General Biology 1

ENERGY
TRANSFORMATION
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

a. Explain coupled reaction processes and describe the

role of ATP in energy coupling and transfer

1
ATP-ADP CYCLE
The discovery of ATP
In 1929, Cyrus H. Fiske and Yellapragada Subbarow at Harvard
Medical School (Boston) isolated it from mammalian muscle and
liver.

Likewise, Karl Lohmann at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes (Berlin

and Heidelberg) identified it in muscle tissues.

ATP isolation from other sources followed over the next 15

years. Koscak Maruyama at Chiba University (Japan) wrote a
comprehensive review of the discovery and structure elucidation
of ATP in 1987.
Structure of ATP

Structure composed of:

1. sugar ribose,
2. nitrogen base adenine and
3. a chain of 3-phosphate
groups
ATP Mechanisms

• Each of the phosphate bonds has great energy potential

that can be used in any cellular activity.
• Particularly, the bond between the second and third
phosphate groups has the highest and most accessible
energy
Energy from ATP
Endergonic Reactions - energy is a basic requirement for a
chemical reaction to commence (photosynthesis and melting of
ice to liquid water, protein synthesis, muscle contraction, and
nerve conduction)

Exergonic Reactions - reactions release more energy than what

was required initially.
 Coupled Reaction
• ATP is highly unstable molecule. It spontaneously dissociates into ADP
and inorganic Phosphate even when there is no activity requiring
energy. Thus, this energy is produced as free energy and is lost as heat.
However, because cells are efficient, they harness this free energy
within bonds through a strategy called energy coupling.

• Simply put, a coupled biochemical reaction happens when a free energy

from an exergonic reaction is used to initiate an endergonic reaction by
coupling or “joining” the two reactions, where they become
complementary.
 Coupled Reaction
• The hydrolysis of ATP is actually involved in coupled reaction with numerous
biochemical processes, such as the phosphorylation of glucose. Which is an
initial step to its conversion to fructose. Phosphorylation is the process of
adding a phosphate group to a certain biomolecule, such as glucose. The
hydrolysis of ATP is an exergonic reaction because it releases energy. This
energy will be then used for an endergonic reaction, such as the
phosphorylation of glucose.

• Phosphorylation creates a high-energy but unstable intermediate. As the

process continues, a phosphate group slightly changes in shape to fit the
enzymes, which then transform the phosphorylated glucose molecule into a
fructose molecule. The conversion of these sugars is important because
glycolysis needs the fructose molecule to produce energy.
 Coupled Reaction

• When Energy is released through hydrolysis, ATP becomes the energy-

deficient ADP, having only two phosphate groups left in sequence
instead of three. One way to transform ADP back to ATP is through the
food that you consume.

The phosphorylation of glucose requires energy from hydrolysis of ATP

 Function of ATP
1. Chemical work – ATP provides the energy required for producing
complex substances, such as biomolecules.

2. Mechanical work - ATP provides the energy for cells and tissues to
perform their functions, such as the circulation of blood, the contraction
of muscles, and the pumping of the heart.

3. Transport work - ATP provides the energy for substances to move,

such as the entry and exit of compounds across cell membranes, or
substrates binding to protein enzymes.
 How Does ATP Play a Role In Energy
Coupling?
ATP is the molecule whose burst of energy is used to couple an
exergonic reaction to power an endergonic reaction in energy
coupling. ATP coupling provides that endergonic reaction with the
potential to manifest now.
Without an input of energy, the Gibbs free energy of the reactants in
an endergonic reaction is “too low”. Only when supplemented with
energy from ATP hydrolysis, that the endergonic reaction can happen.
Hence, the indispensable role an ATP molecule plays in energy
coupling is beyond comparison and invincible.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, you should be able
to:
a. Explain the importance of chlorophyll and other
pigments
b. Describe the patterns of electron flow through light
reaction events
c. Describe the significant events of the Calvin cycle
1
The process of Photosynthesis (Redox Reaction)
The basic overall reaction for photosynthesis is
Light energy

6CO2 (carbon dioxide) + 6H2O (water)  C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2 (oxygen)

This chemical equation suggests movement of electrons from one molecule to another.
Recall the concept of reduction-oxidation reaction, or the redox reaction.

Oxidation is the loss of electrons, whereas reduction is the gain of electrons.

In most organisms, electrons are accompanied by hydrogen ions. Thus, oxidation is the
loss of hydrogen atoms, and reduction is the gain of hydrogen atoms.
The process of Photosynthesis (Redox Reaction)

Light energy

6CO2 (carbon dioxide) + 6H2O (water)  C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2 (oxygen)

Summary of Photosynthesis
 Summary of Photosynthesis

Light energy

6CO2 (carbon dioxide) + 6H2O (water)  C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2 (oxygen)

Plants as Solar Energy Converters: The light-Dependent Reactions
Understanding Pigments
 Importance of Pigment and Photosystems

Chlorophyll a
Chlorophyll a appears green in color. It absorbs blue and red
light and reflects green light. It is the most abundant type of
pigment in leaves and thus the most important type of pigment
in chloroplast.

Chlorophyll b
Chlorophyll b is less abundant than chlorophyll a but has ability
to absorb a wider wavelength of light energy.
Importance of Pigment and Photosystems

Chlorophyll c
Chlorophyll c is not found in plants but is found in some
microorganisms capable of performing photosynthesis.

Carotenoid and Phycobillin

Carotenoid pigments are found in many photosynthetic organisms,
as well as in plants. They absorb light between 460 and 550 nm and
hence appear orange, red, and yellow. Phycobillin, a water-soluble
pigment, is found in chloroplast.
2 Stages of Photosynthesis: A Preview

The process of photosynthesis,

having two distinct sets of
reactions, was discovered by
British plant physiologist F. F.
Blackman in 1905.

He discovered that Elodea gave

off oxygen bubbles when
exposed to carbon dioxide and
water
 2 Stages of Photosynthesis: A Preview
1. Light-dependent reaction (or light reactions)

This stage of photosynthesis requires light.

During daylight hours, the chlorophyll in the thylakoid

membrane absorbs the solar energy. Photons energize the
electrons, inducing them to move down the electron transport
chain. They release energy, which is captured by ATP
molecules. Energized electrons are also taken up by NADP+ to
become NADPH. In this case, solar energy is thus converted to
chemical energy.
Importance of Pigment and Photosystems

Photosynthetic pigments are important in photosynthesis

because they absorb light and transfer the energy to the
photosystems, where it is used to generate ATP and NADPH.
Without these pigments, plants and other organisms would not
be able to produce energy from light and would not be able to
survive.
Importance of Pigment and Photosystems
 Light-dependent reactions

Photosystems
Large complexes of proteins and pigments (light-absorbing
molecules) that are optimized to harvest light, play a key role
in the light reactions. PHOTOSYSTEM I (PSI) AND
PHOTOSYSTEM II (PSII)

The special pair of photosystem I is called P700, while the

special pair of photosystem II is called P680.
 Light-dependent reactions
Photosystems

Most of the pigments in a

photosystem act as an energy
funnel, passing energy inward to a
main reaction center. When one of
these pigments is excited by light,
it transfers energy to a
neighboring pigment through
direct electromagnetic
interactions in a process
called resonance energy transfer.
 Light-dependent reactions

PHOTOSYSTEM I (PSI) AND PHOTOSYSTEM II (PSII)

 Light-dependent reactions

Light absorption in PSII

When light is absorbed by one of the many pigments in

photosystem II, energy is passed inward from pigment to
pigment until it reaches the reaction center. There, energy is
transferred to P680, boosting an electron to a high energy
level. The high-energy electron is passed to an acceptor
molecule and replaced with an electron from water. This
splitting of water releases the O2 we breathe.
 Light-dependent reactions

ATP synthesis

The high-energy electron travels down an electron transport

chain, losing energy as it goes. Some of the released energy
drives pumping of H+ ions from the stroma into the thylakoid
interior, building a gradient. H+ ions from the splitting of
water also add to the gradient. As H+ ions flow down their
gradient and into the stroma, they pass through ATP
synthase, driving ATP production in a process known as
chemiosmosis.
 Light-dependent reactions

Light absorption in PSI

The electron arrives at photosystem I and joins the P700

special pair of chlorophylls in the reaction center. When light
energy is absorbed by pigments and passed inward to the
reaction center, the electron in P700 is boosted to a very high
energy level and transferred to an acceptor molecule. The
special pair's missing electron is replaced by a new electron
from PSII (arriving via the electron transport chain).
 Light-dependent reactions

NADPH formation

The high-energy electron travels down a short second leg of

the electron transport chain. At the end of the chain, the
electron is passed to NADP+ (along with a second electron
from the same pathway) to make NADPH.
 Light-dependent reactions
PHOTOSYSTEM I (PSI) vs. PHOTOSYSTEM II (PSII)
Special pairs
The chlorophyll a special pairs of the two photosystems absorb different
wavelengths of light. The PSII special pair absorbs best at 680 nm, while the PSI
special absorbs best at 700 nm. Because of this, the special pairs are called P680
and P700, respectively.

Primary acceptor
The special pair of each photosystem passes electrons to a different primary
acceptor. The primary electron acceptor of PSII is pheophytin, an organic molecule
that resembles chlorophyll, while the primary electron acceptor of PSI is a
chlorophyll called A0 7,8

Source of electrons
Once an electron is lost, each photosystem is replenished by electrons from a
different source. The PSII reaction center gets electrons from water, while the PSI
reaction center is replenished by electrons that flow down an electron transport
chain from PSII.
 Light-dependent reactions

PHOTOSYSTEM I (PSI) AND PHOTOSYSTEM II (PSII)

 2 Stages of Photosynthesis: A Preview
2. Calvin cycle or the light-independent reaction

The Calvin cycle is named after Melvin Calvin (1911-1997), who

discovered the enzymatic reactions that reduce the carbon
dioxide to a carbohydrate. This happens in the stroma of the
chloroplast.

This stage, as opposed to the light-dependent reaction phase,

can occur during both day and night. It is not dependent on
solar energy.
 Calvin cycle

1. Carbon fixation

A CO2 molecule combines with a five-carbon acceptor

molecule, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP). This step makes
a six-carbon compound that splits into two molecules of a
three-carbon compound, 3-phosphoglyceric acid (3-PGA).
This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme RuBP
carboxylase/oxygenase, or rubisco
 Calvin cycle

2. Reduction.

In the second stage, ATP and NADPH are used to convert the
3-PGA molecules into molecules of a three-carbon sugar,
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P). This stage gets its name
because NADPH donates electrons to, or reduces, a three-
carbon intermediate to make G3P.
 Calvin cycle

3. Regeneration.

Some G3P molecules go to make glucose, while others must

be recycled to regenerate the RuBP acceptor. Regeneration
requires ATP and involves a complex network of reactions
 CELLULAR
RESPIRATION
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

a. Differentiate aerobic from anaerobic respiration

b. Explain the major features and sequence the chemical

events of cellular respiration

c. Distinguish major features of glycolysis, Krebs cycle,

electron transport system, and chemiosmosis

1
Cellular Respiration
C6H12O6 + 602  6CO2 + 6H20

a. A catabolic pathway
b. Oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with organic
compounds.

Involves three stages:

a. Glycolysis
b. Krebs Cycle
c. Electron Transport Chain
NADH and FADH2

a. NAD+ traps electrons

from glucose to make
NADH (energy stored)

b. Similarly, FAD+ stores

energy as FADH2
Review of Mitochondria Structure

a. Smooth outer
Membrane
b. Folded inner membrane
c. Folds called Cristae
d. Space inside cristae
called the Matrix
Diagram of the Process

Occurs in
Matrix
Occurs
across
Cristae

Occurs in Cytoplasm
 GLYCOLYSIS
1. Means “splitting of sugar”
2. Occurs in the cytosol of the cell
3. Partially oxidizes glucose (6C) into two pyruvate (3C) molecules.
4. Occurs whether or not oxygen is present.
5. An exergonic process, (meaning energy is released) most of the
energy harnessed is conserved in the high-energy electrons of
NADH and in the phosphate bonds of ATP
GLYCOLYSIS
GLYCOLYSIS Summary

• Takes place in the Cytoplasm

• Both Aerobic and Anaerobic
• Requires input of 2 ATP
• Glucose split into two molecules of Pyruvate
• Also produces 2 NADH and 4 ATP = 2ATP
 Formation of Acetyl CoA
• Junction between glycolysis and Krebs cycle
• Oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl CoA
• Pyruvate molecules are translocated from the cytosol
into the mitochondrion by a carrier protein in the
mitochondrial membrane.
• A CO2 is removed from pyruvate – making a 2C
compound.
• Coenzyme A is attached to the acetyl group.
Formation of Acetyl CoA
Formation of Acetyl CoA
KREBS CYCLE
• Requires Oxygen (Aerobic)
• Cyclical series of oxidation reactions that give
off CO2 and produce one ATP per cycle
• Turns twice per glucose molecule
• Produces (two) 2 ATP
• Takes place in matrix of mitochondria
KREBS CYCLE
KREBS CYCLE
KREBS CYCLE Summary
• Each turn of the Krebs Cycle also produces
3NADH, 1FADH2, and 2CO2 1ATP

• Therefore, For each Glucose molecule, the Krebs

Cycle produces 6NADH, 2FADH2, 4CO2, and
2ATP
ELECTRON TRANSPORT Chain
• Located in the inner membrane of the mitochondria.
• Oxygen pulls the electrons from NADH and FADH2
down the electron transport chain to a lower energy
state
• Process produces 34 ATP or 90% of the ATP in the
body.
ELECTRON TRANSPORT Chain
• Requires oxygen, the final electron acceptor.
• For every FADH2 molecule – 2 ATP’s are produced.
• For every NADH molecule – 3 ATP’s are produced.
• Chemiosmosis – the production of ATP using the energy
of H+ gradients across membranes to phosphorylate
ADP.
Chemiosmosis powers most ATP production
• The electrons from NADH and FADH2 travel down the
electron transport chain to oxygen
• Energy released by the electrons is used to pump H+
into the space between the mitochondrial membranes
• In chemiosmosis, the H+ ions diffuse back through the
inner membrane through ATP synthase complexes,
which capture the energy to make ATP
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

d. Describe the role of oxygen in respiration and describe

pathways of electron flow in the absence of oxygen

e. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of

fermentation and aerobic respiration

1
The role of OXYGEN
• In aerobic respiration, the final electron acceptor for the electron
transport chain is an oxygen molecule, O2.
• If aerobic respiration occurs, then approximately 30 molecules of
ATP will be produced during the electron transport chain and
chemiosmosis using the energy of the high-energy electrons
carried by NADH or FADH2 to the electron transport chain.
• When NADH or FADH2 give their high energy electrons to the
electron transport chain, NAD+ and FAD are regenerated. These low
energy molecules cycle back to glycolysis and/or the citric acid
cycle, where they pick up more high energy electrons and allow the
process to continue.
The role of OXYGEN
• Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle can not occur if there is not
NAD+ present to pick up electrons as the reactions proceed.

• When oxygen is present, this isn’t a problem – all of the NADH and
FADH2 that were produced during glycolysis and the citric acid
cycle are converted back into NAD+ and FAD after the electron
transport chain.
• When no oxygen is present, the electron transport chain can’t run
because there is no oxygen to act as the final electron acceptor.
This means that the ETC will not be accepting electrons from NADH
as its source of power, so NAD+ will not be regenerated.
The role of OXYGEN
• Both glycolysis and the citric acid cycle require NAD+ to accept
electrons during their chemical reactions. In order for the cell to
continue to generate any ATP, NADH must be converted back to
NAD+ for use as an electron carrier.
Anaerobic Respiration
Anaerobic processes use different mechanisms, but all function to
convert NAD+ back into NADH.

How is this done?

1. Processes that use an organic molecule to regenerate NAD+ from

NADH are collectively referred to as fermentation.

2. In contrast, some living systems use an inorganic molecule (such as

nitrate or sulfur) to regenerate NAD+.
Anaerobic Respiration
During anaerobic respiration, only glycolysis occurs.

The 2 molecules of NADH that are generated during glycolysis are

then converted back into NAD+ during anaerobic respiration so that
glycolysis can continue.

Since glycolysis only produces 2 ATP, anaerobic respiration is much

less efficient than aerobic respiration (2 ATP molecules compared to
36-ish ATP molecules).
Anaerobic Respiration
However, 2 ATP molecules is much better for a cell than 0 ATP
molecules.

In anaerobic situations, the cell needs to continue performing

glycolysis to generate 2 ATP per glucose because if a cell is not
generating any ATP, it will die.
LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION
The fermentation method used by animals and some bacteria like
those in yogurt is lactic acid fermentation

This occurs routinely in mammalian red blood cells and in skeletal

muscle that does not have enough oxygen to allow aerobic respiration
to continue (such as in muscles after hard exercise). The chemical
reaction of lactic acid fermentation is the following:
LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION
LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION
The build-up of lactic acid causes muscle stiffness and fatigue.

In muscles, lactic acid produced by fermentation must be removed by

the blood circulation and brought to the liver for further metabolism.

Once the lactic acid has been removed from the muscle and is
circulated to the liver, it can be converted back to pyruvic acid and
further catabolized (broken down) for energy.
ALCOHOL FERMENTATION
Another familiar fermentation process is alcohol fermentation which
produces ethanol, an alcohol.

The alcohol fermentation reaction is the following:

ALCOHOL FERMENTATION
The fermentation of pyruvic acid by yeast produces the ethanol
found in alcoholic beverages

If the carbon dioxide produced by the reaction is not vented

from the fermentation chamber, for example in beer and
sparkling wines, it remains dissolved in the medium until the
pressure is released.

Ethanol above 12 percent is toxic to yeast, so natural levels of

alcohol in wine occur at a maximum of 12 percent.
ALCOHOL FERMENTATION

Fermentation of grape juice to make wine produces CO2 as a byproduct. Fermentation

tanks have valves so that pressure inside the tanks can be released.
Pros and Cons of Fermentation
With oxygen, organisms can use aerobic cellular respiration to produce
up to 36 molecules of ATP from just one molecule of glucose. Without
oxygen, some human cells must use fermentation to produce ATP, and
this process produces only two molecules of ATP per molecule of
glucose.

Although fermentation produces less ATP, it has the advantage of

doing so very quickly.

It allows your muscles, for example, to get the energy they need for
short bursts of intense activity. Aerobic cellular respiration, in contrast,
produces ATP more slowly.
THANK YOU