Time & Mind, 2015

Vol. 8, No. 1, 3–20, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1751696X.2014.993235

Typology and Chronology of

Erong Wooden Coffins in Tana
Toraja, South Celebes
Akin Duli*
Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Letters, Hasanuddin University,
BTN Mangga Tiga A2/8 Daya-Makassar, 90241 Indonesia

(Received 31 December 2013; accepted 7 November 2014)

The wooden coffin burial system, locally known as erong, is a unique culture
in Toraja, and very little is known about it, especially regarding the various
types of coffin and when this culture began. In 2010, a systematic survey was
conducted in several burial sites and samples were collected for radio-
carbon dating. The research also included an ethno-archaeological study.
An investigation was undertaken at 19 sites and 100 of wooden coffins were
discovered. These coffins fell into three categories; boat-shaped types,
buffalo-shaped types, and pig-shaped types. These coffins were always
placed in cliffs, caves, or niches and were located close to a village or rice
field and garden. The type and placement of wooden coffins in Tana Toraja
was strongly influenced by the deeply-rooted beliefs and social system in the
Aluk Todolo doctrine. Wooden coffins were only used for nobles, and the
type of coffin used was based on what role the noble had played within the
society or community. Radiocarbon dating results suggest that wooden
coffins have been used in Toraja from at least c. 800 BC and were still
being used up until the 1960s.

Keywords: wooden coffin; erong coffin; social stratification; Toraja

Introduction Indonesia. The majority of its members

The Torajanese are an ethnic group live in the Tana Toraja regency and have
based in the South Celebes Province of occupied the area for thousands of years,

*Email: akinduli@yahoo.co.id

© 2014 Taylor & Francis

4 A. Duli
developing their own unique cultural
form. One aspect that characterizes the
Torajanese is a burial system with woo-
den coffins, locally called erong coffins,
which are placed in caves or cliffs.
The Torajanese have been practicing
this burial system since c. 800 BC and
there are many archaeological sites
related to this burial system that can still
be found in Toraja today. However, to
date, there has been little archaeological
research into the distribution of sites,
types, layout, ages, and cultural signifi-
cance. It was felt to be important to
undertake this research whilst the culture
and the sites remain in existence.
Despite the overall lack of archaeologi-
cal research in the Tana Toraja area, there
have been some scholars who have con-
ducted initial work such as Cristal (1974),
Kadir (1980), Soegondo et al. (1996), Duli
(1996, 1999, 2001, 2010, 2012), Duli and
Hasanuddin (2003), Bernadeta (1998,
2007) and Chia, Duli, and Husni (2010).
Almost all of their results suggest that the
cultural remains in Toraja have the poten-
tial, through archaeological research, to
further our understanding of the
Torajanese burial system and their mega-
lithic culture.
To date, archaeological research into
the Torajanese burial system has mostly
overlooked the use of wooden coffins
called erong. These coffins, made from a
type of wood called uru (Elmerillia celebica
dandy), were used to contain the body of,
usually, someone of noble birth. These
erong coffins have been used since at
least 800 BC until the 1960s.
Previous Archaeological
Research
Initial study of erong wooden coffins was
conducted by Bernadeta (1998, 2007). In
his study, he described the types of woo-
den coffins from sites at Lombok Bori and
Londa and concluded that erong coffins
were a symbolic reflection of spiritual tra-
ditions rooted in their megalithic culture.
Two types of erong coffin were identified
at both sites and these were categorized
as house-shaped and buffalo-shaped. The
first type (house-shaped) was used for
ordinary people, while the second type
(buffalo-shaped) was used for nobles.
These conclusions were based on the
relative quantities of each type found,
with the assumption that the number of
nobles was fewer than ordinary people.
There were also two other types of coffin
identified in the research – pig-shaped and
boat-shaped. Bernadeta did not identify
any distinguishing features within the bur-
ials such as status, sex, or age. It was
suggested that the boat-shaped coffin is a
symbolic representation of the boats used
by the ancestral Torajanese to reach
Toraja region. It is also believed that
designing the coffin as a symbolic boat
gave the soul a means of passage to the
afterlife. Based on that theory, but without
using any dating method, Bernadeta
(1998, 25–30) suggested that the boat-
shaped coffins were the earliest type
used by the Torajanese. In another work,
he concluded that the use of erong woo-
den coffins was part of their megalithic
culture (Bernadeta 2007, 189–205). In
both studies, Bernadeta did not made
any clear comparisons between the typol-
ogy of the erong wooden coffins and the
development of their culture. The aims of
this paper’s research, then, are:
(a) To gain an understanding of the
factors influencing the differences
in the types and layout of woo-
den coffins in Toraja.

(b) To investigate the early period of
the Torajanese culture and to
clarify the development of woo-
den coffin types in Toraja.
Research Method
Although the Torajanese in general have
converted to Christianity and Islam, the
remnants of their ancient beliefs can still
be found within the present culture, and
they are rooted in the Aluk Todolo doc-
trine, which involves ideas concerning
ancestral spirits: the Torajanese believe
that their relatives who have passed
away can still exert a strong influence in
their lives, especially in the success of the
harvest and the welfare those alive now.
Therefore, they are concerned to ensure
the well-being of the souls in the after-
world (puya), to which end they have
developed a range of customs such as
taboos and rituals which govern their
everyday life.
According to Aluk Todolo doctrine,
death is the beginning of another life in
the afterworld and is no different to the
life in this world – it is just a change from a
material form to a spiritual one. In order for
the dead to safely reach the afterworld,
there are rules that his/her relatives have
to follow, such as preparing the body for
burial and rituals with animal sacrifice. The
kind of burial provision and the ritual that
the relatives have to conduct is closely
related to the social status of the dead.
Belief and social stratification are two
important aspects in the Torajanese bur-
ial system. According to Aluk Todolo doc-
trine, burial takes place in two stages,
especially for the nobles and their family
(tanak bulaan and tanak bassi). The first
or primary stage is temporary burial to
give the family of the dead adequate time
to prepare the required feast ritual. The
Time & Mind 5
body is wrapped in a cloth, put in a
wooden coffin and placed in a traditional
ancestral house, Tongkonan, which have a
distinguishing boat-shaped and oversized
saddleback roof. At this stage, the dead
person is treated as a living individual; he
or she is regarded as having an illness and
is only considered dead when the second
stage has been conducted. The second-
ary stage is a permanent burial which
takes place after the ritual feast. In this
stage, the skeleton is rewrapped before it
is inserted in another coffin, an erong
wooden coffin, along with the precious
objects that he or she had during his/her
life and the coffin is then placed in a
family cemetery complex (Liang).
According to Aluk Todolo doctrine,
the grave (liang) is a home for the ances-
tor’s soul. Therefore, the grave has to be
made as cosy as possible so that the
deceased individual can feel as if at
home. This concept is also reflected in
the phrases used to name it, such as
banua to membali puang (home for
ancestor souls). The Torajanese always
locate their cemetery complex in an ele-
vated place (either natural or man-made)
and close to their settlement so that their
ancestor souls can always keep an eye on
them as they go about their daily activ-
ities. Therefore, the type and placement
of the erong coffin has to be in accor-
dance with the customary rules that are
rooted in Aluk Todolo doctrine.
Systematic surveys have been con-
ducted in several erong wooden coffin
sites in two regencies, Tana Toraja and
North Toraja; they have been catalogued,
recorded, and samples taken for chrono-
metric analysis by radiocarbon dating.
The data collection methods used for
this archaeological and ethnographical
research were cataloguing, measurement,
delineation, mapping, and description.
6 A. Duli

There were 19 erong wooden coffin
sites found during the surveys, these were:
Marante
Tondon
Palak Tokke’
Lombok Bori’
Ke’te’ Kesu’
Tampang Allo
Londa
Buntu Pune
Suaya
Lalik Manuk
Potok Tengan Kandora
Marimbunna Tikala
Alla’ Angin-Angin
Sekpon Marinding
Lokkok Pongdadu
Tambalong Baklele
Limbong
Lalanbai Sarira
Mengke’pe’.
There were 22 samples collected for
radiocarbon dating analysis to determine
the age and cultural development of erong
coffins in Tana Toraja (Duli 2012). All of
the erong wooden coffins found during
research are classified based on their type
and placement, and then ethnographic data
were used to help to reach an interpreta-
tion – the data were acquired by interview-
ing community leaders to determine the
meaning and function of objects that
were especially difficult to interpret, princi-
pally those that related to ideas or con-
cepts behind an act or cultural form.
Description of Erong Wooden
Coffin Sites in Tana Toraja
Marante Tondon Site
This site is administratively located in
Marante Hamlet, Tondok Batu Village,
Tondon District, North Toraja Regency,
Province of South Sulawesi. This site is situ-
ated at the foot of limestone hills, facing
north with the Sakdan River located around
20 m away (the coordinates are S02°
57ʹ14.5”, T119°55ʹ58.4”), with an elevation
of 830 m above sea level. There were 11
erong wooden coffins found at this site, most
of them having been damaged.
Investigations concluded that there are two
types of wooden coffin in this site, boat-
shaped (nine) and buffalo-shaped (two).
Five of these coffins have ornamentation
and four of them are still intact. Two sam-
ples for radiocarbon dating were taken: one
from an intact boat-shaped coffin (TOR 01)
which gave a date of 50 BP (112.87 ± 0.54
PMC), the other was taken from a buffalo-
shaped coffin that was in a poor (rotten)
condition (TOR 22), which gave a date of
800 ± 50 BP (Table 1; Figure 1).
Palak Tokkek Site
This is administratively located in Palak
Tokkek Hamlet, Pakpaelean Village,
Sanggalangi’ District, North Toraja
Regency, South Sulawesi Province. It is
situated in an east-facing niche (coordi-
nates: S03°00ʹ42.1”, T119°54ʹ34.7”)
with an elevation of 824 m above sea
level. There is an old village about
230 m to the east. There were nine
erong wooden coffins found at this site
including four boat-shaped types, two
buffalo-shaped types, and one pig-
shaped type. Four of these, one buf-
falo-shaped and three boat-shaped,
were placed on a slope around the
niche, while the rest were on the base
of the niche. One sample for radiocar-
bon dating was taken; this was from a
boat-shaped coffin that is on the base
of the niche (TOR 02) with a radio-
carbon date result of 280 ± 40 BP
(Table 2; Figure 2).
 Time & Mind 7

Table 1. Measurement results of erong wooden coffins at the Marante Tondon site.

Long Wide High Body Body

Typology (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) Form Ornament Condition

Boat-shaped Big 246 64 187 197 Rectangle Yes – Having been

many partly damaged
Small 182 36 78 162 Rectangle – Rotten
Buffalo-shaped Big – – – – Round Yes – Can’t be
many measured as the
location is too
high in slope
Small – – – – – – No finding
Pig-shaped Big – – – – – – No finding

Figure 1. A boat-shaped erong coffin from Marante Tondon site (Photo: author).

Table 2. Measurement results of erong wooden coffins at the Palak Tokkek site.

Long Wide High Body Body

Typology (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) Form Ornament Condition

Boat-shaped Big 238 53 81 178 Rectangle No Intact

ornament
Small – – – – – –
Buffalo-shaped Big 176 56 67 176 Round No Intact
ornament
Small – – – – – –
Pig-shaped Big – – – – – –
8 A. Duli
Figure 2. A boat-shaped example from Palak Tokkek site. (Photo: author).
Lombok Bori Site
This is administratively located in Lombok
Bori Hamlet, Lembang Parinding Village,
Sesean District, North Toraja Regency,
Province of South Sulawesi. This site is
situated inside an east-facing cave. The
cave itself has an 8 m high mouth, the
floor is 13 m wide and 10 m deep. The
coordinates are S02°55ʹ13.2”, T119°
55ʹ14.0” with an elevation of 825m
above sea level. Of the erong wooden
coffins found here, 108 were still in
good condition, about fifty percent of
the total amount. Upon investigation, 87
of the coffins were found to be boat-
shaped, 17 are buffalo-shaped, and four
are pig-shaped, with 18 of the coffins
having some kind of ornament. There
are 11 coffins that are still intact but the
rest have damage in one or several parts.
The orientation of wooden coffins in this
site is east-west in accord with the orien-
tation of the cave. Two samples for
radiocarbon dating were taken from this
site, one from a boat-shaped coffin (TOR
03) with the result of 930 ± 40 BP, and
the other is a buffalo-shaped coffin (TOR
04) which gave a date of 360 ± 40 BP
(Table 3; Figure 3).
Ke’Tek Kesu’ Site
This is administratively located in Ke’tek
Hamlet, Ba’tan Village, Kesu’ District,
North Toraja Regency, Province of
South Sulawesi. This site is situated in a
niche on a north-facing slope. The coor-
dinates are S02°59ʹ43.2’, T119°54ʹ38.1’
with an elevation of 798 m above sea
level. The niche itself is 19 m high, 26 m
 Time & Mind 9

There are two that are still in good condition

long and between 4 m and 10 m wide at
the floor. There were 64 erong wooden
coffins found in this site; 55 were boat-
shaped, seven were buffalo-shaped, and
Condition two were pig-shaped. Additionally, there
were 13 coffins that were not complete,
Has been partly damaged
Has been partly damaged
Has been partly damaged
Has been partly damaged
Has been partly damaged
48 coffins with ornament and 16 coffins
without ornament. Twenty-one coffins
were placed by hanging them on the
wall of the slope (18 of these were
boat-shaped and three buffalo-shaped)
and 43 coffins were placed on floor of
the niche – 37 of these were boat-
shaped, four buffalo-shaped, and two
No ornament
No ornament
No ornament
Ornament

pig-shaped. One sample for radiocarbon

dating was taken from this site. The sam-
ple (TOR 5) is from a boat-shaped coffin,
Yes

Yes
No

which was in poor condition (mouldy)

and was situated in the base of the
Body Form

Rectangular
Rectangular

niche, and gave a result of 400 ± 50 BP

Round
Round
Round
Round

(Table 4; Figures 4 and 5).

Measurement results of erong wooden coffins from the Lombok Bori site.

Body (cm)

Tampang Allo Site

206
162
190
165
188
140

This is administratively located in

Tampang Allo Hamlet, Soroakung
Village, Sangngallak District, Tana
High (cm)

Toraja Regency, Province of South

252
114
117
56
106
64

Sulawesi. This site is situated at a cave

in north-facing limestone hills with a
mouth of 5 m wide and 8 m high,
Wide (cm)

and a floor that is 12 m wide and

58
44
77
42
51
39

14 m long. The coordinates are S03°

05ʹ16.0”, T119°54ʹ10.1” with an eleva-
tion of 804 m above sea level. There
Long (cm)

were 25 erong wooden coffins found at

279
227
275
212
271
176

this site, all of them boat-shaped,

including quite large examples. Some
are orientated north-south and others
Small

Small

Small

are orientated east-west. There were

Big

Big

Big

five large coffins which were rotten

but with a lot of ornamental design in
Buffalo-shaped
Boat-Shaped

the surface. There were 20 medium-

Pig-shaped
Typology
Table 3.

sized coffins and most of them were

still intact. Samples for radiocarbon
10 A. Duli
Figure 3. A boat-shaped coffin with a snake design from the Lombok Bori site (Photo: author).
dating were taken from four coffins
(TOR 06, TOR 07, TOR 08 and TOR
09) but only two (TOR 6 and TOR 9)
were tested in the laboratory with
results of 210 ± 40 BP and
1070 ± 50 BP respectively (Table 5;
Figure 6).
Londa Site
This is located administratively in Londa
hamlet, Todongkon village, Kesu district,
North Toraja regency, Province of South
Sulawesi, and is situated on a slope of
west-facing, limestone hills, with an eleva-
tion of 900 m. At the foot of the slope
there are two caves, and a niche. The
coordinates are S03°00ʹ58.8”, T119°
52ʹ35.8” with an elevation of 815 m
above sea level. There were 43 erong
wooden coffins found at this site: 39
boat-shaped, three buffalo-shaped, and
one pig-shaped. There are six coffins
with ornamental design and 13 of the
coffins were not complete. One sample
(TOR 10) for radiocarbon dating was
taken from one of the boat-shaped cof-
fins with a result of 1000 ± 40 BP
(Table 6).
Buntu Pune Site
This is located administratively in Buntu
Pune hamlet Ba’tan village Kesu’ district,
North Toraja regency, Province of South
Sulawesi and situated in a niche in north-
facing limestone hills. The coordinates are
S02°59ʹ15.1”, T119°53ʹ49.4” with an
elevation of 808 m above sea level. The
site contained 18 erong wooden coffins:
nine boat-shaped, six buffalo-shaped, and
three pig-shaped. There are seven coffins
with ornamental design and there are 13
coffins that are not complete. Two sam-
ples (TOR 11 and TOR 12) for radio-
carbon dating were taken from two of
 Time & Mind 11

condition
the buffalo-shaped coffins but only one

condition
condition
condition
condition
(TOR 12) was tested in the laboratory,
producing a date of 800 ± 50 BP

Condition

good
good
good
good
good
(Table 7; Figure 7).

in
in
in
in
in

still
still
still
still
still
Other Sites

is
is
is
is
is
Most
Most
Most
Most
Most As well as those sites described above,
there are several other sites in the
research areas. However, these sites
have ornament
have ornament
have ornament
have ornament
have ornament

were not closely surveyed due to time

Ornament

limitations. For these sites, we limited our

research to simply taking coordinates,
–

elevation, counting the coffins, and taking

Some
Some
Some
Some
Some

some samples for dating analysis. These

sites are Suaya, Sillanan, Lalik Manuk,
Potok Tengan Kandora, Marimbunna,
Body Form

Rectangular
Rectangular

Alla’ Angin-Angin, Sekpon Marinding,

Lokkok Pongdadu, Tambalong Baklele,
–
Round
Round
Round

Limbong, Lalanbai Sarira dan Mengke’pe’.

See Table 8 for information about these
sites (Figure 8).
Body (cm)
Measurement results of erong wooden coffins from the Ke’te’ Kesu’ site.

201
230
162
185
166

Chronology and Development

of Erong Wooden Coffins in
High (cm)

Tana Toraja
48
146
62
61
46

The results of the radiocarbon dating

analysis range from 1130 ± 50 BP to
112.87 ± 0.54 pMC (50 BP) or from
Wide (cm)

780 BC to the 1960s. During that long

period, the typology of erong wooden
46
56
42
45
40

coffins can be classified into three time

periods. The early period of develop-
ment is from 780 BC to 1100 BC
Long (cm)

which is characterized by simple boat

235
265
198
226
211

and buffalo-shaped coffins (Duli 2012).

The boat-shaped coffins in this period
are characterized by the rectangular
Small
Small
Small

shape with a low cover; the buffalo-

Big
Big

Big

shaped is also rectangular with the tip of

its front being buffalo-shaped. It is
Buffalo-shaped
Boat-shaped

believed that these shapes were brought

Pig-shaped
Typology
Table 4.

by the first migrants to occupy the Toraja

region. These people built a community
12 A. Duli

Figures 4 and 5. The Ke’te’ Kesu’ site – a boat-shaped coffin in the wall of the slope (top) and a
boat-shaped coffin placed in the base/floor of the niche. (Photos: author).
 Time & Mind 13

Table 5. Measurement results of erong wooden coffins at the Tampang Allo site.

Long Wide High Body Body

Typology (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) Form Ornament Condition

Boat-shape Big 247 56 145 218 Rectangular Some Most have been
ornament damaged
Medium 243 45 142 168 Rectangular No Most have been
damaged

Figure 6. A medium sized boat-shaped coffin from the Tampang Allo site. (Photo: author).

with a simple social stratification of chiefs
and ordinary people (Tangdilintin 1980,
6–13). It is obvious that the wooden
coffins were used only for the higher
class people, whereas ordinary people
were buried in a hole without a coffin.
The second period of development
was from 1200 BC to 1600 BC. There
are some improvements to erong woo-
den coffins in this period. The cover of
the boat-shaped coffins became taller
and flatter. There is also a coffin style
that has a round body with its cover
either low and flat or tall and flat.
Regarding the buffalo-shaped coffins, the
body shape is round with a buffalo-
shaped tip on the front. This second
development began in the reign of
Tangdilino who created a change in cus-
tomary rules – the introduction of the
Aluk Todolo doctrine, a tenet that mixes
customary rules with religion. It is also in
this period that society became more
complex with numerous chieftains
 14

Table 6. Measurement results of erong wooden coffins at the Londa site.

A. Duli

Typology Long (cm) Wide (cm) High (cm) Body (cm) Body Form Ornament Condition

Boat-shaped Big 283 58 128 245 Rectangular Yes Have been damaged and partly rotten
Small 188 34 72 169 Rectangular Some have ornament Have been damaged and partly rotten
Buffalo-shaped Big 236 49 67 198 Round No Intact
Small – – – – – –
Pig-shaped Big 220 54 58 164 Round No Have been damaged and rotten
Small – – – – – –

Table 7. Measurement results of erong wooden coffins at the Buntu Pune site.

Typology Long (cm) Wide (cm) High (cm) Body (cm) Body form Ornament Condition

Boat-shaped Big 251 48 97 221 Rectangular Yes Most have been damaged and are rotten
Small 134 35 – 134 Rectangular No Not in real size
Buffalo-shaped Big 245 48 50 180 Round Some ornament Most have been damaged and are rotten
Small – – – – – –
Pig-shaped Big 234 42 48 175 Round No Rotten
Small – – – – – –
 Time & Mind 15

Figure 7. A buffalo-shaped erong wooden coffin from the Buntu Pune site (Photo: author).

Table 8. Classification of erong wooden coffins from other sites in Tana Toraja.

Number Site Boat-shaped Buffalo-shaped Pig-shaped Total

1 Suaya 3 2 – 5
2 Sillanan 5 1 5 11
3 Lali’ Manuk 48 10 2 60
4 Kandora 7 – – 7
5 Marimbunna Tikala 20 4 7 31
6 Alla’ Angin-Angin 44 3 2 49
7 Sekpon Marinding 8 3 – 11
8 Lo’kok Pongdadu 17 – – 17
9 Tambolang Ba’lele 9 – – 9
10 Limbong 11 2 – 13
11 Lalanbai Sarira 17 4 – 21
12 Pangi Mengke’pek 8 3 – 11

(Tangdilintin 1980, 13–25). Because under an alliance called the Tondok

there were many battles between these Lepongan Bulan Tana Matarik Allo. The
chiefdoms a change was needed to solve consequence was that all chiefdoms,
these problems, and that change began now united under one umbrella, had to
with the unification of all chiefdoms agree to and obey a new customary rule:
16 A. Duli
Figure 8. A boat-shaped erong wooden coffin from Suaya site. (Photo: author).
to reinforce the position of the nobility in
this new society, a new social rank called
“high noble” was introduced which was
legitimized by Tomanurung myth. This
myth was about a son of a god called
Tomanurung who had fallen from the sky
and became a great leader on earth, and
whose descents would also be great lea-
ders. This Tomanurung myth brought with
it a doctrine called Aluk Sanda Saratu’ that
introduced monarchism (Tangdilintin
1980, 26–49). The composition of social
stratification thus became high nobility,
medium nobility, common nobility, and
ordinary people. High nobles legitimized
their rank by establishing centers of
power and social symbols called tongko-
nan (banua puan or house of leader) as
well as the introduction of burial in big
erong wooden coffins (Tangdilintin 1980:
14). The erongs were boat-shaped and
buffalo-shaped and were large with var-
ious ornamental designs including
geometric, anthropomorphic, and snake-
shaped motifs.
The third, very long period of devel-
opment was from 1600 BC to the
1960s. In this period, erong wooden
coffins became more developed. What
characterizes this period is a boat-
shaped erong that is similar in form to
a tongkonan building as well as including
the perfectly replicated shapes of buf-
falo and pigs. Erongs like those were
used for high nobles. Ornamental
design for erong coffins in this period
was also diverse, rich, and more stylish,
including geometrical, fauna, and tendril
(pa’garunggang) motifs. These designs
are commonly carved on the surface
of the body of the erong as well as
the cover. This stylistic development
was influenced by outside cultures, in
particular those of the seventeenth-
century Javanese traders who came for
gold and iron ore which is well-known

through Puang Rade’, and towards the
end of the nineteenth century the
Dutch reached the Toraja region and
their culture also influenced the designs
on the coffins (Tangdilintin 1980, 55–
71). Javanese culture brought about a
change by importing Hinduism. The
supreme god began to be recognized
in Aluk Todolo doctrine, and the four
layers of caste (tana’) also began to be
practiced by Torajanese; they were
tana’ bula’an (high nobility), tana’ bassi
(common nobility), tana’ karurung
(ordinary people), and kua-kua (bonds-
man). Monarchism became more
defined and the high nobles made
their position more solid and legiti-
mized themselves as sons of god from
the sky. That legitimacy was symbolized
by the level of funerary ritual including
the sacrifice of as many buffalo as pos-
sible, building tongkonan, simbuang
(menhir) and a large and regal erong
wooden coffin.
Influence of Belief and Social
Systems
So we see that the types of erong wooden
coffins found in Toraja consist of boat-
shaped, buffalo-shaped, and pig-shaped
coffins. Differences in shape, size, cover,
ornament, placement, and orientation are
strongly influenced by belief, social stratifi-
cation, period, and environmental adapta-
tion. Belief is based on ancestor veneration
and cosmology, mainly practiced by high
nobles and symbolized through using var-
ious types of erong. The social and belief
systems were rooted in Aluk Todolo doc-
trine which controlled various daily life
aspects of the Torajanese was also symbo-
lized in the various forms of erong coffin
used in the past. It was also believed that
erong functions as a vehicle for souls of the
Time & Mind 17
dead to make the journey to the spirit
world. The boat-shaped erong was not
only believed to represent a boat for the
ancestor spirits but also as a symbol of a
harmonic life for a family or community.
The buffalo and pig-shaped erongs were
believed to represent animals that could
be used as provisions for ancestor spirits –
buffalos were even believed to be deliv-
ered by the gods from the sky.
Erong wooden coffins were used for
people from the higher classes – nobles
and their family. However, there was also
a status division within the nobility accord-
ing to his/her role in society, with various
roles symbolized through the use of erong
wooden coffins. Differences were also
influenced by the structure of customary
organizations such as Lembang, Bua’ and
Penanian. A person’s social position also
determined the location of the coffin. The
coffins of the high nobles were larger and
boat- or buffalo-shaped, highly decorated –
almost completely covered in carvings,
with snake motifs including that of a man
pulling a snake (pa’doti langi, pa’erong and
pa’sekong). Status is also indicated by the
final position of the coffin, those of higher
status being placed in elevated location
whereas the lower status noble would be
place in a lower slope or a niche.
Conclusion
The Erong wooden coffin sites in the Tana
Toraja region are dispersed along the valleys
following the Sakdan river watercourse with
an elevation of 600–1300 m. The types of
erong found at these sites are boat-shaped,
buffalo-shaped, and pig-shaped of various
sizes, made from a type of wood called uru
(Elmerillia celebica dandy). According to the
results of radiocarbon dating it is known that
the culture of using erong in Tana Toraja has
been in existence since 780 BC or even
18 A. Duli
earlier and continued until as late as the
1960s. During the period of using erong
wooden coffins in the region there was
development in technology and typology
from simple forms to complex ones. This
development from simple to complex is
also visible in the decoration from simple
carved designs to complex designs and a
variety of motifs.
Erong wooden coffins were always
placed in caves, niches, or walls of rocky
hills and some distance from villages, rice
fields, and gardens. These sites are always
located south or southwest of an old village
with the orientation of the erong being
towards the south or west. Regarding the
position or arrangement of erongs within
these sites, there are erong placed in high,
medium, and low parts of a hill slope and
they are also placed on the floor or base of
a cave. The ornamental carvings are also
diverse, such including geometric, flora,
fauna, nature, and anthropomorphic motifs.
Differences in type, placement, and orna-
ment are strongly influenced by belief, cos-
mology, social status, and the role that
nobles had played during their life. All of
these are rooted in the customs and rules
governing the Aluk Todolo doctrine.
Acknowledgements
In particular, I would like to thank to all friends
who helped in this research, they are Prof. Dr
Stephen Chian, Muhammad Husni, Hasanuddin,
Muhammad Nur, Yohanis, and all the staff of
Institute for Archaeological Research Makassar.
Thanks are also due to Abby George, in particu-
lar, and Paul Devereux for rendering my some-
what broken English into workable form.
Funding
This research is supported by funding from
Geran University Research and Ministry of
Higher Education Malaysia, University of
Science Malaysia, Pinang Island.
Notes on contributor
The author is a Lecturer in the Department of
Archaeology, Faculty of Letters, Hasanuddin
University, Makassar, Indonesia.
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20 A. Duli

Appendix. Summary of radiocarbon-dating results from the samples

of erong wooden coffins in the Tana Toraja region

Number Sample Number Site Age Type of Coffin

1 TOR 01 Marante Tondon 112.87 ± 0.54 pMC Boat-shaped

2 TOR 22 800 ± 50 BP Boat-shaped
3 TOR 02 Pala’ Tokkek 280 ± 40 BP Boat-shaped
4 TOR 03 Lombok Bori’ 930 ± 40 BP Boat-shaped
5 TOR 04 360 ± 50 BP Buffalo-shaped
6 TOR 05 Ke’te Kesu’ 400 ± 50 BP Boat-shaped
7 TOR 06 Tampang Allo 310 ± 40 BP Boat-shaped
8 TOR 09 1070 ± 50 BP Boat-shaped
9 TOR 10 Londa 1000 ± 40 BP Boat-shaped
10 TOR 12 Buntu Pune 810 ± 50 BP Boat-shaped
11 TOR 13 Lali’ Manuk 640 ± 50 BP Boat-shaped
12 TOR 15 Potok Tengan Kandora 240 ± 40 BP Boat-shaped
13 TOR 16 Marimbunna Tikala 390 ± 50 BP Boat-shaped
14 TOR 17 1130 ± 50 BP Buffalo-shaped
15 TOR 18 Alla’ Angin-Angin 510 ± 50 BP Boat-shaped
16 TOR 23 Limbong 570 ± 50 BP Boat-shaped
17 TOR 14 Lalik Manuk 2 710 ± 40 BP Boat-shaped
18 TOR 19 Se’pon Marinding 360 ± 40 BP Boat-shaped
19 TOR 20 Lo’kok Pongdadu 360 ± 50 BP Boat-shaped
20 TOR 21 Tambolang Ba’lele 660 ± 40 BP Boat-shaped
21 TOR 24 Lalanbai Sarira 780 ± 60 BP Boat-shaped
22 TOR 25 Pangi Mengke’pek 350 ± 60 BP Boat-shaped