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Disusun Oleh :
Maisaroh
Meisya Putri Lutfiska
Shatri Pat Halawiyah
Rigandi Taufik
Winda Amalia Putri
Pembimbing :
dr. Harianto, Sp.T.H.T-K.L, Subsp.Onk(K)
dr. Ariman Syukri, Sp.T.H.T-K.L
dr. Asmawati Adnan, Sp.T.H.T-K.L
dr. Loriana Ulfa, Sp.T.H.T-K.L
dr. Ibrahim Irsan Nasution, Sp.T.H.T-K.L, Subsp.Onk(K)
Jiabin Zhan, Shuai Zhang, Xin Wei, Yihui Fu & Jing Zheng
To cite this article: Jiabin Zhan, Shuai Zhang, Xin Wei, Yihui Fu & Jing Zheng (2019) Etiology
and management of nasopharyngeal hemorrhage after radiotherapy for nasopharyngeal
carcinoma, Cancer Management and Research, , 2171-2178, DOI: 10.2147/CMAR.S183537
Article views: 51
Jiabin Zhan 1,* Objective: To analyze the etiology of nasopharyngeal hemorrhage after radiotherapy for naso-
Shuai Zhang 2,* pharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) and evaluate the relevant management and rescue approaches.
Xin Wei 1 Methods: Seventeen cases of nasopharyngeal hemorrhage caused by radiotherapy of NPC,
Yihui Fu 3 treated between January 2015 and March 2018, were retrospectively analyzed to study the
etiology of nasopharyngeal hemorrhage. The management and rescue strategies, including
Jing Zheng 1
anterior and posterior nostril packing, endoscopic nasopharynx electrocoagulation, and digital
1
Department of Otolaryngology,
subtraction angiography embolization, were assessed for their effectiveness.
Hainan General Hospital, Haikou
570311, Hainan, China; 2Department Results: Nasopharynx hemorrhage after radiotherapy of NPC was mainly associated with
of Radiation Oncology, Hainan erosion of the internal carotid artery or maxillary artery by the tumor. Among the 17 cases, 11
General Hospital, Haikou 570311,
Hainan Province, China; 3Department patients were treated by digital subtraction arterial angiography embolization, and 3 were treated
of Respiratory Medicine, Hainan by endoscopic nasopharynx electrocoagulation. Overall, 13 patients survived, while 4 died.
General Hospital, Haikou 570311, Conclusion: Anterior and posterior nostril packing, endoscopic nasopharynx electrocoagulation,
Hainan Province, China
and digital subtraction angiography embolization are suitable for treating nasopharyngeal hem-
*These authors contributed equally to orrhage. However, effective hemostasis depends on early identification of the bleeding vessels.
this work
Keywords: nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC), nasopharyngeal hemorrhage, radiotherapy,
prognosis
Introduction
Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is the most common head and neck cancer in
southern China, affecting 30 out of 100,000 people. It is usually diagnosed with a high
degree of malignancy and consequently leads to >34,000 deaths annually.1 Currently,
the primary treatment modality for NPC is radical radiation therapy, with chemotherapy
as an auxiliary option. Although radiotherapy has evolved from two-dimensional radio-
therapy to intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT), which has improved local
control rates and minimized adverse effects on surrounding healthy tissue, radiation
Correspondence: Shuai Zhang
Department of Radiation Oncology, complications are frequently observed. These include xerostomia, sinusitis, temporal
Hainan General Hospital, No. 19 Xiuhua lobe necrosis, cranial nerve palsy, and brainstem damage.2 In addition, radiation arte-
Road, Xiuying District, Haikou 570311,
Hainan Province, China ritis with carotid stenosis, especially nasopharyngeal hemorrhage, also occurs often.3
Tel +86 138 7642 8968 The vascular injury resulting from radiation is believed to be a significant cause of
Email 46370976@qq.com
bleeding after radiation treatment for NPC.4 Multiple factors may be involved, including
Xin Wei local hypoxia, vascular remodeling, inflammatory infection, nasopharyngeal and nasal
Department of Otolaryngology, Hainan
General Hospital, No. 19 Xiuhua Road, dysfunction, dry mucous membranes, tumor recurrence, and malnutrition.5 Nasopha-
Xiuying District, Haikou 570311, Hainan, ryngeal hemorrhage represents a particular subtype of epistaxis after radiotherapy for
China
Tel +86 130 1629 6267
NPC, described as a sudden hemorrhage of >100 mL or continuous bleeding of more
Email hnweking@sina.com than 300 mL in the nasopharyngeal area within a short period.6 The condition is usu-
submit your manuscript | www.dovepress.com Cancer Management and Research 2019:11 2171–2178 2171
Dovepress © 2019 Zhan et al. This work is published and licensed by Dove Medical Press Limited. The full terms of this license are available at https://www.dovepress.com/terms.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/CMAR.S183537
php and incorporate the Creative Commons Attribution – Non Commercial (unported, v3.0) License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/). By accessing the work
you hereby accept the Terms. Non-commercial uses of the work are permitted without any further permission from Dove Medical Press Limited, provided the work is properly attributed. For
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Zhan et al Dovepress
ally dangerous and critical, with many complications, and Endotracheal intubation was performed in an emergency that
the reported mortality rate has varied from 35.7% to 100%.7 the patients presented respiratory abnormality, which might
There are no standard treatment methods for significant be caused by insufficient blood clot removal under condi-
bleeding after radiotherapy, and bleeding-related factors tions of restricted jaw opening and poor throat emission. A
should be avoided. Various hemostasis strategies are available, tracheotomy was performed when endotracheal intubation was
including packing of the anterior and posterior nostrils, apply- infeasible. After the airway patency was ensured and bleeding
ing the nasal cavity balloon, carotid artery ligation, and vas- controlled by using a single or double-lumen balloon tampon-
cular interventional embolization. In the past five years, >800 ade, the patients were sent to the interventional room for DSA
new cases of NPC have been treated in our clinic every year. to further clarify the bleeding site and bleeding artery, which
In the present study, we retrospectively analyzed the etiologi- were eventually treated with selective vascular embolization.
cal factors of nasopharyngeal hemorrhage after radiotherapy Endoscopic nasopharynx electrocoagulation hemostasis was
for NPC and evaluated the management protocols to provide generally not recommended for patients with nasopharyngeal
insight into improving the effectiveness of the treatments. hemorrhage after radiotherapy for NPC.
The treatment was considered effective if the active
Materials and methods bleeding decreased or stopped, and hemorrhage symptoms
Ethical statement and patient selection disappeared within 72 hours.
This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Hainan
General Hospital, Haikou, China, and conducted in accor- Results
dance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Written informed Physical and clinical characteristics of the
consent was obtained from each patient. The 17 patients patients
included in this study were treated for nasopharyngeal hem- A total of 17 patients with nasopharyngeal hemorrhage
orrhage after radiation treatment for NPC in Hainan General after radiation treatment of NPC were included in this
Hospital, China, from January 2015 to March 2018. study, and their clinical characteristics are summarized
in Table 1. The majority of these patients had stage III or
Management of nasopharyngeal IV NPC, which was classified according to the seventh
hemorrhage edition of American Joint Committee on Cancer TNM
Upon the emergence of nasopharyngeal hemorrhage, the classification. In the 17 patients, 10 cases received 1
upper airway patency was ensured. The blood and blood course of radiotherapy, 7 cases received two courses of
clots in the throat were timely removed with a bedside mucus radiotherapy, and all patients had not undergone surgical
suction device to prevent tracheal obstruction. Meanwhile,
single- or dual-chamber balloons, which were inflated with
10–15 mL of air or water, were used to fill the nasopharynx to Table 1 Physico-pathological characteristics of NPC patients
control the bleeding. If the bleeding continued, nasal packing Characteristic Category Patients (n)
with Vaseline gauze was performed to fill the anterior nares. Age (years) Median 62
Range 46–75
In cases with a large amount of blood loss, intravenous access
Bleeding time (months) Median 31
was established to meet the potential needs for intravenous Range 6–96
fluids and blood transfusion. Bleeding time (hours) Median 1.5
Rescue and management approaches were chosen Range 1–3
Sex, n (%) Male 12 (70.6)
appropriately to the clinical conditions and the bleeding rate. Female 5 (29.4)
Patients with a small amount or continuous bleeding and Radiotherapy courses, n (%) 1 10 (58.8)
bleeding point identified by nasal endoscopy were treated in 2 7 (41.2)
Clinical stage, n (%) II 2 (11.8)
the emergency with endoscopic nasopharynx electrocoagula-
III 5 (29.4)
tion under general anesthesia. Patients with an unidentifiable IV 10 (58.8)
bleeding point, due to an urgent medical condition or limited Anemia, n (%) <120 g/l 12 (70.6)
diagnostic options, underwent selective digital subtraction <60 g/L 3 (17.6)
angiography (DSA) to identify the bleeding vessel. Hemor- Mouth opening, n (%) Limited 14 (82.4)
Normal 3 (17.6)
rhage in the external carotid artery was controlled by selective Distant metastases, n (%) Yes 3 (17.6)
vascular embolization using a stainless steel coil, while bleed- No 14 (82.4)
ing from the internal carotid artery was managed using a stent. Abbreviation: NPC, nasopharyngeal carcinoma.
2172 submit your manuscript | www.dovepress.com Cancer Management and Research 2019:11
Dovepress
Dovepress Zhan et al
resection. Among them, 3 cases were treated by two- of difficulty in opening their mouths, with an average gap
dimensional radiotherapy and 14 cases were treated by of 2.35 cm and a minimum gap of 0.5 cm. Nasal discharge
IMRT. The nasopharynx dose was 68–72 Gy, the cervical accompanied with oral or nasal odor was noted in 14 cases
metastatic lymph node was 64–70 Gy, the high-risk area about two weeks before the occurrence of nasopharyngeal
was 60–62 Gy, and the low-risk area was 54–56 Gy. 13 hemorrhage. Ten patients (58.8%) complained of recur-
(76.5%) presented with extensive erosion and necrosis rent headaches, including six cases with occipital pain, 2
in the nasopharyngeal tissue, with necrotic tissue located cases with frontal pain, and two cases with palatal pain.
mostly adjacent to the posterior wall. These patients also Also, 6 patients (35.3%) suffered repeated nasal bleeding
exhibited extensive skull base destruction and sinusitis before nasopharyngeal hemorrhage. Of the 17 patients,
according to computed tomography (CT) scan performed at 15 (88.2%) had unilateral illness, whereas the other 2 had
admission (Table 2). Fourteen patients had varying degrees bilateral hemorrhage (Table 3). The cumulative total blood
loss ranged between 300 and 4,000 mL. All the clinical data treated by endoscopic nasopharyngeal electrocoagulation
and results are summarized in Tables 4 and 5. and hemostasis.
Eleven patients were treated by digital subtraction arterial
Origin and treatment of the angiography embolization. These included seven patients
nasopharyngeal hemorrhage with bleeding sites on the external carotid artery branches,
Among the 17 cases, sphenopalatine artery bleeding was such as intra-maxillary arteries, facial arteries, and ascend-
found in two patients, and posterior nasal septal artery bleed- ing pharyngeal artery (Figures 1–4), 2 patients with vascular
ing was identified in one patient. These three patients were hemorrhage caused by internal carotid artery stenosis, and
2174 submit your manuscript | www.dovepress.com Cancer Management and Research 2019:11
Dovepress
Dovepress Zhan et al
two patients with hemorrhage resulting from the rupture of a with a closed-cell stent. Eight (72.7%) of these 11 patients
pseudoaneurysm in the internal carotid artery (Figures 5 and underwent single intervention, 2 patients received a double
6). The bleeding sites were identified by the bilateral exter- intervention and one required triple intervention. After inter-
nal carotid artery and internal carotid artery angiography in ventional treatment, 81.8% (9/11) of patients had bilateral
which the contrast-enhanced Seldinger technique was used to maxillofacial pain, pharyngeal numbness, and difficulties in
percutaneously puncture the right femoral artery with a 4F or opening the mouth. The symptoms improved significantly
5F Cobra catheter or a multipurpose catheter. Embolization after hormone-assisted treatment for half a month and had
approaches were chosen based on the results of angiography. entirely resolved after one month.
External carotid artery branches were embolized with a steel
coil alone, a steel coil plus gelatin sponge, or a steel coil Patient outcomes
together with polyvinyl alcohol particles. Internal carotid Thirteen of the 17 patients were successfully rescued, whereas
artery embolization was achieved using a removable balloon four died. Six months of follow-up in the 13 surviving
Figure 1 External carotid artery angiogram showing the bleeding sites on the Figure 2 Post-embolization internal maxillary artery angiograms revealing total
internal maxillary artery (indicated by the arrow). occlusion of the artery (indicated by the arrow).
Cycles of Trismus before the Hypertension Diabetic Use of Nasopharynx Use of Surgical
chemotherapy incidence of bleeding TCM irrigation brachytherapy intervention
None Yes Yes No No None No No
4 Yes No Yes No KDI No No
4 Yes No No No None No No
2 Yes No Yes No KDI No No
5 Yes Yes No No ODI No No
4 Yes Yes No No ODI No No
6 Yes No Yes No None No No
6 Yes No No No ODI No No
6 Yes Yes Yes No None No No
None No No No No None No No
Figure 5 Right lateral internal carotid artery angiogram showing radiation arteritis
Figure 3 External carotid artery branch angiogram showing the bleeding sites on with pseudoaneurysm (indicated by the arrow).
ascending pharyngeal artery (indicated by the arrow). Note: RCCA=right common carotid artery.
Note: L= blood vessel on the left.
patients showed no recurrence of hemorrhage. Of the four tracheotomy. The patient was then sent to the interventional
patients who died, 2 patients died of hemorrhagic shock, and theater for emergency digital subtraction angiography
1 died of suffocation resulting from the blocking of the airway embolization and transferred to the intensive care unit for
by blood clots. The fourth patient had blood clots blocking the postoperative treatment. The patient subsequently died due
airway after the hemorrhage but was saved by an emergency to systemic multiple organ failure. The clinical stages of all
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Dovepress Zhan et al
four deaths were relatively late, with one in stage III and the removal, by radiotherapy, of NPC cells that invade the blood
other three in stage IV. vessels, causing spontaneous rupture and heavy bleeding.14
A shorter incubation period has been reported previously
Discussion in patients of older age, with advanced disease, or repetitive
While radical radiotherapy represents the primary and most irradiation.15 Among the 17 patients included in this study,
effective approach to treat NPC, the adverse effect of radia- nasopharyngeal hemorrhage occurred between 6 months
tion on the adjacent healthy tissues remains to be resolved. and 8 years after radiotherapy, suggesting that NPC patients
Nasopharyngeal bleeding can be caused by tumor ulceration, treated by radiotherapy need to remain alert to nasal bleeding
necrosis, shedding, or mucosal hyperemia during radio- over a long period. This is of importance despite advances
therapy.8 In the present study, 17 cases of nasopharyngeal in radiotherapy technologies that have reduced the local
hemorrhage after radiation treatment for NPC were collec- residual rate of NPC and the complications of radiotherapy
tively reviewed, and the rescue and management strategies and improved the efficacy of radiotherapy.16 Stereotactic
were discussed. radiosurgery and adaptive IMRT have been reported to
Multiple physico-pathological factors contribute to increase the chance of nasopharyngeal hemorrhage, while
nasopharyngeal hemorrhage. Patients of older age, with both reduce the local residual rate of NPC and the occurrence
advanced disease, or who receive higher irradiation doses of complications.17
are more likely to develop nasopharyngeal bleeding after The amount of hemorrhage after nasopharyngeal radio-
radiotherapy.9 Among the 17 patients recruited in this study, therapy ranges from dozens to thousands of milliliters, and
only two had stage II NPC, whereas 5 and 10 patients had massive hemorrhage can be lethal within a short period.
stage III and IV disease, respectively. Nasopharyngeal The likelihood of post-radiotherapy nasopharyngeal hemor-
hemorrhage is also associated with repeated radiotherapy, rhage in patients with NPC can be assessed by the rate and
which is the major treatment for recurrent NPC.10 Among frequency of symptomatic bleeding and the CT imaging
the complications of radiotherapy for NPC, nasopharyngeal results, which indicate the extent of damage to the naso-
hemorrhage was reported to account for 77.8%.11 Spreading pharynx and skull base. Patients with frequent or increased
more extensively in the skull base than the primary tumor, symptomatic nasal or oral bleeding, or CT images showing
recurrent NPC requires an increased irradiation area and nasopharynx–skull base damage involving the adjacent blood
dose, which cause more damage to the surrounding tissues vessels, require close observation and easy accessibility to
and increase the chance of nasopharyngeal hemorrhage. rescue equipment. In the management of nasopharyngeal
Consistently, in this study, seven patients suffered from recur- hemorrhage, maintaining upper airway patency is critical.
rent NPC and underwent a second course of radiotherapy. In Mucus suction, endotracheal intubation, and tracheotomy are
addition, fibrosis of the nasopharyngeal-cranial base tissue approaches of choice depending on the upper airway patency.
after radiotherapy increases the brittleness of blood vessels Once the bleeding sites are identified, anterior and posterior
and hampers tissue repair, triggering long-term ulceration nostril packing, endoscopic nasopharynx electrocoagulation,
and necrosis.12 Patients with NPC may have nasal and naso- and digital subtraction angiography embolization can be
pharyngeal mucosal atrophy after radiotherapy, resulting performed to stop the nasopharyngeal bleeding.
in reduced mucus production and dryness of the mucous In summary, post-radiotherapy nasopharyngeal hemor-
membranes. Furthermore, radiotherapy destroys the motor rhage is often caused by erosion of the internal carotid artery
function of the nasal and nasopharyngeal cilia and weakens and maxillary artery. Anterior and posterior nostril packing,
the self-cleaning of the nasal cavity and nasopharynx. This endoscopic nasopharynx electrocoagulation, and digital sub-
increases the occurrence of radiotherapy-induced rhinosinus- traction angiography embolization are effective approaches
itis and retention of the nasopharyngeal secretions, leading for managing nasopharyngeal hemorrhage.
to infections and inflammation, which are associated with
damage to the nasopharynx.13 Extensive tissue necrosis and Acknowledgment
erosion of the skull base bone result in the exposure and This study was supported by the Natural Science Foundation
loss of major blood vessels in the nasopharynx, thereby of Hainan Province, China (No. 818MS130). The authors
causing potentially fatal hemorrhage. Moreover, the blood thank all the patients and the research staff for their contribu-
vessels may not be effectively repaired and occluded after the tions to this project.
Disclosure 8. Mok JS, Marshall JN, Chan M, van Hasselt CA. Percutaneous embo-
lization to control intractable epistaxis in nasopharyngeal carcinoma.
The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work. Head Neck. 21(3):211–216.
9. Wang CC. Re-irradiation of recurrent nasopharyngeal carcinoma-
-treatment techniques and results. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys.
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high-risk lymph node positive nasopharyngeal carcinoma. J BUON. 12. Kodani N, Yamazaki H, Tsubokura T, et al. Stereotactic body radia-
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tumors and mismatch repair-defective human tumor cell lines. Cancer therapy in recurrent T1-2 nasopharyngeal carcinoma: a retrospective
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ing with acute haemorrhage. A report of two cases. Acta Neurochir. ANZ J Surg. 2007;77(4):270–274.
2001;143(4):351–356. 15. Elden L, Montanera W, Terbrugge K, Willinsky R, Lasjaunias P,
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2178 submit your manuscript | www.dovepress.com Cancer Management and Research 2019:11
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Etiologi dan Penatalaksanaan Perdarahan Nasofaring
Metode : Tujuh belas kasus perdarahan nasofaring yang disebabkan oleh radioterapi
KNF, yang diobati antara Januari 2015 dan Maret 2018, dianalisis secara retrospektif
untuk mempelajari etiologi perdarahan nasofaring. Strategi penatalaksanaan dan
penyelamatan, termasuk packing lubang hidung anterior dan posterior, elektrokoagulasi
nasofaring endoskopi, dan embolisasi angiografi subtraksi digital, dinilai efektivitasnya
Karsinoma Nasofaring (KNF) adalah kanker kepala dan leher yang paling umum
di Tiongkok bagian selatan, menyerang 30 dari 100.000 orang. Biasanya didiagnosis
dengan keganasan tingkat tinggi dan akibatnya menyebabkan >34.000 kematian setiap
tahunnya.1 Saat ini, modalitas pengobatan utama untuk KNF adalah terapi radiasi
radikal, dengan kemoterapi sebagai pilihan tambahan. Meskipun radioterapi telah
berevolusi dari radio dua dimensi dibandingkan dengan Terapi Radiasi Termodulasi
Intensitas (TRTI), yang telah meningkatkan tingkat pengendalian lokal dan
meminimalkan efek buruk pada jaringan sehat di sekitarnya, komplikasi radiasi sering
kali diamati. Ini termasuk xerostomia, sinusitis, nekrosis lobus temporal, kelumpuhan
saraf kranial, dan kerusakan batang otak.2 Selain itu, radiasi artritis dengan stenosis
karotis, terutama perdarahan nasofaring, juga sering terjadi.3 Cedera pembuluh darah
akibat radiasi diyakini menjadi penyebab signifikan perdarahan setelah pengobatan
radiasi untuk KNF.4 Beberapa faktor mungkin terlibat, termasuk hipoksia lokal,
remodeling vaskular, infeksi inflamasi, disfungsi nasofaring dan hidung, selaput lendir
kering, kekambuhan tumor, dan malnutrisi.5 Perdarahan Nasofaring mewakili subtipe
tertentu dari epistaksis setelah radioterapi untuk KNF, dideskripsikan sebagai
perdarahan tiba-tiba pada >100 mL atau perdarahan terus menerus lebih dari 300 mL di
daerah nasofaring dalam waktu yang singkat.6 Kondisi ini biasanya sangat berbahaya
dan kritis, dengan banyak komplikasi, dan angka kematian yang dilaporkan bervariasi
dari 35,7% hingga 100%.7 Tidak ada metode pengobatan standar untuk perdarahan
signifikan setelah radioterapi, dan faktor-faktor yang berhubungan dengan perdarahan
harus dihindari. Berbagai strategi hemostasis tersedia, termasuk packing lubang hidung
anterior dan posterior, penerapan balon rongga hidung, ligasi arteri karotis, dan
embolisasi intervensi vaskuler. Dalam lima tahun terakhir, >800 kasus baru KNF telah
dirawat di klinik peneliti setiap tahunnya. Dalam penelitian ini, peneliti secara
retrospektif menganalisis faktor etiologi perdarahan nasofaring setelah radioterapi untuk
KNF dan mengevaluasi protokol penatalaksanaan untuk memberikan wawasan dalam
meningkatkan efektivitas pengobatan.
Bahan dan Metode
Penelitian ini disetujui oleh Komite Etika Rumah Sakit Umum Hainan, Haikou,
Tiongkok, dan dilakukan sesuai dengan Deklarasi Helsinki. Persetujuan tertulis
diperoleh dari setiap pasien. Ke-17 pasien yang termasuk dalam penelitian ini dirawat
karena perdarahan nasofaring setelah pengobatan radiasi untuk KNF di Rumah Sakit
Umum Hainan, Tiongkok, dari Januari 2015 hingga Maret 2018.
Pengobatan dianggap efektif jika perdarahan aktif berkurang atau berhenti, dan
gejala perdarahan hilang dalam waktu 72 jam.
Hasil
3 Ya Ya Tidak Tidak
4 Tidak Tidak Ya Ya
8 Tidak Tidak Ya Ya
1 Tidak Ya Ya Ya 83 Ya Tidak
4 Ya Ya Ya Ya 74 Tidak Ya
8 Ya Ya Tidak Ya 89 Ya Tidak
11 Ya Ya Ya Ya 79 Ya Tidak
13 Ya Ya Ya Tidak 67 Ya Tidak
17 Ya Ya Ya Ya 51 Ya Tidak
No Seks Usia Fitur Waktu dari Stadium RKNF Terapi Terpengaruh Bertahan
Nasofaring pendarahan Klinis untuk dua pembuluh hidup
(tahun) masif tahap darah
di bawah
endoskopi setelah radioterapi
radioterapi
(tahun)
Gambar 1Angiogram arteri karotis eksterna Gambar 2Angiogram arteri maksilaris interna pasca-
menunjukkan lokasi perdarahan pada arteri embolisasi menunjukkan oklusi total arteri
maksilaris interna (ditunjukkan dengan panah). (ditunjukkan oleh panah).
Tidak ada Tidak Tidak Tidak Tidak Tidak ada Tidak Tidak
Gambar 3Angiogram cabang arteri karotis eksterna Gambar 5 Angiogram arteri karotis interna lateral
menunjukkan lokasi perdarahan pada arteri faring kanan menunjukkan arteritis radiasi
asendens (ditunjukkan dengan panah). dengan pseudoaneurisma (ditunjukkan oleh
panah). Catatan: RCCA = arteri karotis komunis
kanan
Gambar 4 Angiogram arteri faring asenden pasca- Gambar 6 Pencitraan vaskular dari pseudoaneurisma
embolisasi menunjukkan gambaran total setelah rekonstruksi 3D
oklusi arteri (ditunjukkan oleh panah). (ditunjukkan oleh panah).
Catatan: L= pembuluh darah sebelah kiri.
6 bulan tindak lanjut pada 13 orang pasien selamat tidak menunjukkan adanya
kekambuhan perdarahan. Dari 4 pasien meninggal dunia, 2 pasien meninggal karena
syok hemoragik, dan 1 pasien meninggal karena sesak napas akibat tersumbatnya
saluran napas oleh bekuan darah. Pasien keempat mengalami pembekuan darah yang
menghalangi jalan napas setelah pendarahan namun berhasil diselamatkan dalam
keadaan darurat dengan prosedur tracheotomy, pasien kemudian dikirim ke ruangan
angiografi subtaksi digital embolisasi dan seterusnya dikirim ke ruang rawatan ICU
untuk rawatan post operasi. 4 kematian terjadi relatif terlambat, dengan satu kematian
terjadi pada stadium III dan tiga lainnya pada stadium IV.
Diskusi
Pengakuan
Penyingkapan
Para penulis melaporkan tidak ada konflik kepentingan dalam karya ini.
.
REFERENSI