SPE 121223

Optimum Logging Programs in Tight Sands

M.Tchambaz, SPE, Schlumberger

Copyright 2009, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2009 SPE EUROPEC/EAGE Annual Conference and Exhibition held in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 8–11 June 2009.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been
reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its
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Abstract
High potential of tight sands (quartzitic sandstones) makes these non-conventional reservoirs a priority for oil companies
during next decades. Due to numerous formation evaluation challenges in tight sands, conventional logging does not allow
reliable and comprehensive investigations that are essential for exploration and development.
Classical logging techniques/measurements are frequently affected by significant uncertainties, leading sometimes to
erroneous evaluation results.
New technology has brought advanced logging methods improving accuracy and reducing uncertainties of reservoir
evaluation and characterization. Efficient implementation of these techniques is explained considering resolution/precision
and limitations of measurement physics.
Best practices for logging in this type of formation are recommended with guide-lines and examples. Depending on well
category (exploration, semi-exploration, appraisal or development), appropriate and optimum logging programs can be
designed and sequentially performed to acquire full set of necessary data/information.
Latest generation of logging tools, in sonic, nuclear magnetic resonance, accelerator-neutron, formation-tester and analysis-
sampling techniques, which offer significantly better evaluation, are proposed in integrated and optimized methodology. All
of advanced logging tools may not be needed systematically for all types of wells; selective criteria are analyzed according to
defined objectives/needs, reservoir particularities or/and sequential investigation results.
Data/information provided by tool answers-measurements are linked to key equations that will be accurately solved in
different workflow implemented within the framework of formation evaluation, reserves estimation, completion selection,
stimulation design and enhanced production projects.
This approach could be considered as guide lines for preparation of specific tool combinations and adequate logging
programs fundamental for tight sands potential assessment and important management decisions.

Introduction and challenges

Tight sands reservoirs are generally defined as quartzitic sandstones with matrix intergranular porosities in the range of 4 -
8% and permeabilities less than 1 md, with expected value of average effective gas permeability less than 0.6 md.
(Reference: German Society of Petroleum and Coal Science and Technology).
With their large volume and long-term potential, these formations are strategic reserves and main objective for hydrocarbons
production maintain and increase in numerous regions (e.g.: North Africa). However evaluation and characterization of these
reservoirs are problematic due to their complexity and limitations of different investigation and measurement techniques.
These formations are stemming from heterogeneous and discontinued sedimentary layers/units affected by spatial-variable
diagenesis transforms (physics-chemical) and multiple tectonic stresses that caused anisotropy important and changes in their
petrophysics properties. Pore volume/morphology change is dominated by extensive diagenesis which leads to an important
reduction of intergranular matrix porosity.
Porosity estimation from conventional methods (Neutron-Density-Sonic) is affected by large uncertainties linked to very
small volume of fluids and matrix parameters.
Borehole conditions of wells are frequently difficult with induced rugosity and directional failures (break-outs) due to
fractures/fissures and important stresses regime.
Very low matrix permeability and heterogeneity makes difficult reservoir pressure estimation and determination of fluid
gradients. Supercharging and/or loss of seal during formation pre-tests due to rugosity of stressed/damaged borehole surfaces,
is an obstacle for reliable pressure measurements while using conventional formation testers methods; therefore fluids
identification and contacts detection are complicated processes.
2 SPE 121223

In majority of prospects/fields, tight reservoirs are divided in compartments due to discontinuities caused by faults;
associated variable fractures/fissures network increase as well their anisotropy. Important tectonic stresses have affected these
reservoirs with multiple/different magnitudes in time and space at field/region scale and often from a well to another.
Badhole conditions are encountered in numerous logging sections, directional shear and tensile failures (break-outs) are
caused to fractures/fissures and stress regime. These bad-hole conditions have negative impacts on pad-contact logs,
additional borehole corrections are then required.
Conventional logging tools reach their limits in terms of resolution and definition of reservoir properties, and then important
uncertainties are introduced in evaluation process leading to inaccurate results.
Low production performance of wells can be improved by permeability of natural fracture/fissures network. Detection and
distribution analysis of these features in the immediate of borehole is consequently a priority and challenge.
Considerable uncertainties are cumulated by introduction of estimated petrophysics parameters in computation workflow,
driving to low reliability saturation profiles and erroneous reservoir potential assessment; therefore, pulling inappropriate
decisions having severe negative consequences on projects.
Logging techniques are discussed according to data requirements and challenges previously listed; examples of programs are
presented for optimum investigations gathering a set of essential data/information with better resolution that permit more
accurate and reliable reservoir evaluation.

Evaluation of Tight Sands

Complexity of these reservoirs requires inevitably more comprehensive and sophisticated investigation methods involving
advanced technologies.
These suggestions are mainly focused on contribution of new technologies for improvement of conventional logging results.

Determination of volume/fraction and type of shale

Mineralogy is predominantly quartz; however an amount of silts with low volume of clay can be contained in tight sands.
However a slight increase of clay volume has a huge impact on matrix permeability; pores can be plugged completely by
dispersed clay.
Part of information on mineralogy of silts and clay is provided by Gamma-Ray spectrometry in combination with other open
hole answers 1, 2 complementary data are provided by analysis of elemental capture spectroscopy, a new investigation
technique allowing quantitative determination of chemical elements used to solve for mineralogy. 3

Estimation of total and effective porosity

- Neutron
Neutron tools using epithermal energy generated by electronic source (Minitron) as accelerator-neutron technique made
possible better estimation of porosities, with the following benefits:
- answer being primary function of hydrogen index of the formation and relatively insensible to the change of atomic density.
- Reduced environmental effects, lower uncertainties with regard to conventional tools, readings are deeper and consequently
less affected by borehole conditions.
- Improved vertical resolution.
- Measurement of epithermal Neutron decay time.
- Appropriate combination of spaced measurements for better gas detection.
- Measurement of thermal Neutron capture section (Sigma). 4, 5

- Nuclear magnetic resonance

Total and effective porosity estimation independent from matrix parameters; encouraging results in terms of signal/noise ratio
are obtained for porosity range of 5 - 7%; below this limit, uncertainty might affect significantly data quality.
High temperature and high borehole fluid conductivity (due to mud salinity) can decrease as well the signal/noise ratio. Prior
of logging, a design has to be carried-out in order to check for suitable borehole conditions.
NMR investigation allows differentiation between mobile fluids (Free) and irreducible (Bound and Capillary), provides
effective porosity, calibration/correction of other porosity readings/estimations and prediction of producible fluids.
Estimation of irreducible fluids is valuable information for an approach of continuous permeability curve (indirect
estimation).
Recent development of NMR tools allowed measurements at different depth of investigation, much deeper than previous
tools reading. Multi- depth of investigation is possible with readings of 4 inches inside the formation. A radial profile of
porosity is obtained with differentiation of fluids according to their composition/type and mobility. 6, 7
SPE 121223 3

- Density, Pef
Porosity estimation from density measurements requires accurate matrix density and good borehole conditions having a
minimum of induced rugosity and break-outs. Light hydrocarbons can be detected from effect on density readings combined
with other porosity investigations (Neutron, Sonic and NMR).
Photo-electrical factor is an indicator for silts and clay estimation-identification.

- Sonic
Last generation tools having a higher number of receivers, large measurement spacings and wide frequency band, allow
deeper and more reliable investigations. Compressional and shear velocity/slowness are estimated with higher resolution and
better accuracy. Representative matrix porosities of reservoir layers are obtained. 9, 10

Determination of fluids volume/fraction, distribution and identification

Nuclear magnetic resonance techniques provide answers allowing differentiation of moveable and irreducible (non-
moveable) fluids; these results are integrated in petrophysics evaluation workflow for better assessment of reservoir
production potential. Subdivision/classification of porosity distribution by means of several cut-offs on transversal relaxation
time scale (as function of pore dimensions) is used for study and classification-comparison of porous media. 8
By using NMR analysis/interpretation graphs of Diffusion versus T2 (transverse relaxation) and T1 (longitudinal relaxation),
indication on formation fluids is obtained. Recent NMR techniques give continuous analysis of Diffusion over logged
interval.8

Formation pressure estimation, downhole fluid analysis and sampling

By means of testers and fluids analyzer-samplers.
- Probe testers
Estimation of reliable formation pressure allows gradients determination, fluids density and localization of possible contacts.
However, very low permeabilities encountered in tight sands require extremely long stabilization time to obtain formation
pressure. Appropriate testers for low permeabilities, in most of the cases, allow reducing considerably build-up stabilization
time by making automatic-successive adjustments of optimal draw-down. Point-depth loss of seal, due to borehole roughness
or presence of fractures/fissures, can be slightly rectified by moving the probe higher or lower for new measure point.
Increasing number of pretests is generally recommended in order to have more representative pressure points and increase
reliability/accuracy of estimated gradients.

- Dual-Packer testers
Recommended technique for very low permeability and/or dual-porosity; increase of surface flow, heterogeneity integration
with fissures/fractures contribution allow efficient and representative measurements of formation pressure.
Development of real time downhole fluid analyzers allows an identification of fluids with minimum contamination.

- Fluids sampling
Sampling for fluids analysis and PVT measurements gives a set of precious information for evaluation and management of
reservoirs.
For exploration and semi-exploration wells obtaining formation fluids samples is indispensable to all decisions and strategic
orientations at regional scale. Programs and operations will be driven by downhole sampling results when selective surface
flow sampling would not be possible (technically or/and economically). Sampling operation can be carried out by probe or
dual-packer formation tester; selection of depth/interval will be performed according to reservoir properties variability-
heterogeneity, permeability range (indicated by NMR investigation) and possible presence of open fractures/fissures detected
by borehole imaging. Real-time optical down-hole analyzers (optical, resistivity, Ph) of testers help taking samples with
reduced to almost eliminated contamination. 14

Saturations computation
Due to its importance, saturation profile establishes the fundamental reference that is base of all decisions in terms of
reservoir and production engineering. To obtain reliable saturations, integration of several measurements-investigations
results with appropriate computation methods is imperative. Combination-calibration of logging answers allows generally
reduction of uncertainties and errors linked to measurements and computation parameters. Information on reservoir fluids
given by formation testers (and/or NMR when possible) is used for selection of parameters-equations and adjustment-
correction of saturation calculation.
Taking in account considerable uncertainties on estimation of saturations in this type of reservoir, absolute error reaches
easily 20% 12 and can exceed frequently 35%; consequently a reference is necessary to reduce deviations.
Variations of parameters as cement exponent factor and wettability coefficient can increase water saturation error; formation
resistivity estimated from induction tools (if oil base mud) has low accuracy in case of very low conductivities that are
frequent in tight sands; relative uncertainties for such conductivities might reach 50%, with significant consequences on
saturation estimation.
4 SPE 121223

Fraction of irreducible fluids obtained from NMR investigation has to be integrated as important input for fluid mobility
differentiation that confirms wettability, contribution to saturation computation and indication for production prevision.
Due to very high matrix capillary pressure, irreducible water saturation is frequently greater than 40%, this saturation range
makes generally difficult assessment of production potential, NMR and formation tester results have to be integrated for
validation and comprehensive evaluation.
Critical relative permeabilities that control fluid flow as function of saturation can be complex in tight reservoirs due to non-
displacement saturation interval of both fluids called “Jail zone”. 13
Integration of porosity corresponding to non-moveable fluids (bound and capillary), obtained from NMR, in computation
workflow contributes to solve for these unknowns. 8

Detection of fractures/fissures and anisotropy analysis

High resolution (vertical and azimuthal) of electrical and ultrasonic borehole imaging represents an essential investigation for
detection and study of natural fractures characteristics and distribution in the immediate of the well. Directional borehole
elongation and failure (break-outs), induced fractures, caused by stress regime are also determined and contribute to
understanding/modeling of stresses orientation. When conductive mud is used, electrical imaging having higher resolution is
recommended.
Differentiation between open, partially open, cemented (or closed by stresses) fractures/fissures permit an assessment of
permeability increase that have a direct impact on flow potential of tight reservoirs. However high vertical permeability
created by open and connected fractures/fissures might cause very early water breakthrough in case of near transition zone.
Sonic data processing of Stoneley waveforms for reflection detection and energy attenuation provides useful indications of
fractures. Advanced sonic acquisition methods, such as application of scanner family tools, allow detection of fractures by
means of dispersion graphs analysis (Slowness-Frequency) and differentiation from anisotropy caused by stresses. 10, 11
Anisotropy is detected and quantified from difference of directional propagation of shear wave (fast and slow shear) then
oriented using inclinometry data. Scanner tools, having more receivers (per depth level and spacing length) allow
quantification of very low anisotropy (less than 5%) and differentiation between the one resulting from stresses and that one
associated to fractures. 11 Borehole ovality-elongation and layers anisotropy effects can be determined to identify-quantify
other type of anisotropy.

Permeability estimation
Property of paramount importance for all domains, from prospecting until the last stages of enhanced recovery; quantitative
and continuous determination of permeability is an essential objective of reservoir evaluation/characterization/modeling and
production performance of wells. Three types of investigation techniques are generally used for logging in tight sands:
- Formation testers (probe and/or dual-packer).
- Nuclear Magnetic Resonance.
- Stoneley wave attenuation.

a- Interpretation of pressure tests performed by formation testers,

Considered as representative of real measurement physics, pressure tests are frequently used as reference for reservoir
permeability estimation and calibration of other logging results.
When porous medium does not have important heterogeneity, in favorable borehole conditions (low roughness and no
supercharging), permeability estimated from mobility measured from enough displaced fluid volume is a reliable
information. In case of completely tight (no-porosity) zones, absence of mobility is also useful input/indication for reservoir
characterization.
For heterogeneous reservoirs having very low permeability and/or fractured/fissured, dual-packer testers are more suitable,
giving representative permeability of investigated layer. Indeed, spacing between packers opens an important flow surface
necessary for an influx in very low permeability, integrates heterogeneity effects and assures contribution of
fissures/fractures; thus obtained permeability represents a total result of matrix and secondary porous network.
Transient analysis can also be performed in order to extract all reservoir parameters similar to those obtained from
conventional testing interpretation, except flow rate that can be only calculated. This dual-packer technique called commonly
Mini-DST is particularly recommended for multi-layer, multi-reservoir and dual permeability systems, to estimate parameters
of every unit separately. 14, 15, 16

b- Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Allows a permeability approach by determining fraction of irreducible fluid (irreducible water saturation, for 100%
wettability for water), then by applying equations of Timur-Coates types using mainly effective porosity, irreducible water
saturation and porous network coefficients. Sum of echoes of transversal relaxation is also used to derive a high resolution
permeability index.17
Continuous NMR permeability curve can be calibrated by means of mobilities points obtained from formation testers. 18
SPE 121223 5

c- Stoneley wave attenuation,

Analysis of Stoneley wave propagation gives an indication on energy attenuation that is function of total permeability of
porous medium around the borehole 20, 21; other variables are also influencing this attenuation such as fluid viscosity and
mud-cake properties. However, to improve precision and reliability of this method, obtained curve of continuous
permeability could be combined with NMR results and/or calibrated using mobilities calculated from probe formation testers
or effectives permeabilities derived from dual-packer tests (Mini-DST). 19

Sidewall coring
When conventional coring cannot be completed for various reasons, sidewall coring offers an option that permits obtaining
useful set of information. Laboratory analysis/measurements results to be integrated for tight reservoirs characterization:
Lithology/mineralogy, total/effective porosity, absolute and effective permeabilities, matrix density, capillary pressure
function of saturation, mechanical property (unconfined compressive strength).
Results can be used to calibrate porosity and permeability estimated from logging answers.

Mechanical Properties
Calculation of dynamic elastic properties is performed from results of compressional and shear velocities, formation density,
lithology volumes, porosity and fluids saturation obtained from petrophysics evaluation. A calibration with laboratory
measurements allows an adjustment of continuous curves set for estimation of formation rock strength in order to build a
representative mechanical model using appropriate equations; borehole imaging answers are also integrated in the elaborated
mechanical model that provides a stress profile used for stimulation design.

Borehole Seismic
As complement to conventional borehole seismic (sonic calibration, Geogram and Vertical Seismic Profile) with various
acquisition options and processing methods, detection of anisotropy at larger scale than near borehole is made possible.
Indeed, azimuthal and walk-around (rotational as reference to the well) seismic logging techniques allow to detect/define
directional fracture networks. This information is essential for modelling of discontinuities networks and their associated
anisotropy to understand reservoir properties variations.

Production profile estimation

In multi-layer or multi-reservoir systems, determination of every layer or reservoir unit contribution is necessary for
production optimisation and reservoir management.
Production logging measurements using a full set of high resolution/precision sensors (spinner, thermometer, manometer,
gradiomanometer, dual- calipers, electrical and optical hold-up probes) give a production profile highlighting specific
contribution and potential of each layer. Combination of production logging with a Drill Stem Test using different flow rates,
allows an accurate selective evaluation of reservoir system potential; therefore, selective inflow performance (SIP) and multi-
layer transient (MLT) methods can be used for exhaustive investigation and modelling.22

Cased hole investigation

For contingency / delayed logging, old wells investigation or reservoir monitoring, several measurements could be
completed:
- Natural Gamma-Ray and elements capture spectroscopy for mineralogy determination.
- Epithermal Neutron, for porosity estimation, gas detection.
- Pulsed Neutron Sigma (capture section) mode for estimation of water saturation (if formation water salinity higher than 40
kppm) and gas detection. Results will have acceptable accuracy for porosities above 5%.
- Sonic, compressional and shear slowness for porosity estimation. Cement bond should be checked for coupling.
- Cased hole density (optional), calipers and cement bond to be checked for answers reliability.
- Cased hole formation resistivity, when expected range of resistivity is less than 200 Ohm.m, relative comparison for water
contact detection could be performed. For resistivity less than 100 Ohm.m, satisfactory data quality is obtained.

Logging Programs
Logging program has to be adapted and optimized to every type of well according to defined needs and objectives. Three
general categories of wells are considered for elaboration of open-hole programs. Adaptations and appropriate modifications
could be made as per particular need(s). For all logging jobs, appropriate design/simulation has to be completed considering
well/borehole information with expected formation properties and fluids.
A summary of tools versus application is presented on Table 1.

Exploration wells, category 1

- Natural Gamma-Ray and Natural Gamma-Ray Spectrometry.
- Spectroscopy of elements capture.
6 SPE 121223

- Neutron Epithermal, Density-Pef.

- Sonic Compressional and Shear slowness, Dipole/Anisotropy, Stoneley.
- Resistivities, tools selected as per mud and formation properties.
- NMR porosities, type of fluids.
- NMR, High Resolution, Saturation Profile.
- Borehole imaging, electrical and ultrasonic (if oil base mud).
- Formation testers, with downhole analyzer and sampling option; points/intervals to be selected as per porosity answers
(from all porosity tools readings) and permeability indication from NMR. Borehole geometry information from imaging tools
to be used to assess risk of loss of seal.
Probe tester, should be used in case of low heterogeneity, relatively high porosity and no fractures/fissures.
Dual-packer, in case of very low permeability and/or fractures/fissures.
- Sidewall coring (optional/alternative).
- Borehole seismic, conventional and special acquisitions (azimuthal and work-around) according to needs.
- Production logging with sensors suitable for expected fluids and reservoir/well conditions, combined with testing operation.

Semi-exploration, delineation wells, category 2

- Natural Gamma-Ray and Natural Gamma-Ray Spectrometry.
- Spectroscopy of elements capture (optional).
- Neutron Epithermal, Density-Pef.
- Sonic compressional and Shear slowness, Dipole/Anisotropy, Stoneley.
- Resistivities, tools selected as per mud and formation properties.
- NMR porosities, classification of fluids.
- NMR, High Resolution, Saturation Profile.
- Borehole imaging, electrical and ultrasonic (if oil base mud).
- Formation testers, with sampling option;
points/intervals to be selected with same criteria as exploration wells.
Probe tester, should be used in case of low heterogeneity, relatively high porosity and no fractures/fissures.
Dual-packer, in case of very low permeability and/or fractures/fissures.
- Borehole seismic, conventional and special acquisitions (azimuthal, walk-around).
- Production logging (optional).

Development wells, category 3

- Natural Gamma-Ray and Natural Gamma-Ray Spectrometry.
- Epithermal Neutron, Density-Pef.
- Sonic Compressional and shear slowness.
- Resistivities, tools selected as per mud and formation properties.
- NMR porosities, classification of fluids.
- NMR, High Resolution (optional).
- Borehole imaging, electrical and ultrasonic (if oil base mud).
- Formation tester (optional), probe tester or dual-packer;
points/intervals to be selected with same criteria as exploration wells.
- Borehole seismic, conventional (optional, according to seismic surface/model needs).

Conclusion
Efficient and exhaustive evaluation of tight sands requires complete and integrated logging programs using tools and
technologies of last generation.
To solve for increasing number of unknowns, additional equations are needed, therefore more measurements in optimum
sequences should be performed.
Combinations of answers from various tools are necessary for determination of petrophysics properties, assessment of
reservoir potential and prediction of production performance.
Special precautions must be taken for design, adequate selection of tools with their acquisition parameters, and
adaptation/adjustment of processing equations.

Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank Sonatrach Exploration, Petroleum Engineering & Development and Production
Divisions for their support.
SPE 121223 7

References
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Paper SPE29836, SPE Middle East Oil Technical Conference and Exhibition, 1995.
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8 SPE 121223

Table1. Logging tools applications in tight sands.

Borehole Imaging

Borehole seismic
Sonic Dipole, 3D

Form. Tester DP
GR, NGR Spect.
Elem.Cap.Spect

Production Log.

Sidewall coring
NMR Sat. Prof.
Sonic Stoneley
Neutron Epith.

Form. Tester
Densite, Pe

Resistivities
Sonic P&S
Ap
pli
To ions
ols
ca

NMR
t
/

1 1 1
Clay, Silts, 1
2 2 2 1
mineralogy 2
3 3 3
1 1 1 1 1
Porosity
2 2 2 2 2 1
estimation
3 3 3 3 3
1 1
Fluids volume 1
2 2
distribution 2
3 3
1
Fluids type 1 1
2 1
identification 2 2
3
1 1
Fluids sampling
2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Saturations 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
estimation 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Fractures 1 1
1 1
detection, 2 2
2 2
Anisotropy 3 3
1 1
Permeability 1 1 1 1
2 2 1
estimation 2 2 2 2
3 3
Production 1 1 1
profile 2 2 2
1 1 1
1 1
Geomechanics 2 2 2 1 1
2 2
3 3 3
Geogram, VSP, 1 1 1
anisotropy 2 2 2

1 Exploration
1 2 Exploration, Semi-Exploration and Delineation.
1 2 3 Exploration, Semi-Exploration, Delineation and Development.