See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/236096078

Family Support, Self-Esteem, and Perceived Racial Discrimination Among

Asian American Male College Students.

Article in Journal of Counseling Psychology · April 2013

DOI: 10.1037/a0032344 · Source: PubMed

CITATIONS READS
35 578

5 authors, including:

Meifen Wei Christine J Yeh

Iowa State University University of San Francisco
80 PUBLICATIONS 7,432 CITATIONS 94 PUBLICATIONS 4,963 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Ruth Chu-Lien Chao

University of Denver
20 PUBLICATIONS 505 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Christine J Yeh on 10 June 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Journal of Counseling Psychology © 2013 American Psychological Association
2013, Vol. 60, No. 3, 453– 461 0022-0167/13/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0032344

BRIEF REPORT

Family Support, Self-Esteem, and Perceived Racial Discrimination Among

Asian American Male College Students

Meifen Wei Christine Jean Yeh

Iowa State University University of San Francisco
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

Ruth Chu-Lien Chao Stephanie Carrera

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

University of Denver Iowa State University

Jenny C. Su
National Taiwan University

This study was conducted to examine under what situation (i.e., when individuals used more or less
family support) and for whom (i.e., those with high or low self-esteem) perceived racial discrimination
would or would not have a significant positive association with psychological distress. A total of 95
Asian American male college students completed an online survey. A hierarchical regression analysis
indicated a significant 3-way interaction of family support, self-esteem, and perceived racial discrimi-
nation in predicting psychological distress after controlling for perceived general stress. A simple effect
analysis was used to explore the nature of the interaction. When Asian American male college students
used more family support to cope with racial discrimination, the association between perceived racial
discrimination and psychological distress was not significant for those with high or low self-esteem. The
result from the simple interaction indicated that, when more family support was used, the 2 slopes for
high and low self-esteem were not significantly different from each other. Conversely, when they used
less family support, the association between perceived racial discrimination and psychological distress
was not significant for those with high self-esteem, but was significantly positive for those with low
self-esteem. The result from the simple interaction indicated that, when less family support was used, the
slopes for high and low self-esteem were significantly different. The result suggested that low use of
family support may put these male students with low self-esteem at risk for psychological distress.
Limitations, future research directions, and clinical implications were discussed.

Keywords: self-esteem, family support, perceived racial discrimination, Asian American male college
students, moderation

Many Asian American males have had to negotiate direct and
indirect forms of racial discrimination incidents from childhood
through adulthood (Mio, 2010). However, little attention has been
paid to this group’s experiences (Liang, Rivera, Nathwani, Dang,
This article was published Online First April 1, 2013.
Meifen Wei, Department of Psychology, Iowa State University; Chris-
tine Jean Yeh, Department of Counseling Psychology, University of San
Francisco; Ruth Chu-Lien Chao, Counseling Psychology Program,
Mogridge College of Education, University of Denver; Stephanie Carrera,
Department of Psychology, Iowa State University; Jenny C. Su, Depart-
ment of Psychology, National Taiwan University, Taipei City, Taiwan.
We thank Tsui-Feng Wu, Raquel Botello-Zamarron, Pratiksha Patel,
Audrielle Glenn, Andrew Dinsdale, and Byron Ceasar for data collection.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Meifen
Wei, Department of Psychology, W112 Lagomarcino Hall, Iowa State
University, Ames, IA 50011-3180. E-mail: wei@iastate.edu
& Douroux, 2010). In this study, we focused on examining the
protective factors against racial discrimination for Asian American
male college students for three reasons. First, the negative stereo-
types about Asian American males often make them vulnerable to
discrimination (Chang & Yeh, 2003; Liang et al., 2010). Research
studies also indicated that Asian American males tend to report a
high frequency of encountering racial discrimination (e.g., Alvarez
& Juang, 2010; Yoo, Steger, & Lee, 2010). Second, Liu and
Iwamoto (2007) found that Asian American college males used
various substances at or above the national average for college
males. One possible reason for this occurrence might be related to
racial discrimination. Third, research studies indicated that the
preference and effectiveness of coping strategies used by Asian
American males to deal with racial discrimination are different
from those used by Asian American females (e.g., Liang, Alvarez,
Juang, & Liang, 2007). Hahm, Ozonoff, Gaumond, and Sue (2010)
argued that “failing to examine women and men separately in
discrimination research may no longer be appropriate among the

453
 454 WEI, YEH, CHAO, CARRERA, AND SU
Asian-American population” (p. 350). Exploring useful coping
strategies for Asian American males is important because, in many
ways, males in general (Robertson & Fitzgerald, 1992) and Asian
American males specifically (Chang & Yeh, 2003) are socialized
to have negative attitudes toward seeking professional psycholog-
ical help. Therefore, in the present study, we planned to explore
protective resources that lessen the negative impact of racial dis-
crimination on psychological outcomes for Asian American male
college students.
According to a meta-analysis that examined 23 discrimination
studies from 1992 to 2009, D. L. Lee and Ahn (2011) found a
small, positive average correlation (r ⫽ .23) between racial dis-
crimination and negative mental health outcomes (e.g., high psy-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
chological distress) in individuals with Asian heritages. This effect
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
size is unexpectedly weak. Methodologically, Frazier, Tix, and
Barron (2004) indicated that “it often is useful to look for moder-
ators when there are unexpectedly weak or inconsistent relations
between a predictor and an outcome across studies” (p. 123). So,
it is important to go beyond direct associations to explore the
moderators (e.g., under what situation and for whom) that might
alter the associations between perceived racial discrimination and
negative mental health outcomes.
In the same vein, after reviewing the existing theoretical frame-
works on discrimination-related stress, scholars also encouraged
researchers to examine moderators of the association between
racial discrimination and outcomes (e.g., Brondolo, ver Halen,
Pencille, Beatty, & Contrada, 2009; Clark, Anderson, Clark, &
Williams, 1999). For example, Clark et al. (1999) argued that the
effects of coping response (e.g., social support) may interact with
third variables such as sociodemographic or personal factors (e.g.,
self-esteem) to modify risk for negative health outcomes in the
discrimination context.
Empirically, results from the existing meta-analyses indicated
that coping strategies and social support were two of the most
frequently examined moderators in the discrimination literature
(e.g., Brondolo et al., 2009; D. L. Lee & Ahn, 2011; Pascoe &
Smart Richman, 2009). However, most of these studies failed to
consistently support these moderation effects when the two-way
interaction effects were examined (Pascoe & Smart Richman,
2009). Moreover, when these two-way interaction effects were
significant, they often occurred only under certain conditions. For
example, the significant two-way interaction only occurred when
discrimination stress was low (Yoo & Lee, 2005) or only with a
particular ethnic group (Korean immigrants; Noh & Kaspar, 2003).
Therefore, Pascoe and Smart Richman (2009) suggested that re-
searchers can advance the discrimination literature by examining
these conditional results more fully to determine precisely the role
these moderators play in discrimination experiences. In other
words, they suggested that the above moderators (e.g., social
support) may interact with a third variable (e.g., self-esteem) to
buffer the negative impact of racial discrimination on health out-
comes (i.e., examining a three-way interaction).
From the above review, both theoretical frameworks (e.g., Clark
et al., 1999) and empirical results (e.g., Pascoe & Smart Richman,
2009) call for further examination of the complexity of moderation
effects in the discrimination literature. In this study, we proposed
that family support and self-esteem might interact together to
buffer the positive association between racial discrimination and
psychological distress among Asian American male college stu-
dents. We first addressed the reasons for selecting these two
moderators and proposed the specific expectations for hypotheses.
In terms of family support, as we know, many Asian American
ethnic groups tend to value males over females (Sue & Sue, 2008).
Asian American males might receive more resources and attention
from their families because greater expectations are placed on
males to carry on family traditions and the family name. When
Asian American males seek family support, family members are
likely to comfort them to minimize the hurt associated with racial
discrimination and to instill ethnic pride. In a relevant study on
African American boys (Simons et al., 2006), supportive parenting
reduced the probability that discrimination would lead to violence.
Even though Simons et al.’s (2006) study solely focused on Afri-
can Americans, they argued that supportive parenting behaviors
would be beneficial to children regardless of ethnicity or social
circumstances. Thus, family support may be a resource for these
Asian American male students. Empirically, a study of Asian
Americans found that the helpfulness of family support buffers the
strength of the positive association between perceived racial dis-
crimination and depressive symptoms (Wei, Heppner, Ku, & Liao,
2010).
According to the self-esteem theory of depression (Brown &
Harris, 1978; Metalsky, Joiner, Hardin, & Abramson, 1993), self-
esteem moderates the negative impact of stressors on mental health
outcomes. That is, low self-esteem places individuals at greatest
risk for distress. Conversely, high self-esteem protects them from
distress. In the face of racial discrimination, high self-esteem may
serve as a resource to protect Asian American male students from
the negative impact of perceived racial discrimination. When these
male college students have high self-esteem, they are likely to
recognize their good qualities, have respect for themselves, and
thus maintain better mental health. This resource may help them
deal with racial discrimination. Empirically, self-esteem has been
examined as a protective factor to weaken the association between
racial discrimination and distress for those with Asian heritages
(Cassidy, O’Conner, Howe, & Warden, 2004; Dion, Dion, & Pak,
1992; Wei, Ku, Russell, Mallinckrodt, & Liao, 2008). In addition,
Asian American male and female college students have been found
to differ in terms of cultural factors contributing to self-esteem
(J. L. Tsai, Ying, & Lee, 2001). Taken together, we proposed that
family support and self-esteem would moderate the positive asso-
ciation between racial discrimination and psychological distress.
Specifically, when Asian American male college students use
more family support, the association between racial discrimination
and psychological distress would be weak or close to zero for those
with high self-esteem. There are at least two reasons. One, family
support may be a resource for these Asian American male students.
When they share their discrimination incident with family mem-
bers, their families may sooth their distressed feelings and remind
them of the environmental factors related to racial discrimination
for Asian Americans (Wei, Heppner, et al., 2010). Two, holding a
positive sense of self protects them from feeling distressed (e.g.,
Cassidy et al., 2004). Their positive sense of self may protect them
from thinking that the discrimination incident reflects their own
deficits. For these reasons, family support and self-esteem may
help them cope with racial discrimination. Therefore, these two
resources may buffer the negative impact of perceived racial
discrimination on psychological distress.
 FAMILY SUPPORT, SELF-ESTEEM, AND DISCRIMINATION
In contrast, not all Asian American male college students have
high levels of self-esteem. For those Asian American male college
students with low self-esteem, they may have fewer resources to
see their own self-worth. In the face of racial discrimination, they
are likely to devalue themselves (Dion et al., 1992). However,
when these male students use more family support to talk about
their racial discrimination with family members, their family mem-
bers may share personal experiences to validate their distressed
feelings and provide necessary guidance. As we know, in Asian
collectivistic culture, family tends to serve a supportive and caring
function for family members (Yeh, Arora, & Wu, 2006; Yeh &
Wang, 2000). That is to say, when family support serves a pro-
tective role to buffer against racial discrimination, even with low
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
self-esteem, the association between racial discrimination and psy-
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
chological distress would be weak or close to zero.
Yet, not all these male students use family support to deal with
racial discrimination. When they use less family support (e.g., they
may choose not to bother their families), those with high self-
esteem may still have resources (e.g., positive attitudes toward
themselves) to cope with racial discrimination. That is, even
though they use less family support to cope with racial discrimi-
nation, their high self-esteem may help them not to feel personally
responsible for their discrimination experiences or to doubt them-
selves (Cassidy et al., 2004). For this reason, we expected that,
when they used less family support, the association between racial
discrimination and psychological distress would be weak or close
to zero for those with high self-esteem.
However, when Asian American male college students use less
family support, those with low self-esteem are likely to be the most
vulnerable to psychological distress. In the face of racial discrim-
ination, due to their low use of family support, their families are
unable to protect them by giving useful guidance or strategies to
cope with racial discrimination. Moreover, because of their low
self-esteem, it may be difficult for them to think of themselves as
individuals with positive qualities (Dion et al., 1992). Thus, we
expected that, when they used less family support, the association
between racial discrimination and psychological distress would be
significantly positive for those with low self-esteem.
Harrell (2000) argued that the stressor of perceived racial dis-
crimination is a unique contributor to mental health outcomes over
and above perceived general stress. After controlling for perceived
general stress, some studies found that perceived racial discrimi-
nation uniquely predicted psychological distress among Asian
Americans (Gee, Spencer, Chen, Yip, & Takeuchi, 2007) and
Chinese Americans (Dion et al., 1992). However, some studies
failed to support this argument (Sanders Thompson, 2002). Thus,
we controlled for perceived general life stress to further clarify
these mixed results. In conclusion, it was hypothesized that family
support and self-esteem would moderate the association between
racial discrimination and psychological distress after controlling
for perceived general stress.
Method
Participants
A total of 95 Asian American male college students from a large
public midwestern university participated in this study. The par-
ticipants’ average age was 21.09 years (SD ⫽ 3.37, range ⫽ 18 –39
455
years old). Almost half the participants (47%) identified them-
selves as second generation, 32% as 1.5 generation, 7% as first
generation, and 14% as third generation or above. The sample
consisted of Chinese (19%), Korean (19%), Vietnamese (15%),
Indian (14%), Filipino (5%), Taiwanese (5%), Taidam (5%), Jap-
anese (4%), Thai (4%), Hmong (3%), Laotian (1%), Cambodian
(1%), and the remaining 4% who reported a mixed ethnic heritage.
Of these students, 26% were first-year students, 20% sophomores,
21% juniors, 22% seniors, and 11% graduate students. More than
half the participants reported their socioeconomic status (SES) as
middle class (58%), followed by upper middle (20%), lower mid-
dle (17%), lower (4%), and upper class (1%).
Procedure
A list of Asian American male students (N ⫽ 630) was obtained
from the university registrar’s office. From this list, 55 students
who took psychology and communication courses were invited
and would obtain extra course credits for their course. The other
575 students who did not take those courses were invited and could
join a drawing for one of 10 $20 gift certificates. All participants
were informed that the purpose of this study was to identify coping
resources that might help deal with racial discrimination stress. A
total of 127 students initially participated. However, 14 students
did not respond to any items, and 18 students did not respond
correctly to two validity questions (e.g., please click “used a great
deal” for this item). Thus, 32 participants were removed and 95
participants were used in the analyses. Finally, the response rate
for those who took psychology and communication courses was
53% (i.e., 29 students participated from the 55 students invited),
whereas the response rate for those who did not take those courses
was 12% (i.e., 66 students participated from the 575 students
invited).
Instruments
Perceived general stress. Perceived general stress was as-
sessed using the Perceived Stress Scale-short form (PSS; Cohen,
Kamarck, & Mermelstein, 1983). The PSS-short form is a four-
item measure to assess global perceptions of stress. Participants
were asked to reflect on their thoughts and feelings from last
month using a 5-point rating scale ranging from 0 (never) to 4
(very often). A higher score indicated greater perceived general
stress. Coefficient alpha was .74 for Chinese international students
in a previous study (P-C. Tsai, 2011) and .77 in the present study.
Validity was supported by a positive association with perceived
racial discrimination (P-C. Tsai, 2011).
Perceived racial discrimination. Perceived racial discrimi-
nation was assessed using a modified version of the Everyday
Perceived Racial Discrimination Index (EPRI; Jackson & Wil-
liams, 1995). The EPRI included nine items to measure daily
incidences of discrimination. Participants rated items on a 7-point
scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). A
higher score indicated a higher level of perceived racial discrim-
ination. Coefficient alpha was .91 among Asian Americans (Gee et
al., 2007). In the present study, coefficient alpha was also .91.
Validity was supported by a positive association with increased
risk of mental disorders among Asian Americans (Gee et al.,
2007).
 456 WEI, YEH, CHAO, CARRERA, AND SU
Family support. Family support was measured using the
Family Support subscale from the Collectivistic Coping Scale
(Yeh, Chang, Arora, Kim, & Xin, 2003). The Family Support
subscale included five items and used a 7-point Likert-type scale
ranging from 1 (not used) to 7 (used a great deal). A higher score
indicated a higher level of family support. Coefficient alphas
ranged from .88 to .90 among Asian Americans in previous studies
(Tummala-Narra, Inman, & Ettigi, 2011; Yeh et al., 2003) and .93
in the present study. Support for scale validity has been provided
by the positive association with scores on the Family subscale of
the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (Zimet,
Dahlem, Zimet, & Farley, 1988) among ethnic minorities (includ-
ing Asian Americans; Yeh et al., 2003).
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
Self-esteem. Self-esteem was assessed using the Rosenberg
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; Rosenberg, 1965). The RSES is a
10-item scale used to measure global self-esteem. Participants
were asked to rate their responses using a 4-point scale ranging
from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). A higher score
indicated higher self-esteem. Coefficient alphas were .92 for Ko-
rean Americans (R. M. Lee, 2005), .86 for Asian Indians
(Tummala-Narra et al., 2011), and .88 in the present study. Valid-
ity was supported by its positive association with social connect-
edness and its negative association with depression among Korean
Americans (R. M. Lee, 2005).
Psychological distress. Psychological distress was measured
using the Psychological Distress subscale from the Outcome Ques-
tionnaire 10.2 (Lambert, Finch, Okiishi, & Burlingame, 2005). The
Psychological Distress subscale included five items that measured
general psychological distress. Participants were asked to rate their
responses on a 5-point scale ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (almost
always). A higher score indicated greater psychological distress.
Coefficient alpha was .79 among Asian international students
(Wei, Tsai, Chao, Du, & Lin, 2012) and .81 in the present study.
Validity was supported by its positive association with accultura-
tive stress among East Asian international students (Wei et al.,
2012).
Results
Preliminary Analyses
We first examined the missing data. There was a small amount
of missing data ranging from 0.1% for the measure of self-esteem
to 2.3% for the measure of perceived racial discrimination. These
Table 1
Means, Standard Deviations, and Zero-Order Correlations of Variables
Variable 1 2
1. Perceived general stress —
2. Perceived racial discrimination .19
3. Family support ⫺.09
4. Self-esteem ⫺.59ⴱⴱⴱ
5. Psychological distress .68ⴱⴱⴱ
Possible range 0–4
M 1.78
SD 0.65
Note. N ⫽ 95.
ⴱⴱⴱ
p ⬍ .001.
missing data were substituted by the mean value of that variable.
Second, we examined whether our sample (N ⫽ 95) was repre-
sentative of the population of Asian American males who were
invited for this study (N ⫽ 630) with regards to their year in
school. A nonsignificant chi-square result, ␹2(4, N ⫽ 95) ⫽ 0.75,
p ⫽ .95, indicated that this sample was relatively representative of
the population in this university with respect to year in school.
Means, standard deviations, and zero-order correlations among
the variables are presented in Table 1. An analysis of variance was
conducted to examine whether the criterion variable (i.e., psycho-
logical distress) varied as a function of participants’ generation and
SES, respectively. Results indicated that there were no significant
main effects (p ⫽ .09 for generation and p ⫽ .15 for SES). In
addition, age was not significantly related to psychological distress
(r ⫽ ⫺.05, p ⫽ .66). Because students’ generation, SES, and age
were not significantly related to the criterion variable (i.e., psy-
chological distress), none of these variables were used as covari-
ates in subsequent analyses.
We followed the recommendation made by Tabachnick and
Fidell (2007) to examine whether the data met regression assump-
tions of residual normality, linearity, and homoscedasticity. The
regression analysis indicated no violation of the above regression
assumptions. The residual skew was ⫺0.005, and the residual
kurtosis was ⫺0.076 for the regression. The results indicated no
significant departure from normality, and thus the residual nor-
mality assumption for regression analysis was met.
A Three-Way Interaction
For the hierarchical regression, standardized perceived general
stress was entered as a covariate in Step 1. Standardized perceived
racial discrimination was entered in Step 2, and standardized
family support and standardized self-esteem were entered in Step
3. The three two-way interaction terms (e.g., Family Support ⫻
Perceived Racial Discrimination) were then entered as a block in
Step 4. Finally, the three-way interaction term (e.g., Family Sup-
port ⫻ Self-Esteem ⫻ Perceived Racial Discrimination) was en-
tered in Step 5. A significant increment in R2 for Step 5 indicated
a significant three-way interaction.
The regression results indicated that, in Step 1, perceived gen-
eral stress accounted for 46% of the variance in predicting psy-
chological distress (see Table 2). In Step 2, perceived racial
discrimination failed to significantly predict psychological dis-
tress. In Step 3, the two moderators accounted for an additional 6%
3 4 5
—
.14 —
⫺.09 .19 —
.19 ⫺.09 ⫺.59ⴱⴱⴱ —
1–7 1–7 1–4 0–4
2.99 3.31 2.99 1.64
1.20 1.62 0.50 0.74
 FAMILY SUPPORT, SELF-ESTEEM, AND DISCRIMINATION 457

Table 2
A Three-Way Interaction Effect of Perceived Racial Discrimination, Family Support, and Self-Esteem on Psychological Distress

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5

(⌬R2 ⫽ .46ⴱ) (⌬R2 ⫽ .01) (⌬R2 ⫽ .06ⴱ) (⌬R2 ⫽ .00) (⌬R2 ⫽ .04ⴱ)
Variable b ␤ b ␤ b ␤ b ␤ b ␤

Perceived general stress .51ⴱ .68ⴱ .50ⴱ .67ⴱ .37ⴱ .50ⴱ .36ⴱ .49ⴱ .35ⴱ .47ⴱ
Perceived racial discrimination (PRD) .05 .06 .05 .07 .06 .08 .00 .01
Family support ⫺.00 ⫺.00 .01 .01 .05 .06
Self-esteem ⫺.23ⴱ ⫺.29ⴱ ⫺.24ⴱ ⫺.31ⴱ ⫺.27ⴱ ⫺.36ⴱ
Family Support ⫻ PRD .04 .05 .02 .02
Self-Esteem ⫻ PRD ⫺.03 ⫺.04 ⫺.03 ⫺.03
Family Support ⫻ Self-Esteem ⫺.00 ⫺.00 .02 .02
Family Support ⫻ Self-Esteem ⫻ PRD .20ⴱ .23ⴱ
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

Note. N ⫽ 95.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

ⴱ
p ⬍ .01.

of variance in predicting psychological distress. Self-esteem sig-
nificantly and negatively predicted psychological distress. In Step
4, no two-way interactions significantly added incremental vari-
ance in predicting psychological distress. However, in Step 5, the
incremental effect of the three-way interaction was statistically
significant, ⌬R2 ⫽ .04, F(1, 86) ⫽ 8.79, p ⫽ .004. The three-way
interaction uniquely predicted 4% of the variance in psychological
distress, above and beyond all main and two-way interaction
effects.
Moreover, three additional steps were taken in order to under-
stand the nature of the three-way interaction effect. First, a simple
for whom (i.e., those with high or low self-esteem) perceived racial
discrimination would or would not have a significant positive
association with psychological distress among Asian American
male college students. As we can see in Panel A in Figure 1, when
Asian American male college students used more family support,
A When More Family Support Was Used
4
Psychological Distress

slope analysis was conducted to examine whether the simple

regression slopes were significantly different from zero (Aiken & 3
L: b = -0.15; β = -.21
West, 1991). Next, a simple interaction analysis was conducted to
test whether the two slopes were significantly different. Finally, 2 Low Self-Esteem
the three-way interaction was plotted using the predicted values of High Self-Esteem
one standard deviation above (i.e., high) and below (i.e., low) the 1
H: b = 0.19; β = .26
mean for family support, self-esteem, and perceived racial discrim-
ination. As illustrated in Panel A in Figure 1, when Asian Amer- 0
ican males used more family support, a simple slope analysis Low (1SD below) High (1SD above)
indicated that the slope of perceived racial discrimination on
Perceived Racial Discrimination
psychological distress was not significantly different from zero for
those with high (b ⫽ 0.19, ␤ ⫽ .26, p ⫽ .06) or low (b ⫽ ⫺0.15,
␤ ⫽ ⫺.21, p ⫽ .34) self-esteem. The simple interaction analysis B When Less Family Support Was Used
indicated that, when more family support was used, the two slopes
for high and low self-esteem were not significantly different (p ⫽ 4
.07).
Psychological Distress

In contrast, the patterns of interaction were different when they

3
used less family support (see Panel B in Figure 1). The slope for
L: b = 0.22*; β = .29*
perceived racial discrimination on psychological distress was not
2
significantly different for those with high self-esteem (b ⫽ ⫺0.24, Low Self-Esteem
␤ ⫽ ⫺.32, p ⫽ .08). However, the slope for perceived racial High Self-Esteem
discrimination on psychological distress was significantly different 1
H: b = -0.24; β = -.32
from zero for those with low self-esteem (b ⫽ 0.22, ␤ ⫽ .29, p ⫽
.04). The simple interaction analysis indicated that, when less 0
family support was used, the two slopes for high and low self- Low (1SD below) High (1SD above)
esteem were significantly different (p ⫽ .01). Perceived Racial Discrimination

Discussion Figure 1. The interaction effects of self-esteem and perceived racial

discrimination on psychological distress when more family support was
In general, we examined in the present study under what situ- used (Panel A) versus when less family support was used (Panel B). L ⫽
ation (i.e., when individuals use more or less family support) and Low; H ⫽ High. ⴱ p ⬍ .05.
 458 WEI, YEH, CHAO, CARRERA, AND SU
the association between perceived racial discrimination and psy-
chological distress was significant neither for those with high
self-esteem nor for those with low self-esteem. These results might
imply that the use of family support is an important resource to
help cope with racial discrimination. As we addressed above, when
Asian American college students seek family support, their family
members are likely to comfort them and help them cope with racial
discrimination (Wei, Heppner, et al., 2010). Family support is
especially important for Asian American males because they are
expected to be leaders in the family, to maintain family solidarity,
and to carry on family traditions (Iwamoto & Liu, 2009). In
addition, their high self-esteem can be a resource that protects
them from the negative impact of perceived racial discrimination
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
on psychological distress. Therefore, when they used more family
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
support, psychological distress would remain relatively low in the
face of racial discrimination for those with high self-esteem (see
Figure 1A). Moreover, our results showed that, when they used
more family support, perceived racial discrimination was still not
significantly associated with psychological distress for those with
low self-esteem (see Figure 1A). In other words, when those with
low self-esteem used more family support, their family members
might help them feel that they do not need to deal with discrimi-
nation experiences alone.
Conversely, when they used less family support, the significant
pattern was different (see Panel B in Figure 1). Our results indi-
cated that, when they used less family support, the association
between perceived racial discrimination and psychological distress
was not significant for those with high self-esteem (see Figure 1B).
Even though these students used less family support, their high
self-esteem may help them have positive attitudes toward them-
selves and not doubt themselves (see Figure 1B). This could be a
reason why when those with high self-esteem used less family
support, they can still keep psychological distress low in the face
of racial discrimination. This result implied that high self-esteem is
particularly important when Asian American male college students
used less family support. This result is consistent with previous
studies investigating the moderating role of self-esteem in the link
between discrimination and psychological distress (Cassidy et al.,
2004).
In contrast, when they used less family support, there was a
significantly positive association between perceived racial dis-
crimination and psychological distress for those with low self-
esteem (see Figure 1B). This result indicated that, in the face of
racial discrimination, low use of family support may put Asian
American male college students with low self-esteem at risk for
psychological distress. On the one hand, their low use of family
support may limit their opportunity to receive support, care, or
advice from family members (Yeh et al., 2006; Yeh & Wang,
2000) to cope with racial discrimination. On the other hand, racial
discrimination can be viewed as a type of interpersonal rejection
(R. M. Lee, 2005). Those with low self-esteem may take the racial
discrimination incidents personally and blame themselves. Ac-
cordingly, it is not surprising that, when they used less family
support, those with low self-esteem are the most vulnerable to
psychological distress in the face of perceived racial discrimina-
tion.
Overall, our results contributed at least three important aspects
to the discrimination literature. First of all, the results from the
present study add more complexity to the literature. Our results
implied that family support and self-esteem may interact together
to buffer the negative impact of perceived discrimination on psy-
chological distress (i.e., a three-way interaction of perceived racial
discrimination, family support, and self-esteem on psychological
distress). Theoretically, scholars have implied this direction in
their discrimination-related frameworks. For example, Harrell
(2000) suggested in her racism-related model that “self-esteem . . .
may buffer the impact of racism-related stress on well-being”
together with other factors that could “exacerbate . . . and increase
the risk of maladaptive outcomes” (p. 51). By examining a three-
way interaction, the present study adds one more piece of infor-
mation to help untangle complicated moderation effects in the
discrimination literature.
Next, our results advanced the literature by highlighting the
importance of using family support to cope with racial discrimi-
nation for Asian American male college students. These results are
similar to those found in Wei, Heppner, et al.’s (2010) study. In
particular, these two studies used two different collectivistic cop-
ing scales. In the present study, the scale was developed from
ethnic minorities in the United States (Yeh et al., 2006, 2003). In
Wei, Heppner, et al.’s study, the scale was developed from a
Taiwanese sample in Taiwan (Heppner et al., 2006). Both studies,
however, came to the same conclusion: Family support is an
important resource for Asian Americans to use in the face of racial
discrimination. The convergence of these two findings thus in-
creased the robustness of our results. Additionally, Pascoe and
Smart Richman (2009) reported that when moderation effects for
coping or social support were found, they often occurred only
under certain conditions (e.g., only for those with a strong ethnic
identity). This study responds to a call from Pascoe and Smart
Richman (2009) to examine the conditional nature of the moder-
ation effects in order to fully understand the precise benefits of
moderators in the discrimination literature.
Finally, researchers have begun to pay attention to the protective
resources males can use to cope with racial discrimination. Previ-
ous studies have observed that combining research findings on
males and females may give limited information on Asian Amer-
icans (Hahm et al., 2010). This study contributed to the discrim-
ination literature by considering family support and self-esteem as
resources for Asian American male college students. This result is
important because Asian American males are often targets of racial
discrimination (Yoo et al., 2010).
Limitations and Future Research Directions
Although this study advances the discrimination literature, there
are several limitations to be acknowledged. First, about four fifths
(i.e., 79%) of participants in this study were 1.5- and second-
generation Asian American male college students in the Midwest.
Therefore, our results may not generalize to Asian Americans of
other generational statuses, different region areas, or noncollege
student groups. In addition, generation, SES, and age were exam-
ined as covariates in this study. This approach can be a limitation
because these demographic variables may be potential moderators.
Second, we used the online survey method for data collection in
the hope that participants would feel comfortable reporting their
discrimination experiences. However, this method may have a
selection bias because it represents only those who are interested in
this topic. Similarly, the present study is limited to Asian Ameri-
 FAMILY SUPPORT, SELF-ESTEEM, AND DISCRIMINATION
can males. Future studies may examine the useful coping resources
of Asian American females.
Third, this sample consisted of several Asian ethnic subgroups.
However, family support as a common important Asian value and
self-esteem as a common resource are shared by these different
Asian ethnic subgroups. Ideally, future researchers can focus on
only one Asian ethnic group (e.g., Korean Americans) to more
fully understand the unique experiences of its members. In reality,
as we know, there are very few studies on Asian American college
students in the predominately White university in the Midwest.
This study can be a good start to build this line of research. Fourth,
we have attempted to advance the discrimination literature by
focusing on family support and self-esteem. However, there are
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
also specific methods that help cope with racial discrimination
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
(e.g., educating others about the negative impact of racial discrim-
ination or trying to stop racial discrimination at the societal level)
or self-efficacy in coping with racial discrimination. For example,
recently, Wei, Alvarez, Ku, Russell, and Bonett (2010) developed
a coping scale specifically for the context of racial discrimination
and Miller (2012) developed the Racism Coping Self-Efficacy
scale. Future studies should expand research on how ethnic mi-
norities cope with racial discrimination by exploring the coping
strategies useful to the context of racial discrimination or exploring
self-efficacy in coping with discrimination.
There are several research directions for future studies. First, in
the present study we only examined family support and self-
esteem as moderators for Asian American male students. Future
studies can assess the effects of these variables in other ethnic
minority groups. Similarly, we only examined in the present study
negative mental health outcomes. Future studies can expand to
include positive mental health outcomes (e.g., life satisfaction or
positive affect). Second, although the present study is one of a very
limited number of studies on coping with discrimination among
Asian Americans, it is correlational in nature. Other researchers
can focus on discrimination experienced on a daily basis and what
coping strategies individuals use. For example, Torres and Ong
(2010) recently found that ethnic identity exploration exacerbates,
whereas ethnic identity commitment buffers, the association be-
tween daily discrimination experiences and daily depression
among Latinos. Third, although we found that family support kept
psychological distress lower in the face of perceived racial dis-
crimination, it is not clear how family support accomplishes this
task (e.g., soothing distressed feelings produced by discrimination
or providing guidance on how to deal with discrimination experi-
ences). To explore this topic in more depth, future research studies
can examine qualitative and quantitative data on specific strategies
that parents use to help Asian American male college students
cope with discrimination (e.g., racial socialization process). Fi-
nally, because racial microaggressions are pervasive in daily in-
teractions among ethnic minorities (e.g., Sue, Bucceri, Lin, Nadal,
& Torino, 2007), future studies can explore how they cope with
this subtle form of racial discrimination.
Implications for Counseling
Our results have at least two implications for counseling Asian
American male students (Sheu, 2010) in the context of racial
discrimination. First, this study highlights family support as a
coping strategy for Asian American male college students to deal
459
with racial discrimination. Counselors are encouraged to explore
family support coping resources (Bhui, Chandran, & Sathyamoor-
thy, 2002) when working with Asian American male college
students who are concerned about racial discrimination. For ex-
ample, counselors may ask these male students whether they have
directly shared their concerns with their family members, what
their family has taught them about racial discrimination, and how
their family has dealt with these experiences. Moreover, it is likely
that several Asian American males in college are away from home
for the first time. Having the opportunity to seek or even maximize
family support seems to be critically important for their well-being
in the face of racial discrimination.
Second, counselors can pay attention to how self-esteem as a
resource is used to cope with racial discrimination. For example,
counselors can encourage Asian American male students to be
aware of whether they take racial discrimination events personally
and educate them to consider possible external factors that could
explain discrimination-related events. Moreover, counselors can
devote their efforts to work on raising these male students’ self-
esteem by increasing awareness of their own strengths to enhance
their positive attitudes toward themselves. Increased awareness
and insight on what makes up their individual selves may serve as
a resource to cope with racial discrimination.
References
Aiken, L., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and inter-
preting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Alvarez, A. N., & Juang, L. P. (2010). Filipino Americans and racism: A
multiple mediation model of coping. Journal of Counseling Psychology,
57, 167–178. doi:10.1037/a0019091
Bhui, K., Chandran, M., & Sathyamoorthy, G. (2002). Mental health
assessment and South Asian men. International Review of Psychiatry,
14, 52–59. doi:10.1080/09540260120114069
Brondolo, E., ver Halen, N., Pencille, M., Beatty, D., & Contrada, R. J.
(2009). Coping with racism: A selective review of the literature and a
theoretical and methodological critique. Journal of Behavioral Medi-
cine, 32, 64 – 88. doi:10.1007/s10865-008-9193-0
Brown, G. W., & Harris, T. (1978). Social origins of depression. New
York, NY: Free Press.
Cassidy, C., O’Conner, R. C., Howe, C., & Warden, D. (2004). Perceived
discrimination and psychological distress: The role of personal and
ethnic self-esteem. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 329 –339.
doi:10.1037/0022-0167.51.3.329
Chang, T., & Yeh, C. J. (2003). Using on-line groups to provide support to
Asian American men: Racial, cultural, gender, and treatment issues.
Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 34, 634 – 643. doi:
10.1037/0735-7028.34.6.634
Clark, R., Anderson, N., Clark, V., & Williams, D. (1999). Racism as a
stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model. American
Psychologist, 54, 805– 816. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.54.10.805
Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of
perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 385–396.
doi:10.2307/2136404
Dion, K. L., Dion, K. K., & Pak, A. W. (1992). Personality-based hardiness
as a buffer for discrimination-related stress in members of Toronto’s
Chinese community. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 24, 517–
536. doi:10.1037/h0078755
Frazier, P. A., Tix, A. P., & Barron, K. E. (2004). Testing moderator and
mediator effects in counseling psychology research. Journal of Coun-
seling Psychology, 51, 115–134. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.51.1.115
 460 WEI, YEH, CHAO, CARRERA, AND SU
Gee, G. C., Spencer, M. S., Chen, J., Yip, T., & Takeuchi, D. T. (2007).
The association between self-reported racial discrimination and 12-
month DSM-IV mental disorders among Asian Americans nationwide.
Social Science & Medicine, 64, 1984 –1996. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed
.2007.02.013
Hahm, H. C., Ozonoff, A., Gaumond, J., & Sue, S. (2010). Perceived
discrimination and health outcomes: A gender comparison among
Asian-Americans nationwide. Women’s Health Issues, 20, 350 –358.
doi:10.1016/j.whi.2010.05.002
Harrell, S. P. (2000). A multidimensional conceptualization of racism-
related stress: Implications for the well-being of people of color. Amer-
ican Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70, 42–57. doi:10.1037/h0087722
Heppner, P. P., Heppner, M. J., Lee, D., Wang, Y., Park, H., & Wang, L.
(2006). Development and validation of a Collectivist Coping Styles
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
Inventory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53, 107–125. doi:
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
10.1037/0022-0167.53.1.107
Iwamoto, D. K., & Liu, W. M. (2009). Asian American men and Asianized
attribution. In N. Tewari & A. Alvarez (Eds.), Asian American psychol-
ogy: Current perspectives (pp. 211–232). New York, NY: Taylor &
Francis.
Jackson, J., & William, D. R. (1995). Detroit Area Study, 1995: Social
influence on health, stress, racism, and health protective resources. Ann
Arbor, MI: University of Michigan.
Lambert, M. J., Finch, A. M., Okiishi, J., & Burlingame, G. M. (2005).
Administration and scoring manual for the OQ-10.2: Adult Outcome
Questionnaire for screening individuals and population monitoring. Salt
Lake City, UT: OQ Measures LLC.
Lee, D. L., & Ahn, S. (2011). Racial discrimination and Asian mental
health: A meta-analysis. The Counseling Psychologist, 39, 463– 489.
doi:10.1177/0011000010381791
Lee, R. M. (2005). Resilience against discrimination: Ethnic identity and
other-group orientation as protective factors for Korean Americans.
Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 36 – 44. doi:10.1037/0022-0167
.52.1.36
Liang, C. T. H., Alvarez, A. N., Juang, L., & Liang, M. X. (2007). The role
of coping in the relationship between perceived racism and racism-
related stress for Asian Americans: Gender difference. Journal of Coun-
seling Psychology, 54, 132–141. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.54.2.132
Liang, C. T. H., Rivera, A. L. Y., Nathwani, A., Dang, P., & Douroux,
A. N. (2010). Dealing with gendered racism and racial identity among
Asian American men. In C. T. H. Liang, A. L. Y. Rivera, A. Nathwani,
P. Dang, & A. N. Douroux (Eds.), Culturally responsive counseling with
Asian American men (pp. 63– 81). New York, NY: Routledge/Taylor &
Francis Group.
Liu, W. M., & Iwamoto, D. K. (2007). Conformity to masculine norms,
Asian values, coping strategies, peer group influences and substance use
among Asian American men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 8,
25–39. doi:10.1037/1524-9220.8.1.25
Metalsky, G. I., Joiner, T. E., Hardin, T. S., & Abramson, L. Y. (1993).
Depressive reactions to failure in a naturalistic setting: A test of the
hopelessness and self-esteem theories of depression. Journal of Abnor-
mal Psychology, 102, 101–109. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.102.1.101
Miller, M. J. (2012, August). Development of the Racism Coping Self-
Efficacy Scale. In A. L. Pieterse (Chair), Racism, trauma, and coping—
Assessment and outcome. Symposium presented at the 120th Annual
Convention of the American Psychological Association, Orlando, FL.
Mio, J. S. (2010). On becoming an Asian American man: My journey
through adulthood. In W. M. Liu., D. K. Iwamoto, & M. H. Chase
(Eds.), Culturally responsive counseling with Asian American men (pp.
319 –336). New York, NY: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
Noh, S., & Kaspar, V. (2003). Perceived discrimination and depression:
Moderating effects of coping, acculturation, and ethnic support. Amer-
ican Journal of Public Health, 93, 232–238. doi:10.2105/AJPH.93.2.232
Pascoe, E. A., & Smart Richman, L. (2009). Perceived discrimination and
health: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 531–554.
doi:10.1037/a0016059
Robertson, J. M., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1992). Overcoming the masculine
mystique: Preferences for alternative forms of assistance among men
who avoid counseling. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 39, 240 –246.
doi:10.1037/0022-0167.39.2.240
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
Sanders Thompson, V. L. (2002). Racism: Perceptions of distress among
African Americans. Community Mental Health Journal, 38, 111–118.
doi:10.1023/A:1014539003562
Sheu, H. (2010). Bridging the international gap when counseling Asian and
American men. In W. M. Liu, D. K. Iwamoto, & M. H. Chae (Eds.),
Culturally responsive counseling with Asian American men (pp. 299 –
317). New York, NY: Routledge.
Simons, R. L., Simons, L. G., Burt, C. H., Drummund, H., Stewart, E.,
Brody, G. H., . . . Cutrona, C. (2006). Supportive parenting moderates
the effect of discrimination upon anger, hostile view of relationship, and
violence among African American boys. Journal of Health and Social
Behavior, 47, 373–389. doi:10.1177/002214650604700405
Sue, D. W., Bucceri, J., Lin, A. I., Nadal, K. L., & Torino, G. C. (2007).
Racial microaggressions and the Asian American experience. Cultural
Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 13, 72– 81. doi:10.1037/
1099-9809.13.1.72
Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (2008). Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory
and practice (5th ed.). New York, NY: Wiley.
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th
ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Torres, L., & Ong, A. D. (2010). A daily diary investigation of Latino
ethnic identity, discrimination, and depression. Cultural Diversity and
Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16, 561–568. doi:10.1037/a0020652
Tsai, J. L., Ying, Y.-W., & Lee, P. A. (2001). Cultural predictors of
self-esteem: A study of Chinese American female and male young
adults. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 7, 284 –297.
doi:10.1037/1099-9809.7.3.284
Tsai, P.-C. (2011). Stress, discrimination, and mental health outcomes.
Unpublished manuscript.
Tummala-Narra, P., Inman, A. G., & Ettigi, S. P. (2011). Asian Indians’
responses to discrimination: A mixed-method examination of identity,
coping, and self-esteem. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 2,
205–218. doi:10.1037/a0025555
Wei, M., Alvarez, A. N., Ku, T-Y., Russell, D. W., & Bonett, D. G. (2010).
Development and validation of a coping with discrimination scale:
Factor structure, reliability, and validity. Journal of Counseling Psychol-
ogy, 57, 328 –344. doi:10.1037/a0019969
Wei, M., Heppner, P. P., Ku, T.-Y., & Liao, K. Y.-H. (2010). Racial
discrimination stress, coping, and depressive symptoms among Asian
Americans: A moderation analysis. Asian American Journal of Psychol-
ogy, 1, 136 –150. doi:10.1037/a0020157
Wei, M., Ku, T.-Y., Russell, D. W., Mallinckrodt, B., & Liao, K. Y.-H.
(2008). Moderating effects of three coping strategies and self-esteem on
perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms: A minority stress
model for Asian international students. Journal of Counseling Psychol-
ogy, 55, 451– 462. doi:10.1037/a0012511
Wei, M., Tsai, P.-C., Chao, R. C., Du, Y., & Lin, S.-P. (2012). Advisory
working alliance, perceived English proficiency, and acculturative
stress. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59, 437– 448. doi:10.1037/
a0028617
Yeh, C. J., Arora, A. K., & Wu, K. (2006). A new theoretical model of
collectivistic coping. In P. T. P. Wong & C. J. Wong (Eds.), Handbook
of multicultural perspectives on stress and coping (pp. 55–72). New
York, NY: Springer. doi:10.1007/0-387-26238-5_3
 FAMILY SUPPORT, SELF-ESTEEM, AND DISCRIMINATION
Yeh, C. J., Chang, T., Arora, A., Kim, A. B., & Xin, T. (2003, July).
Reliability, validity and factor analysis of the Collectivistic Coping
Scale. Poster presented at the 111th Annual Convention of the American
Psychological Association, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Yeh, C. J., & Wang, Y. W. (2000). Asian American coping attitudes,
sources, and practice: Implications for indigenous counseling strategies.
Journal of College Student Development, 41, 94 –103.
Yoo, H. C., & Lee, R. M. (2005). Ethnic identity and approach-type coping
as moderators of the racial discrimination/well-being relation in Asian
Americans. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 497–506. doi:
10.1037/0022-0167.52.4.497
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
View publication stats
461
Yoo, H. C., Steger, M. F., & Lee, R. M. (2010). Validation of the Subtle
and Blatant Racism Scale for Asian American college students (SABR-
A2). Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16, 323–334.
doi:10.1037/a0018674
Zimet, G. D., Dahlem, N. W., Zimet, S. G., & Farley, G. K. (1988). The
Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support. Journal of Per-
sonality Assessment, 52, 30 – 41. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa5201_2
Received December 19, 2012
Revision received February 14, 2013
Accepted February 18, 2013 䡲