Progress
----------------------
Check your Progress 1
Multiple Choice Single Response. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Suggested Reading
----------------------
1. Allen, David. Getting Things Done – The Art of Stress free Productivity.
---------------------- Penguin Books.
---------------------- 2. Robins, Stephen P. Organisational Behaviour. Prentice Hall of India.
3. Smith, Jonathan, C. Stress Management - A comprehensive Handbook of
----------------------
Techniques and Strategies. Springer Publishing Company.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Structure:
13
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Classic Studies on Leadership
13.3 Leadership Skills
13.4 Leadership Styles
13.4.1 Managerial Grid
13.4.2 Rensis Likert’s Four Systems Management
13.4.3 Leadership Behaviour Continum
13.5 Theories of Leadership
13.6 Business Ethics
Summary
Key Words
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
----------------------
13.1 INTRODUCTION
----------------------
Organizations depend upon capable leadership to guide them through
---------------------- unprecedented changes. Yet, there is ample evidence in the news and in recent
research reports that even some of the best and most venerable organizations
---------------------- are failing to adapt to change, implement their strategic plans successfully or
---------------------- prepare for a more uncertain future.
More and more people believe the turmoil we are currently observing
----------------------
has something to do with leadership, and that if we do not change our current
---------------------- approach to leadership development, we will see even more of the same.
As well-known companies disappear or are taken over (think of Lucent,
----------------------
Chrysler, Lehman Brothers, Northern Rock, Merrill Lynch) and new forces like
---------------------- the economies of China and India rise, surveys of CEOs show that they believe
the one factor that will determine their fate is the quality of their leadership talent.
---------------------- Yet many top executives bemoan the lack of leadership bench strength in their
companies and wonder what will happen once the baby-boomer generation of
----------------------
leaders finally steps aside.
---------------------- Can we count on the next generation of leaders to step up once they are
in position? Alternatively, are we seeing evidence of a talent gap that cannot be
----------------------
closed and will result in even greater numbers of high-profile failures? What can
---------------------- your organization do to avoid the risks associated with inadequate leadership and
better prepare its current and future leaders for changes that are yet unforeseen?
----------------------
Successful organizations have one major common attribute that sets them
---------------------- apart from unsuccessful organizations: dynamic and effective leadership.
---------------------- Peter F. Drucker points out that managers (Business leaders) are the most
basic and scarcest resources of any business enterprise. Most of the organizational
---------------------- failures can be attributed to ineffective leadership.
---------------------- The authoritarian leader was very directive and allowed no participation.
This leader tended to give individual attention when praising and
---------------------- criticizing but tried to be friendly or impersonal rather than openly hostile.
----------------------
----------------------
13.3 LEADERSHIP SKILLS
----------------------
Leaders use three different types of skills – technical, human and
conceptual. Although these skills are interrelated in practice, they can be ----------------------
considered separately. ----------------------
100
Conceptual ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Human
%
of 50 ----------------------
job
----------------------
----------------------
Technical
----------------------
Supervisor Middle management Top management
----------------------
Fig 13.1: The three different types of Leadership skills
----------------------
1. Technical skills
----------------------
Technical skills relate to person’s knowledge and ability in any
organizational functional area. Examples are the skills learned by ----------------------
accountants, typists. This skill is the distinguishing feature of job
performance at the operating level. ----------------------
2. Human skills ----------------------
Human skill is the ability to work effectively with people and to build ----------------------
teamwork. No leader at any organizational level escapes the requirement
for effective human skill. It is a major part of leadership behaviour. ----------------------
3. Conceptual skills ----------------------
Conceptual skill is the ability to think in terms of models, frameworks
and broad relationships, such as long-range plans. Conceptual skills deal ----------------------
with ideas while human skill concerns people and technical skill is with ----------------------
things.
----------------------
It will be seen from the above diagram that a mix of these three skills
changes as one rises in the organizational hierarchy. At the supervisory ----------------------
On the continuum of leadership style, free rein style is the extreme. Free ----------------------
rein leaders avoid power and responsibility. They depend largely upon the
group to establish its own goals and work out its own problems. A free rein ----------------------
leader is the one who abdicates all his decision-making responsibilities ----------------------
and prerogative in favor of his follower. The leader plays only a minor
role. In an organizational setting, such a leader happens to be a bystander, ----------------------
he happens to be there because of his organizational appointment. He
fails to guide, motivate and develop his subordinates. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Fig 13.2: The Managerial Grid
---------------------- [Source: R. Blake and J. Mouton, Managerial Façade, Advanced Manage-
---------------------- ment Journal, July 1966, 31]
The five basic styles identified in the grid represent varying combinations
----------------------
of concern for people and production.
---------------------- ●● The 1.1 manager has minimum concern for people and production; this
style is sometimes called “impoverished” style.
----------------------
●● The opposite is the 9.9 manager, who has maximum concern for both
---------------------- people and production. The implication is that the 9.9 is the best style of
leadership and Blake and Mouton have stated so in clear terms.
----------------------
●● The 5.5 manager is the “middle-of-the-roader” and the other two styles
---------------------- represent the extreme concerns of people (1.9 country club manager) and
production (9.1 “task” manager).
----------------------
●● The accommodating (previously, country club) style (1.9): yield and
---------------------- comply. This style has a high concern for people and a low concern for
production. Managers using this style pay much attention to the security
----------------------
and comfort of the employees, in hopes that this will increase performance.
---------------------- The resulting atmosphere is usually friendly, but not necessarily very
productive.
---------------------- ●● The dictatorial (previously, produce or perish) style (9.1): control and
---------------------- dominate. With a high concern for production and a low concern for
people, managers using this style find employee needs unimportant; they
---------------------- provide their employees with money and expect performance in return.
Managers using this style also pressurise their employees through rules
---------------------- and punishments to achieve the company goals. This dictatorial style is
---------------------- On the basis of the responses received from the managers, Likert found
that “quite consistently, the high producing units fall under system 3 and
---------------------- 4, and the low-producing units fall under system 1 and 2”.
13.4.3 Leadership Behaviour Continuum
----------------------
The originators of this theory are Tannenbaum and Schmidt. They
---------------------- postulate that managers often have difficulty in deciding what type of action is
most appropriate for handling a situation/particular problem. They are not sure
----------------------
whether to make the decision or to delegate the decision-making authority to
---------------------- subordinates. To provide insight into the meaning of leadership behavior with
regard to decision-making these authors suggest a continuum.
----------------------
Leadership actions are related to the degree of authority used by managers
---------------------- and to the amount of freedom available to the subordinates in reaching decisions.
The managerial actions depicted on the left of the continuum characterize
---------------------- managers who maintain a high degree of control, while these on the right designate
managers who delegate decision-making authority.
----------------------
It will be observed that at the one extreme end, the manager makes
---------------------- decision, tells his subordinates and expects them to carry out that decision. At
the other extreme, the manager fully shares his decision-making power with his
---------------------- subordinates, allowing each member of the group to carry an equal voice – one
---------------------- man, one vote. Between these two extremes fall a number of leadership styles. The
selection of a particular style is dependent upon forces in the manager himself,
---------------------- his operating group and the situation.
---------------------- There is a relationship between the degree of authority used and the amount
of freedom available to subordinates in reaching decision. This continuum is
---------------------- seen as a zero-sum game; as one gains, the other loses, and vice versa. The
authors of the theory imply that leaders should not choose a strict “autocratic” or
---------------------- “democratic” style, but should be flexible enough to cope with different situations.
Those leaders would be most effective who are adaptable and who can delegate
----------------------
authority effectively because they consider their capabilities, subordinates and
---------------------- goals be accomplished.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Check your Progress 2 ----------------------
----------------------
Match the following.
i. This skills relate to person’s knowledge and ability a. Technical ----------------------
in any organizational functional area
----------------------
ii. This skill is the ability to work effectively with b. Leadership
people and to build teamwork ----------------------
iii. This skill is the ability to think in terms of models, c. Conceptual
----------------------
frameworks, and broad relationships, such as long
range plans ----------------------
iv. It represents a person’s philosophy, skills, and d. Human
attitudes ----------------------
v. This leaders centralize power and decision making e. Participative ----------------------
in them
vi. This leadership style is expression of leader’s trust f. Autocratic ----------------------
in the abilities of his subordinates ----------------------
----------------------
Activity 2
----------------------
---------------------- Overall, Life Cycle Theory asserts that with people of below average
maturity, a high task style promises best probability of success while
---------------------- dealing with people of average maturity, the styles of high task and
high relationships and high relationships and low task appear to be most
----------------------
suitable. The low task and low relationship style provides the highest
---------------------- probability of success with people of above average maturity.
---------------------- The leader is friendly and approachable and shows a genuine interest
for subordinates. This style of leadership has its most positive effect
---------------------- on the satisfaction of followers who perform tasks that are full of
stress, and are frustrating and unsatisfactory or unsatisfying.
----------------------
----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
1. _____________ developed what he called a contingency model of ----------------------
leadership effectiveness. ----------------------
2. _____________ contained the relationship between leadership style
and the favorableness of the situation. ----------------------
----------------------
Activity 3 ----------------------
----------------------
A successful leader may not necessarily be effective. Agree or disagree
with this statement with the help of examples. ----------------------
----------------------
Let’s start with “what is ethics?” Simply put, ethics involves learning ----------------------
what is right or wrong, and then doing the right thing but “the right thing “is ----------------------
---------------------- The concept has come to mean various things to various people, but
generally it’s coming to know what is right or wrong in the workplace and doing
---------------------- what’s right-this is in regard to effects of products/services and in relationship
with stakeholders. Wallace and pekel explain that attention to business ethics is
---------------------- critical during times of fundamental change-times much like those faced now
---------------------- by business, both non-profit and for –profit. In times of fundamental change,
values that were previously taken for granted are now strongly questioned.
---------------------- Many of these values are no longer followed. Consequently, there is no clear
moral compass to guide leaders through complex dilemmas about what is right
---------------------- or wrong. Attention to ethics in the workplace sensitizes leaders and staff to how
---------------------- they should act. Perhaps most important, attention to ethics in the workplaces
helps ensure that when leaders and managers are struggling in times of crises
---------------------- and confusion, they retain a strong moral compass. However, attention to
business ethics provides numerous other benefits; as well as listed later in this
---------------------- section. Note that many people react that business ethics, with its continuing
---------------------- attention to” doing the right thing”. Only asserts the obvious (“be good,” “don’t
lie” etc.), and so these people don’t take business ethics seriously. For many
---------------------- of us, these principles of the obvious can go right out the door during times
of stress. Consequently, business ethics can be strong preventative medicine.
---------------------- Anyway, there are many other benefits of managing ethics in the workplace.
---------------------- These benefits are explained later in this unit.
13.5.1 Relationship Between Morality, Business and Ethics
----------------------
Morality refers to the set of standards that enable people to live
---------------------- cooperatively in groups. It’s what societies determine to be “right” and
“acceptable.”
----------------------
Sometimes, acting in a moral manner means individuals must sacrifice
---------------------- their own short-term interests to benefit society. Individuals who go against
these standards may be considered immoral.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Functional Area Ethics: Functional areas of business are likely to confront ----------------------
ethical issues. Accounting is a critical function of any business. Accounting
----------------------
statement reveal to the managers and owners about the financial soundness of a
company. Managers, investors, regulating agencies, tax collectors and absolute ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
6. One person must ultimately be responsible for ensuring ethical practices ----------------------
in organisation
----------------------
7. Review any values needed to adhere to relevant laws and regulations
----------------------
8. Review which values produce the top three or four traits of a highly
ethical and successful product or service in your company ----------------------
9. Identify values needed to address current issues in your workplace
----------------------
10. Identify any values needed, based on findings during strategic planning
----------------------
11. Consider any top ethical values that might be prized by stakeholder
Examples of ethical values might include: ----------------------
----------------------
People who value ma¬terial possessions in life may not have strong ----------------------
ethical standards regarding behaviours that lead to accumulation of personal
----------------------
wealth. On the other hand, people who place a premium on quality of life will
probably have strong ethics while competing with others for var¬ious things in ----------------------
life.
----------------------
Determinant # 5. Threatening Situations:
An employee threatened with losing a permanent job may resort to ----------------------
unethical acts to save his job. To meet pre-determined targets, many Bank ----------------------
managers sanction loans to individuals with practically no creditworthiness.
A housewife may practically beat a thief to death, when threatened with the ----------------------
prospect of losing her ornaments or child. Situations like these, force people to
----------------------
change their ethics and respond in an unexpected manner.
Determinant # 6. Organisational Demands: ----------------------
---------------------- Many people are used to reading or hearing of the moral benefits of
attention to business ethics. However, there are other types of benefits, as well.
---------------------- The following list describes various types of benefits from managing ethics in
the workplace.
----------------------
1. Attention to business ethics has substantially improved society.
---------------------- 2. Ethics program help maintain moral course in turbulent times.
---------------------- 3. Ethics programs cultivate strong teamwork and productivity.
4. Ethics program support employee growth and meaning.
----------------------
5. Ethics programs are an insurance policy they help ensure that organisational
---------------------- policies are legal.
---------------------- 6. Ethics programs help avoid criminal acts ’of omission’ and can lower
fines.
---------------------- 7. Ethics programs help manage values associated with quality management,
---------------------- Strategic planning and diversity management this benefit needs far more
attention.
---------------------- 8. Ethics programs promote a strong public image.
---------------------- Connection between business ethics practiced by companies and their
performance
----------------------
As per the New York City think tank, Ethisphere Institute, All 135
---------------------- companies, which recently made the final cut into the list of the World’s Most
Ethical Companies in 2021, have shown stunning growth in their profit numbers.
----------------------
A look at the list, which represents companies from 22 countries and 47
---------------------- industries, reveals that 97 of them are from the U.S., accounting for 72%. India
is represented by three domestic companies—Infosys, Tata Steel, and Wipro.
---------------------- Tata Steel and Wipro were the only two in the previous year’s list.
---------------------- AT&T, Canon, 3M, Dell Technologies, Hewlett Packard, Honeywell, Intel,
IBM, LinkedIn, Microsoft, and Salesforce are among the leading companies
---------------------- from the U.S. featured in the list.
----------------------
Answers to Check your Progress
----------------------
Check your Progress 1
----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
1. The word leadership is sometimes used to indicate that it is an attribute ----------------------
of personality; sometimes it is used as if it was a characteristic of certain ----------------------
positions, and sometimes as an attribute of behaviour.
2. A democratic leader encourages group discussion and decision-making. ----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
Structure:
14
14.1 Introduction
Case Study
Summary
Keywords
Self-assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
----------------------
----------------------
14.1 INTRODUCTION
---------------------- We live in an age of transition. One of the few things of real permanence
in our world is change. It has become an inescapable fact of life; a fundamental
---------------------- aspect of historical evolution. The amount of technical information available
doubles every ten years. Change is inevitable in a progressive culture. Change,
---------------------- in fact, is accelerating in our present day society. Revolutions are taking place
---------------------- in political, scientific, technological and institutional areas. Sophisticated
communication capabilities have increased. Telemarketing, ‘robotics’ taking
---------------------- over some jobs currently performed by employees are some examples that bear
testimony of the fast paced, rapidly changing organisation. Pressures for change
---------------------- are created both outside and inside the organisation. In fact an organisation that
---------------------- refuses to adapt and adopt change cannot live longer.
Organisations are, of course, learning to cope with the devastating rate
---------------------- of internal and external changes with the help of some fundamental changes in
---------------------- management philosophy and organisational technology.
Characteristics of organisational change:
----------------------
1. Change basically results from stimuli from both outside and inside the
---------------------- enterprise
---------------------- 2. Change takes place in all organisations but at varying rates of speed and
degrees of significance
----------------------
3. Change takes place in all parts of Organisation but at varying rates of
---------------------- speed and degrees of significance
---------------------- 4. Finally, the enterprise changes in several ways. Its technology may
change; its structure, people, procedures and other elements may change
---------------------- Any alteration that occurs in the overall work environment is called change.
---------------------- Change requires new adjustments and new equilibrium. The nature of work
change is so complicated that the management should gain acceptance for the
---------------------- change, and restore the group equilibrium and personal adjustment that change
upsets.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
One aspect of mankind that has remained more or less constant is his ----------------------
innate resistance to change. By its very nature ‘change’ is against the
tendency towards homeostasis. Unfortunately, many a time, managers’ ----------------------
change-efforts in an organisation run in employee resistance to change. It ----------------------
is because almost all people who are affected by change, experience some
sort of emotional turmoil. Further, individual attaches great preference to ----------------------
maintain status quo. Additionally, positive threats from habit or custom,
fear of unknown, the security and attractiveness of familiar, displacement ----------------------
of skills because of the technological advancement are all the conditions ----------------------
favoring the status quo. In fact, there may be near-infinite reasons why
people resist change in organisation. ----------------------
According to Keith Davis, however, the following are the main reasons ----------------------
for resistance to change:
----------------------
i. Economic Reasons
Keith Davis, remarks “people fear technological unemployment, ----------------------
reduced work hours, demotion, reduced wages and reduced ----------------------
incentives and resist change.” One major reason why some people
resist organisational change is that they perceive they will lose ----------------------
something of value as a result. The greater the expected loss the
greater the resistance. People resist change that opens the possibility ----------------------
----------------------
‘Change is needed in order to cope with the problems of growth and
competition’. Support your views with suitable examples by interviewing ----------------------
the Managers of Manufacturing and Service Organisation. Compare and
analyse the outcomes. ----------------------
----------------------
14.3 ORGANISATIONAL RESISTANCE TO CHANGE ----------------------
The resistance to change from the organisation comes because of following ----------------------
reasons:
----------------------
1. The structural resistance: Some organisational structures have inbuilt
mechanism for resistance to change. For instance, consider a typically ----------------------
bureaucratic structure where jobs are narrowly defined, lines of authority
are clearly spelled out, the flow of information is stressed from top to ----------------------
bottom. In such organisations the channels of communication make the ----------------------
new idea difficult to travel and eventually it increases the probability that
the new ideal/innovation will be screened out because it is not suitable for ----------------------
the structure of the Organisation.
----------------------
Some organisations are so designed that they resist innovations. For
example, those that perform narrowly prescribed assortment of functions ----------------------
----------------------
Check your Progress 1 ----------------------
----------------------
Multiple Choice Single Response
1. Decentralization of power, team structure, and flattening of the ----------------------
hierarchy are examples of which type of organisational change? ----------------------
i. People change
----------------------
ii. strategic change
iii. structural change ----------------------
iv. technological change
----------------------
2. Exhaustive study of organisational goals, principles, practices and
performance at the macro level: ----------------------
i. Change analysis ----------------------
ii. Diagnosis
----------------------
iii. Organisation analysis
iv. Changing task ----------------------
3. The ______ necessitates an organization to change its process ----------------------
or manufacturing, make structural changes, make line and staff
adjustments etc. ----------------------
i. Economic Shock ----------------------
ii. Market situations
iii. Technology ----------------------
iv. Social and political changes ----------------------
---------------------- 2. Almost all people who are affected by change, experience some sort of
emotional turmoil.
----------------------
3. People have vested interest in the status quo and change may pose
---------------------- disturbance to the existing comforts of status quo.
----------------------
Activity 2
----------------------
Power Need to shape Assure the support of key power groups. ----------------------
the political Use leader behaviour to generate energy
dynamism in support of change. Use symbols and ----------------------
language. Build-in stability. ----------------------
Having taken into account the problems at this stage of implementation of
----------------------
change, the manager can think of implementing change by changing the
structure and or by changing the technology and or by changing people. ----------------------
a. Implement the change by changing structure ----------------------
The changing technology and especially computer has profound
influence on the organisation structure and its employees. It results ----------------------
in more mechanistic organisation structure. Since departments tend ----------------------
to be consolidated, work span is reduced; functional departmentation
replaces divisions, resulting in a centralized control. At the other ----------------------
rungs it results in more routine jobs as well as more automated jobs
in which workers’ interaction is less and infrequent. ----------------------
---------------------- Activity 3
----------------------
Collect information of the organizations that have witnessed transforma-
---------------------- tions recently in India.
----------------------
“Workplaces were feeling a little bit stodgy before the Internet,” says Lewis ----------------------
J. Goetz, chief executive and president of Group Goetz Architects in Washington,
----------------------
which has designed many interiors for dot-coms.” What the dot-coms did was
bring fun to the workplace. ----------------------
The new glass, steel, and aluminum offices that Goetz’ firm designed
----------------------
for Lucent Technologies in Washington include a coffee bar, a fixture of San
Francisco’s dot-com ghetto. The 80,000-square-foot spread won’t have any game ----------------------
rooms. But reflecting another dot-com influence, the offices will feature bright
colors and plenty of open areas where employee teams can gather. ----------------------
In the dot-com world, employees for whom work became a way of life ----------------------
developed an attitude that “‘our workplace has to adapt more to our values,’”
says Carnegie Mellon’s Florida. “‘We don’t want to check our lives at the door.’” ----------------------
For companies that want to get the most from their employees, that may be the
----------------------
rallying cry of the new millennium.
[Source: Fastcompany.com] ----------------------
----------------------
Summary
----------------------
●● In today’s fast pace of life the only factor that is permanent is the change
itself. An organisation’s ability to manage change decides whether the ----------------------
organisation will prosper or perish.
----------------------
●● A change is any deviation from the set rules, policies, practices and
procedures. ----------------------
●● There are forces that make an organisation to accept, adopt and to adapt to ----------------------
the change. Some of these forces are internal as well as some are external.
----------------------
●● The internal forces for change include change in the mission of an
organisation, which might be occasioned by mergers, amalgamations or ----------------------
take-over. The change in the location, change in the work force, their
aspirations, their education levels etc. also force an organisation change. ----------------------
●● Of the external forces for change, technology occupies a place of ----------------------
prominence.
●● Also, there are other factors in the external environment, which make ----------------------
an organisation change. In a nut shell they are the economic shocks, ----------------------
the changes in the Governmental policies etc. Not only this but also the
relations of the mother country with the other countries and world politics ----------------------
make an organisation change.
----------------------
●● Even though the change is in the interests of the organisation, many a time
the change is resisted by the employees as well as by the organisation. ----------------------
----------------------
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
----------------------
1. Define Organisational change. What are the internal and external forces
---------------------- causing organisational change?
---------------------- 2. What do you mean by organisational resistance to change?
3. Explain the steps involved, in bringing about an organisational change.
----------------------
Give suitable examples of companies that have undergone technological
---------------------- changes.
4. Write short notes
----------------------
a. Unfreezing
----------------------
b. Force field analysis
---------------------- c. Obsolescence of Skills
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
1. True ----------------------
2. True ----------------------
3. True ----------------------
----------------------
Check your Progress 2
----------------------
Multiple choice Single Response
1. Which of the following refers to making individual aware the present ----------------------
behaviour is inappropriate and hence unsuitable to the changing demands
----------------------
of the present situation?
iii. Unfreezing ----------------------
2. When individuals are forced to change whether by rewards or by ----------------------
punishment is termed as:
----------------------
iii. Compliance
3. The following refers to the stage where the change becomes an integral ----------------------
part of the system: ----------------------
iii. Refreezing
----------------------
4. Mixing with _________ in the organisation is a good way of keeping
oneself enthusiastic and motivated. ----------------------
i. Peers ----------------------
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Structure:
15
15.1 Introduction
Summary
Key Words
Self-Assessment Questions
Suggested Reading
----------------------
15.1 INTRODUCTION
----------------------
Organisational culture is still a controversial and a little understood
---------------------- management concept. However, a lot of research in the area proves that an
inherent relationship exists between organisational culture and people’s behaviour
----------------------
in the organisation. To understand this relationship and then link it back to
---------------------- Organisational Behaviour – understand, predict and control behaviour – is the
purpose of this unit.
----------------------
Organisational culture is a pattern of beliefs and expectations shared by the
---------------------- members of the organisation. These beliefs and expectations produce norms that
powerfully shape the behaviour of individuals and groups in the organisations
---------------------- (Schwartz & Davis).
---------------------- Organisational culture represents a complex pattern of beliefs, expectations,
ideas, values, attitudes and behaviours shared by the members of the organisation.
----------------------
More specifically, organisational culture includes:
---------------------- 1. Routine behaviours when people interact, such as organisational rituals
and ceremonies and the language commonly used.
----------------------
2. The norms that are shared by the teams throughout the organisation, such
---------------------- as “all meetings shall be attended on time”.
---------------------- 3. The dominant values held by the organisation, such as “product quality”
or “price leadership”.
----------------------
4. The philosophy that guides an organisation’s policies towards its
---------------------- employees and customers.
5. The rules of the game for getting along in the organisation or the “ropes”
---------------------- that a newcomer must learn in order to become an accepted member.
---------------------- 6. The feeling or climate conveyed in an organisation by the physical layout
and the way in which managers and employees interact with customers
---------------------- and others outside.
---------------------- None of these components individually represent the culture of the
organisation. They need to be looked at and experienced in combination with
---------------------- one another to give meaning to the concept of organisational culture.
The least visible or deepest level is that of basic shared assumptions, which ----------------------
represent beliefs about the organisational purpose of existence.
----------------------
The next level of culture is that of cultural values, which represent collective
beliefs, assumptions and feelings about what things are good, normal, rational, valuable, ----------------------
and so on. These values tend to persist over time even when organisational membership
----------------------
changes.
The next level is that of shared behaviours, including norms, which are more ----------------------
visible and somewhat easier to change than values.
----------------------
The most superficial level of organisational culture consists of symbols. Cultural
symbols are words (jargon or slang), gestures and pictures or other physical objects ----------------------
that carry a particular meaning with the culture. ----------------------
Developing organisational culture
----------------------
An organisational culture is formed in response to the following major
challenges that confront every organisation. ----------------------
1. External adaptation and survival: It has to do with how the organisation will ----------------------
find a niche in and cope with its constantly changing external environment. It
involves addressing the following issues: ----------------------
---------------------- The national culture, customs and societal norms of the country also
shape the culture of the organisations operating in it.
---------------------- According to David Drennan, the twelve key causal factors that shape a
---------------------- company’s culture are:
i. Influence of a dominant leader
----------------------
ii. Company history and tradition
----------------------
iii. Technology, products and services
---------------------- iv. The industry and its competition
---------------------- v. Customers
---------------------- vi. Company expectation
vii. Information and control systems
----------------------
viii. Legislation and company environment
----------------------
ix. Procedures and policies
---------------------- x. Reward systems and measurements
---------------------- xi. Organisation and resources
---------------------- xii. Goals, values and beliefs
---------------------- 5. _____________ indicates how the orgnisation will find a niche in and
cope with its constantly changing external environment.
----------------------
----------------------
15.3 TYPES OF ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE
----------------------
Cultural elements and their relationships create a pattern that is distinct
to an organisation. However, organisational cultures have some common ----------------------
characteristics. In a culturally homogenous organisation like Southwest Airlines,
----------------------
one of the cultures will be predominant. At PepsiCo and other fragmented
organisations, multiple cultures are likely not only to coexist but also to compete ----------------------
for superiority.
----------------------
As is true of organisational designs, different organisational cultures may
be appropriate at different times and situations, with no one type of culture being ----------------------
ideal for every situation.
----------------------
However, some employees prefer one culture to the other. Employees who
work in organisations with culture that fits their own view of an ideal culture tend ----------------------
to be committed to the organisation and optimistic about its future.
----------------------
1. Bureaucratic culture: An organisation that values formality, rules,
standard operating procedures and hierarchical coordination has a ----------------------
bureaucratic culture. Long-term concerns of bureaucracy are predictability,
efficiency and stability. Behavioural norms support formality over ----------------------
informality. Managers view their role as good coordinators, organisers ----------------------
and enforcers of written rules and standards. Tasks, responsibilities and
authority of employees are clearly defined. The organisation’s rules and ----------------------
processes are spelled out in manuals and employees believe their duty is
to follow them. ----------------------
Activity 2 ----------------------
----------------------
Visit nearby organizations to identify some of the rites and rituals
that employees believe exist in the organisation they work for such as ----------------------
Vishwakarma pooja, Saraswati pooja, Founder’s day etc. or celebration of
----------------------
specific festivals to sustain culture.
----------------------
----------------------
15.4 MANAGING CULTURAL DIVERSITY
----------------------
Organisations are becoming increasingly diverse in terms of gender, race,
ethnicity and nationality. This growing diversity can bring substantial benefits, ----------------------
such as more successful strategies, improved decision-making and greater
creativity and innovation. ----------------------
However, along with the benefits, cultural diversity also brings with it costs ----------------------
and concerns. These include communication difficulties, intra-organisational
conflicts and turnover. There are no easy answers to managing a culturally ----------------------
diverse workforce. However, research has revealed some common characteristics ----------------------
of employee values, managerial philosophy and organisational culture that are
present in organisations having effective diversity management programmes. ----------------------
----------------------
15.6 MATCHING PEOPLE WITH CULTURES
----------------------
Organisations attempt to select new members who fit well with the
organisation’s culture. Most candidates looking for jobs also try to find ----------------------
organisations where their values and personality will fit in. ----------------------
Managers are concerned about how best to manage the culture of their
organizations. Culture is essentially learnt. Organisational members tend to ----------------------
internalize cultural practices and like to indoctorinate newcomers into such ----------------------
mores. Here, sociability and solidarity plays very important role.
----------------------
Goffee Robert and Gereth Jone provided interesting insight into the two
dimensions underlying organizational culture i.e. Sociability and Solidarity. ----------------------
Sociability means:
----------------------
i. A measure of friendliness
ii. People orientation, high team orientation and focus on processes rather ----------------------
than outcome
----------------------
Solidarity means:
----------------------
i. A measure of task orientation
ii. Overlooking personal biases and rallying behind common interests and ----------------------
common goals
----------------------
iii. High attention to detail and high aggressiveness
Goffee Robert and Gereth Jone identified four types of distinct culture: ----------------------
1. Networked culture: ----------------------
i. High on sociability and low on solidarity.
----------------------
ii. Views members as family and friends.
iii. People know and like each other. ----------------------
iv. People willingly give assistance to others and openly share ----------------------
information.
v. Focus on friendship can lead to a tolerance for poor performance ----------------------
and creation of political cliques. ----------------------
2. Mercenary culture
----------------------
i. Low on sociability and high on solidarity.
ii. Goal focused. ----------------------
iii. People are intense and determined to meet goals. ----------------------
iv. Focusing on goal and objectivity leads to minimal degree of politicking.
----------------------
v. The downside is inhuman treatment of low performers.
----------------------
----------------------
15.7 CONCEPT OF ORGANISATIONAL SOCIALISATION
----------------------
The general meaning of socialisation is the process by which an older
member of the society transmits to younger members the social skills and ----------------------
knowledge needed to function effectively in that society.
----------------------
Similarly, organisational socialisation is the systematic process by which an
organisation brings a new employee into its culture. In other words, it involves the ----------------------
transmission of organisational culture from senior to new employees, providing
----------------------
the social skills and knowledge needed to perform the organisational roles and
tasks successfully. ----------------------
It is the process by which the new employee learns the ropes. It includes ----------------------
learning workgroup, departmental and organisational values, rules and procedures
and norms; developing social and working relationships; and developing the ----------------------
competencies needed to perform a job.
----------------------
Summary ----------------------
●● An inherent relationship exists between organisational culture and ----------------------
people’s behaviour in an organisation. Organisational culture is a set of
beliefs and expectations held by the members of an organisation. It is ----------------------
a combination of organisational rituals and ceremonies, organisational
----------------------
norms, organisational values, organisational philosophy and organisational
climate. ----------------------
●● Organisational culture is developed through external adaptation and
----------------------
internal integration. External adaptation involves mission and strategy
of the organisation, goals, means and accomplishment criteria. Internal ----------------------
integration seeks to bring about establishment and maintenance of
effective working relationships among all members through language ----------------------
and concepts of the organisation, group and team boundaries, power and
----------------------
status, rewards and punishments.
●● Organisational culture is maintained through the organisation’s reaction ----------------------
to incidents and crises, role modelling, teaching and coaching, allocation
----------------------
of rewards and status, recruitment, selection, promotion and removal,
rites, ceremonies, and stories of the achievements of the organisation. ----------------------
●● The four main types of organisational culture are: bureaucratic, clan,
----------------------
entrepreneurial and market.
----------------------
Suggested Reading
----------------------
1. Khandwalla, Pradeep N. Organisational Designs for Excellence. Tata
McGraw Hill. ----------------------
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Structure:
16
16.1 Introduction
16.2 The Origins of Work Psychology
16.3 Areas of Workplace Psychology
16.4 Incorporating Psychology at Work
16.5 Impact of Good Psychology at Work
16.6 2022 Onwards Workplace Trends: Organizational Experimentation
16.7 What Managers Can Do?
Summary
Key Words
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
----------------------
16.1 INTRODUCTION
----------------------
This unit begins with a brief look at the roots and history of work
---------------------- psychology, including the Hawthorne studies which you have studied in
initial units and other key milestones. Attention then turns to modern work
---------------------- psychology: the topics it covers, the relationship between theory and practice,
---------------------- and professional affairs. The issue of whether work psychology is more useful
than so-called common sense is examined. If it is to be useful, work psychology
---------------------- must be based on sound information and appropriate techniques.
---------------------- When we talk about psychology at work, we refer to the application of
psychological principles within the work setting. Studies have shown that using
---------------------- psychology at work can help solve problems and create improvements in the
workplace. Psychology at work is known under many names such as work
----------------------
psychology, industrial organizational psychology, organizational psychology,
---------------------- and the like.
The FMJ and FJM traditions essentially concern the relationship between ----------------------
individuals and their work. The other root of work psychology can be loosely
----------------------
labelled human relations.
It is concerned with the complex interplay between individuals, groups, ----------------------
organizations and work. It therefore emphasizes social factors at work much
----------------------
more than FMJ and FJM. The importance of human relations was highlighted
in some famous research now known as the Hawthorne experiments. These ----------------------
experiments were conducted at the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric Co.
(USA) between 1927-1932. These experiments were made to find out the effect ----------------------
of working conditions (illumination) on productivity. However, the study failed
----------------------
to establish any relation between the two. So a study was started to find out
some other factors which influenced the output. ----------------------
The main conclusions of these experiments were as under:
----------------------
1. Informal groups. The behaviour of the individual worker is very much
influenced by the informal social groups which are formed amongst them. ----------------------
2. Social factors. This means that an organisation is a social system. Workers ----------------------
are social beings and factors, such as non-economic rewards facilities etc.
have an important impact upon their performance. ----------------------
---------------------- We use the term work psychology because of its simplicity, and because
to us it encompasses both the individual and organizational levels of analysis.
---------------------- A reading of the previous units should have given you the reasonable idea of
what work psychology is. In order to be more specific, we now list twelve areas
----------------------
in which work psychologists operate as teachers, researchers and consultants.
---------------------- This list is adapted from the British Psychological Society (1986) register of the
Division of Occupational Psychology members.
----------------------
1. Selection and assessment: For all types of job by a variety of methods,
---------------------- including tests and interviews.
2. Training: Identification of training needs; the design, delivery and
----------------------
evaluation of training.
---------------------- 3. Performance appraisal: Identification of key aspects of job performance;
---------------------- design of systems for accurate performance assessment; training in
appraisal techniques.
---------------------- 4. Organizational change and development: Analysis of systems and
---------------------- relationships with a viewto possible change; implementation of any such
change (e.g. new technology).
---------------------- 5. Ergonomics and equipment design: Analysis and design of work equipment
---------------------- and environments to fit human physical and cognitive capabilities.
6. Career choice, development and counselling: Analysis of a person’s
----------------------
abilities, interests and values, and their translation into occupational
---------------------- terms.
3. Employers search for ways to deal with workplace stress because it is ----------------------
a crucial part of employee productivity and job satisfaction.
----------------------
----------------------
16.4 INCORPORATING PSYCHOLOGY AT WORK
----------------------
Recruitment
----------------------
Psychology in the workplace can help you indicate the important skills,
educational attainment, and work experience that you would need from your ----------------------
employees. By knowing these characteristics, you can compose the most
suitable job descriptions and advertisements. ----------------------
This also orients your interview process because you can already ----------------------
correctly assess the characteristics you need. The principles of psychology in
the workplace help you understand how to choose particular characteristics ----------------------
from job candidates. At the same time, you are ensured that you are not being ----------------------
discriminatory.
----------------------
---------------------- Theoretically, this helps facilitate clear communication lines among you
and your employees and management. Performance evaluation can also help
---------------------- establish professional goals and identify training needs.
---------------------- Salaries/Compensation
Salaries or compensation is a critical portion of employee satisfaction
----------------------
and of course, psychology at work. Incorporate psychology at work when you
---------------------- create a compensation strategy. This is especially important when you want to
pay based on performance.
----------------------
Productivity and Motivation
---------------------- Studies have indicated that increased employee motivation usually
results in more productivity. The reverse – that higher productivity leads to
----------------------
more employee motivation – is also true. Psychology at work underscores
---------------------- those techniques such as performance appraisals, contests, commission pay
(if applicable), and sales quotas (if also applicable) may enhance motivation
---------------------- generally, resulting in higher productivity.
---------------------- Eliminating Intimidation. No matter what the business environment may
be, employees are always the most significant asset of a company. The present
---------------------- economic environment and the tight job markets have actually raised the stress
---------------------- of employees at work. Some employers are using this negative downturn to
their advantage – through intimidation or uncertainty to trigger productivity.
---------------------- However, this is only good in the short run. Many academicians have actually
warned against using intimidation to motivate staff.
----------------------
Based on a number of reports, employees who are satisfied, happy, and
---------------------- find value at work usually do better than those who are overlooked or disgruntled
over their work situations. Because of these reports, many company decision
---------------------- makers implement positive psychology tactics in the workplace. Although some
---------------------- of these tactics would need professionals, most of them can be accomplished by
anyone, within any company set-up.
----------------------
----------------------
16.5 IMPACT OF GOOD PSYCHOLOGY AT WORK
----------------------
Good Work Outputs
----------------------
One of the most vital features to the success of your company is the
production of high-quality products and services. You would need employees ----------------------
who are highly effective, with good judgment, and high performance. All these
falls under the category of employees that have good work outputs. ----------------------
Good work has been defined by psychologists as of truly high quality, ----------------------
meaningful to the person who accomplishes it, and is socially responsible.
There have been extensive studies at Harvard University on the full nature of ----------------------
good work – how to implement it and how to promote it. These have been many ----------------------
produced publications on the subject of good work. Overall and at any rate,
good psychology in the workplace also produces good work outputs. ----------------------
Fit of Personnel with the Company ----------------------
Selecting the right employees for your business is obviously a pivotal
----------------------
portion of having your company succeed. But whom should you hire? You have
to consider a few factors. This includes their personality, the complementarities ----------------------
of their strengths and capabilities with your business, and their fit with your
company’s strategy, structure, mission, and goals. ----------------------
---------------------- Short of changing society, what can you do as a manager to fix this issue
where you are? Whether you’re considering remote, hybrid, or fully in-person
---------------------- expectations for your workplace, great managers recognize that their people are
people first and employees second. And that means there is a burden of care that
---------------------- you accept when you take on the role of manager. Here are four things you can
---------------------- do to perform that role well.
●● Talk to your people. Your people bring challenges and stresses with
----------------------
them to work every day. Their motivation to work is deeply personal and
---------------------- may or may not align with your own. They have goals and dreams, and
---------------------- Keywords
---------------------- ●● FMJ: termed ‘fitting the man to the job’ (FMJ)
----------------------
Self-Assessment Questions
----------------------
1. Explain the corelation between Howthorne experiments and Workplace
---------------------- Psychology.
----------------------
Suggested Reading
----------------------
●● Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion by Robert Cialdini
----------------------
●● Made to Stick: Why Some Ideas Survive and Others Die by Chip Heath
----------------------
●● Drive: The Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us by Daniel Pink
●● The Inner Winner: Performance Psychology Tactics That Give You An ----------------------
Unfair Advantage by Simone Hazeldine
----------------------
●● Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ by Daniel
Goleman ----------------------
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Structure:
17
17.1 Introduction
Case Study
Summary
Key Words
Self-Assessment Questions
Answers to Check your Progress
Suggested Reading
---------------------- A related concept is authority. Authority does represent the right to expect
or secure compliance; authority is backed by legitimacy.
---------------------- For purposes of differentiating between power and authority, let us
---------------------- examine the relationship between the manager of a sawmill and her subordinates.
Presumably, the manager has the authority – the right – to request that the sawyer
---------------------- cut lumber to certain specifications. On the other hand, the manager would not
have the right to request that the sawyer wash her car. However, that sawyer
---------------------- may well accede to her request that he washes her car. Why? It is possible that
---------------------- the sawyer responds to the power that the manager has over him — the ability
to influence his behaviour.
---------------------- People continually attempt to influence the behaviour of others in the
---------------------- normal course of everyday living. Also, people attempt to punish undesirable
behaviour (perhaps in a subtle way) so that it will not be repeated. The behaviours
---------------------- of people at work are no different in this respect than the behaviours of people
in general.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
17.2 DEPENDENCY THEORY OF POWER
----------------------
It appears reasonable to assume that if a given behaviour is not something
the employees would voluntarily engage in, then efforts by someone else to ----------------------
engage them in that behaviour would be met with resistance.
----------------------
Any discussion of power begs the question: “Where does this ability to
influence another’s behaviour come from?” ----------------------
Strategy: Try to determine how important the resource is to the other ----------------------
person—how much power you have over the other person?
----------------------
Power is also a function of the scarcity of the resource in question.
----------------------
Jose (an astute Organisational Behaviour student who paid attention during
the lecture on power) recognises Barb’s strategy. If he admits that getting to ----------------------
his job in Maple Ridge from his home in Kerrisdale is difficult without a car,
then Barb will know how important the purchase of a car is to him. She will ----------------------
then know that she has a degree of power in their relationship. Jose says, “My
----------------------
car is in great shape. I’m just shopping around for a car that I might give to my
girlfriend for her birthday.” ----------------------
Barb notices that Jose is attracted to 4X4 pickup truck. She says to Jose,
----------------------
“Those 4X4’s are really popular. If you’re interested in buying one of them,
you’d better act now. The one you’re looking at here is the last one we have in ----------------------
stock. I hear, through the grapevine, that the manufacturer has stopped making
this model. Would you be interested in putting a down payment on this vehicle?” ----------------------
Strategy: Try to convince the other person that the resource they desire is ----------------------
scarce. The scarcer the resource, the more power you have. Scarcity is a matter
of perception. ----------------------
If the resource desired by the other party is non-substitutable, then you ----------------------
have power over that party.
----------------------
Again, Jose sees through Barb’s strategy; she wants him to believe that
the 4X4 he’s been looking at is scarce. In order to restore the power balance ----------------------
Jose responds, “Actually, I happened to see this very model at a dealership in
Maple Ridge.” ----------------------
----------------------
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Fig. 17.1 Bases and Sources of Power
----------------------
----------------------
Fill in the blanks.
----------------------
1. _______ is the capacity to dispense punishments to those who do not
comply with requests or demands. ----------------------
2. _______ stems from an authority’s legitimate right to require and ----------------------
demand compliance.
----------------------
3. _______ derives from group member’s assumption that the power
holder possesses superior skills and abilities. ----------------------
4. Charismatic leaders generally possess both legitimate and _______ ----------------------
power.
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
----------------------
---------------------- ‘In organizations few people dominate the entire functioning of the
department’. Can you think of examples of interpersonal sources of power
---------------------- in typical IT or projects organizations? Visit such organizations / department
and note down some important aspects to validate this statement.
----------------------
----------------------
17.5 EFFECTIVE USE OF POWER
----------------------
When employees, managers or teams face a situation where they have
---------------------- to influence the behaviours of others, they must choose a strategy. Influence
---------------------- strategies are the methods by which individuals and groups attempt to exert power.
Out of the various strategies discussed below, research shows that rational
----------------------
persuasion, inspirational appeal and consultation are the most effective in a
---------------------- variety of circumstances.
The least effective seem to be pressure, legitimising and coalition. However,
----------------------
to assume that certain strategies will work always and certain will always fail
---------------------- is misleading. More often than not, using various strategies in conjunction
with one another is better than using any of them in isolation. The process is
---------------------- complex and to understand fully the effectiveness of various strategies requires
an understanding of sources of power, the direction of attempts to influence (i.e.,
----------------------
upward, downward or lateral) and the goals being sought.
---------------------- Table 17.1 Making effective use of Power
---------------------- Influence Strategy Decision
---------------------- Rational persuasion Use logical arguments and factual evidence.
----------------------
Check your Progress 2
----------------------
State True or False.
----------------------
1. Rational Persuasion uses logical arguments and factual evidence.
----------------------
2. Coalition uses demand, threats or persistent reminders.
3. Ingratiation attempts to create favourable mood before making a ----------------------
request. ----------------------
----------------------
CASE STUDY
----------------------
The New Face of Office Politics ----------------------
Sure, the new world of business values what you know over whom you
know. However, argues influential teacher and consultant John Eldred, you still ----------------------
have to navigate the political realities of your organisation. ----------------------
In the New Economy, many of the basics of traditional business get turned
upside down: bureaucracy gets banished, meetings get reinvented and memos ----------------------
get abolished. But if you think that the rise of fast-paced competition means ----------------------
the demise of organisational politics, well, think again. “Politics is simply how
power gets worked out on a practical, day-to-day basis,” says John Eldred, 56, ----------------------
a teacher and a consultant. “People in organisations demonstrate power in every
conversation, every decision and every interaction.” ----------------------
For 11 years, Eldred has taught “Mastering Organisational Politics and ----------------------
Power,” a popular course that is part of the University of Pennsylvania’s master’s
----------------------
programme in organisational dynamics. He recently added a second course,
“Politics of the Virtual Organisation”. He works with students and with clients ----------------------
of his consulting firm − Transition One Associates − in Ambler, Pennsylvania
which includes managers from labour unions and family businesses as well as ----------------------
from such companies as Bell Atlantic, MCI and Comcast.
----------------------
“The more change there is, the more the political quotient goes up,”
says Eldred. “I try to help people live amid competing agendas and imperfect ----------------------
information. Politics is not about defeating others; it’s really about tapping into
----------------------
possibilities for action that solve problems.”
In an interview with Fast Company, Eldred shared his strategies for ----------------------
becoming a political activist at work.
----------------------
● Isn’t it the promise of the new economy that we can all just get down to
work? ----------------------
----------------------
---------------------- The second the door closed, his boss yelled, “Are you crazy?” The
salesman said, “No, calm down. The only language this guy understands
---------------------- is power. Let’s just sit here for 10 minutes, flip some numbers around, but
keep the offer the same.” He brought the customer back in, told him what
---------------------- they would agree to, and the guy shook on it right there.
Keywords ----------------------
●● Power: The ability to influence the behaviour of others with or without ----------------------
resistance.
----------------------
●● Dependency theory: A body of social science theories predicated on the
notion that resources flow from a “periphery” of poor and underdeveloped ----------------------
people to a “core” of wealthy people, enriching the latter at the expense of
the former. ----------------------
---------------------- 3. With the help of an example, explain the difference between authority and
power.
---------------------- 4. Explain what you mean by “political behaviour”. What are the forces that
---------------------- create such type of behaviour?
5. Bring out the ethical issues involved in power and politics.
----------------------