Respiratory System

Goals:
 You can identify the macroscopic anatomy of the airways
 You can describe the general terms of gas exchange in the body
 You can describe the most important centra of breathing control

Respiratory system definition: The respiratory system provides oxygen

to the body, disposes carbon dioxide, and helps regulate blood pH.

Respiratio = Breathing
Inspiratio = Inhale
Expiratio = Exhale

Tractus respiratorius or Respiratory tract: It encompasses the organs

and structures involved in breathing and gas exchange in the human
body.

Tractus = Elongated shaped organ

Respiratio = Breathing

Upper & Lower Airways: The respiratory system can be divided into two
main parts: the upper airway and the lower airway.

 Upper Airway:
-Nasal Cavity: The nasal cavity is a part of the nose that filters,
humidifies, and warms the air you breathe and protect the lungs from
harmful particles and germs.

-Nostrils: Nostrils are the openings in your nose that air goes in and out
of when you breathe.

-Oral Cavity: The oral cavity (mouth) can be used as an alternative route
for breathing.

-Pharynx: The pharynx is a tube-like structure at the back of the throat

that is part of both the respiratory and digestive systems. It serves as a
passageway for air when you breathe.
 Lower Airway:
-Larynx: The larynx, also known as the voice box, is located below the
pharynx. It serves as a passageway for air to enter the lower respiratory
tract.

-Trachea: The trachea is a tubular structure that carries air from the
larynx to the lungs.

-Bronchi: The trachea splits into two bronchi, one leading to each lung.
These are the primary airways within the lungs.

-Lungs: Lungs are vital for breathing. They exchange oxygen for carbon
dioxide in your body.

-Diaphragm: A muscle that aids in breathing by expanding and

contracting the chest.

Trachea definition: The trachea, commonly known as the windpipe, is a

tubular structure in the respiratory system that connects the larynx to
the bronchi. It serves as a vital part of the airway system, allowing air to
pass to and from the lungs. The trachea is supported by C-shaped rings
of cartilage that keep it open. If something irritates the trachea, such as
foreign particles or excessive mucus, it can trigger a cough reflex to
expel the irritants.

The trachea consists of two main layers:

1. Mucosa: The innermost layer, with ciliated cells and goblet cells for
filtering and clearing mucus.
2. Submucosa: A layer containing blood vessels, glands, and connective
tissue.
rachealis muscle: The trachealis muscle is a smooth muscle in the
trachea (windpipe) that regulates its diameter. It can contract to narrow
the airway during activities like coughing and relax to widen it for regular
breathing.

Some details:
-Circa 12 cm long
-Diameter: 2,5 cm

Bronchial tree definition: The bronchial tree, also known as the

respiratory tree, is a branching system of airways in the respiratory
system. It starts with the trachea (windpipe) and extends into the lungs,
where it further divides into smaller and smaller air passages.

The bronchial tree is composed of the following:

1. Trachea: The trachea is a tubular structure that carries air from the
larynx to the lungs.

2. Main bronchi: The trachea divides into two main bronchi, one leading
to each lung (the right and left main bronchi). Each main bronchus
enters its respective lung.
3. Secondary bronchi: Inside each lung, the main bronchi divide into
smaller tubes known as secondary bronchi, one for each lobe of the
lung. The right lung has three lobes, while the left lung has two.

4. Tertiary bronchi: The secondary bronchi further divide into even

smaller tubes called tertiary bronchi. These bronchi supply air to specific
segments of the lung known as bronchopulmonary segments.

5. Bronchioles: Tertiary bronchi continue to branch into smaller

bronchioles. These bronchioles have no cartilage and are surrounded by
smooth muscle, allowing for fine control over airflow.

6. Terminal bronchioles: The bronchioles continue to divide into even

smaller airways called terminal bronchioles.

7. Respiratory bronchioles: The terminal bronchioles lead to respiratory

bronchioles, which are the first structures in the bronchial tree where
gas exchange occurs.

8. Alveoli: The respiratory bronchioles end in clusters of tiny air sacs

called alveoli. It is in the alveoli that oxygen is taken up into the
bloodstream and carbon dioxide is removed.

Trachea ---> Rings of cartilage

Bronchi ---> Plates of cartilage
Bronchioli ---> No cartilage at all
Lungs Lobes: The human lungs are divided into different lobes, each of
which plays a specific role in respiration.

 Right Lung: The right lung has three lobes:

Upper Lobe: This is the largest lobe of the right lung and is responsible
for most of the lung's function.
Middle Lobe: The middle lobe is smaller and located between the upper
and lower lobes.
Lower Lobe: The lower lobe is at the base of the right lung and is
responsible for the lower part of lung function.
 Left Lung: The left lung has two lobes:
Upper Lobe: This is the larger of the two lobes in the left lung.
Lower Lobe: The lower lobe is located at the base of the left lung.

Lobules definition: lobules are the smallest anatomical subdivisions

responsible for gas exchange. Each lobule consists of a terminal
bronchiole and the clusters of alveoli (tiny air sacs) connected to it.
These lobules are the functional units of the lungs, where the exchange
of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place during respiration.

External & Internal Respiration:

External respiration:
 Definition: External respiration refers to the exchange of gases
(specifically, oxygen and carbon dioxide) between the external
environment (the air we breathe) and the internal environment (the
bloodstream) that takes place in the lungs.

 Process:
Oxygen (O2) from the inhaled air moves from the alveoli (tiny air sacs in
the lungs) into the bloodstream, where it binds to hemoglobin in red
blood cells.
Carbon dioxide (CO2), a waste product of metabolism, is transported
from the bloodstream into the alveoli and is expelled when we exhale.

 Purpose: The primary purpose of external respiration is to supply

oxygen to the body's cells for energy production while removing
carbon dioxide, which is a metabolic waste product.

Internal respiration:
 Definition: Internal respiration refers to the exchange of gases
(oxygen and carbon dioxide) that occurs at the cellular level within
the body's tissues and organs.

 Process:
Oxygen, carried by red blood cells, is released from hemoglobin and
diffuses from the bloodstream into the individual cells.
Within the cells, oxygen is used in metabolic processes to produce
energy (in the form of adenosine triphosphate, or ATP), while carbon
dioxide is produced as a waste product.
 Purpose: The primary purpose of internal respiration is to deliver
oxygen to the cells for energy production (cellular respiration) and to
collect carbon dioxide produced by cellular metabolism, which is
then carried away by the bloodstream to the lungs for elimination.

Innervation of the lungs: Innervation of the lungs involves a network of

nerves that oversee lung function. Sensory nerves monitor oxygen levels
and irritants, while motor nerves manage the breathing muscles.
Together, they keep the lungs working well and ensure coordinated
breathing.

Visceral afferent innervation: Visceral afferent innervation of the lungs

refers to the sensory nerves that provide information about the internal
state of the lungs. These nerves transmit sensory signals from the lungs
to the central nervous system. They monitor factors such as lung
expansion, oxygen levels, and irritants, and relay this information to the
brain.

Sympathetic nervous system: The sympathetic nervous system in the

context of the lungs leads to bronchodilation, which allows for increased
airflow into the lungs and a faster heart rate. These responses prepare
the body for physical activity or stress.

Parasympathetic nervous system: The parasympathetic nervous system

in the context of the lungs leads to bronchoconstriction (narrowing of
airways) and a slower heart rate, promoting relaxation and energy
conservation.

Control of respiration: Breathing is controlled by both automatic and

conscious processes. The automatic part in the brainstem ensures that
we breathe regularly and respond to changes in carbon dioxide levels.
The conscious part in our brain allows us to control our breathing
voluntarily, like when we take a deep breath.

Three key factors in the regulation of respiration: PCO2 (carbon dioxide

partial pressure), PO2 (oxygen partial pressure), and arterial pH.

Although every cell in the body must have O2 to live, the body’s need to
rid itself of CO2 is the most important stimulus for breathing in a healthy
person. However, CO2 does not act in isolation, and various chemical
factors enforce or inhibit one another’s effects. These interactions are
summarized here:
Rising CO2 Levels: Increased levels of CO2 in the blood are the most
powerful respiratory stimulant. This is because when CO2 is hydrated in
the brain, it releases H+ ions. These H+ ions directly act on the central
chemoreceptors, leading to an increase in respiration. Conversely, low
PCO2 levels reduce respiration.

Blood Oxygen Levels and CO2 Sensitivity: Normally, blood oxygen levels
indirectly affect breathing by altering the sensitivity of peripheral
chemoreceptors to CO2 levels. When oxygen levels are low (hypoxia),
the effects of CO2 on respiration become stronger. Conversely, when
oxygen levels are high, the impact of CO2 stimulation on breathing
weakens.

Arterial PO2: When arterial PO2 falls below 60 mm Hg, it becomes the
major stimulus for respiration. This leads to increased ventilation
through reflexes initiated by peripheral chemoreceptors. While this may
increase oxygen loading into the blood, it can also cause hypocapnia
(low PCO2 blood levels) and an increase in blood pH. Both of these
factors, low PCO2 and increased pH, inhibit respiration.

Arterial pH: Changes in arterial pH indirectly influence respiration via

peripheral chemoreceptors, which in turn modify arterial PCO2 and pH.
Central chemoreceptors are not directly affected by arterial pH.

Control of breathing: The control of breathing involves regulating the

rate and depth of breaths to ensure that the body receives an adequate
supply of oxygen (O2) and eliminates carbon dioxide (CO2). It's a
complex process involving several key components:

 Brainstem: The brainstem, particularly the medulla oblongata,

contains respiratory control centers. These include the dorsal and
ventral respiratory groups. The dorsal group primarily regulates the
basic rhythm of breathing, while the ventral group is involved in
forceful breathing. The brainstem is responsible for initiating and
coordinating each breath.

 Peripheral Chemoreceptors: These are sensors located in the blood

vessels that carry oxygen-rich blood to the brain (carotid bodies) and
 the aorta (aortic bodies). They detect changes in blood O2, CO2, and
pH levels. Low O2 or high CO2 levels trigger increased ventilation.

 Central Chemoreceptors: These are located in the brainstem, close

to the respiratory centers. They primarily respond to changes in CO2
levels and indirectly influence O2 levels. When CO2 levels rise, it
leads to increased breathing.

 Stretch Receptors: Found in the lungs and airways, these receptors

monitor lung expansion and help prevent overinflation by signaling
the brainstem to adjust the rate and depth of breathing as needed.

 Feedback Mechanisms: Feedback loops constantly monitor blood

gas levels and adjust breathing accordingly. For example, when CO2
levels rise (hypercapnia), the brainstem responds by increasing
ventilation to expel excess CO2 and maintain normal pH levels

EPOC definition: EPOC stands for Excess Post-Exercise Oxygen

Consumption. It's the additional oxygen your body needs after exercise
to restore itself to its pre-exercise state. This increased oxygen
consumption results in extra calorie burn and various physiological
adaptations.

 What EPOC Does: After exercise, your body keeps burning calories at
a higher rate. This helps repair tissues, refuel energy, and remove
waste products.

 Why EPOC Happens: EPOC occurs when intense exercise creates an

"oxygen debt." Your body needs more oxygen than it has, so it works
to repay this debt, balance energy, and fix tissues.

 Types of Exercise and EPOC: EPOC can happen after different lengths
of exercise, but it's stronger after intense workouts. High-intensity
exercises, like HIIT or heavy weightlifting, create a big oxygen debt
and cause more stress to your body, leading to more significant
EPOC.

External Intercostals: These muscles are located between the ribs and
assist in expanding the chest cavity during inhalation.

Internal Intercostals: These muscles help decrease the size of the chest
cavity during forceful exhalation.