JOURNAL OF DEGRADED AND MINING LANDS MANAGEMENT

Volume 10, Number 4 (July 2023):4647-4658, doi:10.15243/jdmlm.2023.104.4647

ISSN: 2339-076X (p); 2502-2458 (e), www.jdmlm.ub.ac.id

Research Article

Land management semi-arid archipelago based on water carrying capacity:

Studies on Labuan Bajo, East Nusa Tenggara
Farah Syuraih Muchtar1*, Hayati Sari Hasibuan1, Philiphi de Rozari2
1 School of Environmental Science, Universitas Indonesia, Jl. Salemba Raya, Jakarta 10430, Indonesia
2
Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Nusa Cendana, Jl. Adisucipto Penfui, Kupang NTT, Indonesia
*
corresponding author: farah.syuraih@ui.ac.id

Abstract
Article history: Archipelago areas have high marine tourism resource potential, so they are
Received 6 December 2022 often exploited for tourism needs. The characteristics of the Labuan Bajo
Accepted 13 February 2023 region in the form of islands with geomorphological conditions in the form
Published 1 July 2023 of hills have the potential to reduce the carrying capacity of the environment.
Regional development in Labuan Bajo, classified as a semi-arid area for
tourism purposes, can potentially cause a clean water crisis. This study aimed
Keywords: to analyze the environmental carrying capacity related to water availability
archipelago to support the development of the Labuan Bajo region to become a super-
semi-arid priority tourism destination. The research method used is quantitative in the
tourism area form of spatial analysis, literature studies, and water-carrying capacity
water carrying capacity analysis based on the Decree of the Minister of Environment and Forestry
No. 297 of 2019. The research data were obtained from field observations
and government agencies. The results show that the carrying capacity of
water in 56.87% of the area in West Manggarai Regency has a deficit status.
Most areas experiencing a deficit are on the mainland of Flores Island,
especially in the urban area of Labuan Bajo. This is due to low rainfall, low
soil ability to absorb water, and high anthropogenic activity from both local
residents and tourism activities. In addition, the content of salinity, detergent,
and BOD (biological oxygen demand) in groundwater samples in the urban
area of Labuan Bajo has exceeded the water quality standard threshold. The
results of this study can be considered for policy directions related to land
use for regional development in semi-arid island areas.

To cite this article: Muchtar, F.S., Hasibuan, H.S. and de Rozari, P. 2023. Land management semi-arid archipelago based on
water carrying capacity: studies on Labuan Bajo, East Nusa Tenggara. Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management
10(4):4647-4658, doi:10.15243/jdmlm.2023.104.4647.

Introduction Belitung, and the Riau Archipelago (Puspitawati,

An archipelagic region is an area that has a vast ocean
with many small islands to form a group of islands
(Leatemia, 2011), as well as having the same
ecosystem and modality or administrative boundaries
(Harun, 2021). Indonesia is the largest archipelagic
country in the world, with an ocean area of 5.9 million
km2 (Lasabuda, 2013). In addition, several regions in
Indonesia are also classified as islands, such as West
Nusa Tenggara, East Nusa Tenggara, Maluku, North
Maluku, North Sulawesi, Southeast Sulawesi, Bangka
2020). Semi-arid areas have lower rainfall than
potential evapotranspiration (Messakh et al., 2015),
i.e. rainfall intensity of less than 2,000 mm per year, a
dry season that lasts for more than seven months with
rainfall below 100 mm per month (Mulyani and
Sarwani, 2013). This causes semi-arid areas to have
limited availability and continuity of clean water
sources (Messakh et al., 2015). In semi-arid areas,
large rock outcrops are also found due to less intensive
weathering of parent rock, such as in wetlands

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(Mulyani and Sarwani, 2013). Other characteristics of
semi-arid areas are very high rainfall intensity during
the rainy season (Sardjono et al., 2003), low vegetation
and soil conditions containing little organic matter
(Mays, 2014).
Development activities in archipelago areas
generally occur due to tourism potential resulting in
regional urbanization (Pons et al., 2014; Wibisono et
al., 2019). However, the tourism sector in archipelagic
areas often exploits natural resources without
considering environmental sustainability, causing
environmental degradation and pressure on natural
resources, especially water resources (Gössling et al.,
2012). As happened in the Galapagos Islands, namely
the tourism sector is the primary sector that uses much
clean water, amounting to 55% of the total use of clean
water in the islands (Reyes et al., 2017), as well as in
the Nusa Penida tourism area (Cahyani et al., 2018;
Sudipa et al., 2020). Not all semi-arid areas in
Indonesia are archipelago areas. However, in the
eastern region of southern Indonesia, most of them are
dominated by semi-arid island areas, which are prone
to problems with the availability of clean water
(Suryati, 2016).
All human activities for the utilization of water,
if it is not balanced with proper management of water
sources, can affect the quality and quantity of water
resources (Habiebah and Retnaningdyah, 2014). The
carrying capacity of the availability of clean water is
essential for the archipelago's development. Its caused
the archipelago has a high potential for a clean water
crisis due to the limited water catchment area and the
vulnerability to seawater intrusion (Cahyadi, 2012).
Environmental carrying capacity is defined as a
combination of thresholds that cause spatial-temporal
changes or damage to natural resources, assimilation
of environmental capacity, ecosystem services, social
environment and environmental structure and function
(Maulana et al., 2020). Through overlapping and
scoring techniques (Nabila et al., 2017).,
environmental carrying capacity can be determined by
knowing the environment's capacity and existing
resources (Sari et al., 2021). Analyzing the
environment's carrying capacity requires the main
variables of land potential and population (Tong et al.,
2018). This is because increased built-up land and high
human activities reduce water quality (Rimba et al.,
2021).
Labuan Bajo is one of the areas currently
designated as a National Tourism Strategic Area to
support economic growth (Kodir et al., 2020). The
primary water sources in Labuan Bajo are water from
Municipal waterworks (PDAM) and groundwater, but
at certain times groundwater sources from dug wells
cannot be used because they smell and taste salty
(Wolo et al., 2020). In terms of quality, groundwater
in the coastal area of Labuan Bajo cannot be used for
drinking water because it has exceeded the water
quality threshold (Wolo et al., 2020). Overall, the West
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Manggarai Regency area needs to intensify ecosystem
services and environmental carrying capacity,
especially in the coastal environment (Tussadiah et al.,
2021).
This research focused on analyzing the
environment's carrying capacity related to clean water
due to tourism development activities in the semi-arid
archipelago. Much research has been done on the
carrying capacity of the water environment in tourism
and island areas, such as Achmad et al. (2020) and
Renfors (2021). However, not much research has been
conducted in archipelagic areas with the characteristics
of semi-arid areas with high tourism activity, even
though most of the southeastern region of Indonesia
has a semi-arid climate with problems with the
availability of clean water (van Cooten and Borrell,
2000).
Materials and Methods
Study area
This research is located in West Manggarai, one of the
districts on Flores Island, East Nusa Tenggara
Province. West Manggarai Regency has 12 districts
spread across the coast to the highlands, with the centre
of government and tourism activity in Labuan Bajo,
Komodo District. West Manggarai Regency has a land
area of approximately 3,141.47 km2, which consists of
the mainland of Flores Island and several large islands
such as Komodo Island, Rinca Island, Bidadari Island,
Longos Island and 182 other small islands.
Geographically, West Manggarai Regency is located
between 08o14'-09o00' South Latitude and 119o21'–
120o20' East Longitude (BPS West Manggarai, 2021).
The population of Manggarai Regency is 256,317,
with the highest population density in the Komodo
District, which is 53.724 people. West Manggarai
Regency has quite varied geomorphology from flat,
sloping, hilly, undulating and mountainous topography
with a height of more than 1000 meters above sea
level, as well as soil types dominated by cambisol soil
(BPS West Manggarai, 2021). The research location is
shown in Figure 1.
The research location has relatively dry rainfall
with an average annual rainfall of around 1500
mm/year. The rainy season is relatively short, starting
in November - March, with the number of rainy days
ranging from 100-180 days a year. The type of rainfall
is classified as the monsoonal rain type, namely, rain
that only occurs once a year. The distribution of
rainfall is shown in Figure 2. Meanwhile, the land use
condition in the study locations was not plentiful,
dominated by forest land use with an area of
117,151.85 ha or 37.31%. These forests are widely
spread from the north to the centre of the mainland of
the West Manggarai area on Flores Island. Meanwhile,
coastal areas and small islands are dominated by land
cover in the form of grassland and savanna (Figure 3).
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Figure 1. Map of research location.

Figure 2. Map of rainfall.

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Figure 3. Map of land use and land cover in West Manggarai.

The research location has unique landscape conditions
compared to other archipelago areas, namely on the
mainland of Flores Island and on small islands
dominated by hilly landscape conditions, which cover
an area of 139,007.35 ha or 44% of the entire West
Manggarai area. The morphology of the hills is widely
spread along the coastal area with an altitude of 100-
500 meters above sea level.
The distribution of the landscape of the study
locations is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Map of geomorphology of West Manggarai.

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The condition of the slopes at the research location is
dominated by rather steep slopes both in the area of
small islands and on the mainland, which is
201,356.48 ha or around 64% of the total area of West
Manggarai. The relatively steep slope of the slopes is
spread evenly over almost the entire West Manggarai
area, both in coastal and mountainous areas. Its
correlates with the condition of the landscape, where
there are many hills. The condition of the landscape
and slope is shown in Figure 5. The distribution of the
condition of the landscape and slope in the research
area is shown in Table 1.

Figure 5. Map of slope in West Manggarai.

Table 1. Distribution of landscapes and slopes.

No Morphology Slope
Type Area Slope (%) Type Area
Hectares (ha) (%) Hectares (ha) (%)
1 Hilly 139,007.4 44% 0-2% Flat 17,065.36 5%
2 Undulating 68,348.39 22% 2-5% Ramps 18,567.96 6%
3 Mountainous 43,804.23 14% 5-15% Ramps 70,764.7 23%
4 Flat 36,918.37 12% 15-40% Rather steep 201,356.5 64%
5 Sloping 25,904.06 8% > 40% Steep 62,26.9 2%
Source: Data analysis (2022.

Data collection Population density data were from West Manggarai

BPS, and water quality condition data were from the
This study used secondary data from several
West Manggarai Environment Agency. Water
government agencies and primary data in water
sampling was carried out at four locations, provided
sampling to answer research objectives. The data used
the location conditions were in coastal and non-coastal
were rainfall data and the long intensity of sunlight
areas with different water sources. The water sample
from BMKG Komodo. Data on soil types, land use
was a sample of groundwater in a coastal location right
conditions, slope, and morphological data were
around the hotel or tourism service, namely Kampung
obtained from the Cipta Karya Office for spatial
Ujung, in Labuan Bajo. Other water samples are
planning and water resources in West Manggarai
groundwater and springs in the non-coastal area
Regency. Data on aquifer productivity conditions were
around Komodo Airport, namely in Lamtoro Labuan
obtained from the portal website esdm.go.id.
Bajo Village, and rainwater samples collected from the

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urban area of Labuan Bajo. The determination of the
water source used for the research sample was based
on the water source most used by the people in Labuan
Bajo. In addition, this research also used secondary
Figure 6. Map of water sampling location.
Data analysis
Research data were analyzed using spatial analysis
techniques using Arcmap 10.3, analysis of laboratory
test results and descriptive analysis. The spatial
analysis included analysis of morphological
conditions, slope conditions, soil type conditions,
rainfall conditions, aquifer productivity conditions,
and the carrying capacity of the water environment.
The descriptive analysis included the sun exposure
duration and the results of laboratory tests on water
samples. Analysis of water carrying capacity was
based on the provisions of the Minister of Environment
and Forestry Decree No 297 of 2019 concerning
National Water Carrying Capacity and Capacity,
namely by overlaying a map of land cover conditions,
rainfall, average water demand, and population of each
village. The rainfall distribution map was overlaid with
the land use map by entering the land cover coefficient
values for each land cover using a 30 x 30 cm grid
based on village administrative boundaries.
Furthermore, the results of the support map were
correlated with the actual environmental conditions
around it. Water sample test analysis was carried out
using 11 parameters. The parameters were determined
based on the Minister of Health Regulation No. 32 of
2017 concerning clean water quality standards for
hygiene and sanitation. The salinity parameter was
added because the research location is located in a
Open Access
data from river water samples obtained from the West
Manggarai Regency Environmental Service to
complement water quality. The locations of water
sampling are shown in Figure 6.
coastal area surrounded by a tourism service area.
Hence, it has the potential to experience seawater
intrusion and pollution from the surrounding
environment. The process of taking water samples was
based on technical instructions for taking water
samples, namely a minimum of 1.5 liters for one
sample and using a container that was closed from
exposure to sunlight. The sampling of this water used
1.5 liters bottle containers with as many as two pieces
at each water source. The sample was then sent to the
Kupang UPTD Laboratory for analysis using the
limited detection method.
Results and Discussion
Water environmental condition
The mapping results show that the research location
has unique physical environmental conditions. Areas
with steep slopes are in the south and southwest of
West Manggarai on the mainland of Flores Island,
Rinca Island and Komodo Island. The condition of the
landscape and the slope of the slopes in West
Manggarai in urban and non-urban areas, as well as in
small island areas, is dominated by hilly conditions
and rather steep slopes, and the rocks contain
limestone. It correlates with the results of field
observations in Labuan Bajo urban and non-urban
areas, namely in Golomori Village and the Seraya
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Besar Island area. Dry physical environmental
conditions and soil with lots of large rock and
limestone outcrops have resulted in very limited
sources of clean water in the study area. In the urban
area of Labuan Bajo, one well water source is used by
Figure 7. Conditions of (a) urban area; (b) non-urban area; and (c) small islands.
Based on the results of field observations and in-depth
interviews, the community's need for clean water in
Labuan Bajo is highly dependent on groundwater. Its
because the distribution of PDAM water to the
community has not reached evenly due to the
accessibility of the location, where there are many
hilly areas and steep slopes, which cause obstacles to
the installation of pipeline transmission networks. In
addition, people in the small island area and tourism
services such as “pinisi” cruise also buy water from the
urban area of Labuan Bajo. It starkly contrasts with the
soil conditions in Labuan Bajo, which have little
groundwater content.
Environment carrying capacity
The availability of clean water is closely related to
groundwater conditions. West Manggarai Regency, an
area with relatively low rainfall and a landscape
condition dominated by karst outcrops, also has
relatively low groundwater potential conditions. Low
rainfall is accompanied by sun exposure in West
Manggarai, classified as total irradiation >60%. Based
on data from the Komodo Meteorology, Climatology
and Geophysics Agency (Komodo BMKG) shows that
the average sunshine duration in Labuan Bajo is 78%,
with the lowest radiation duration being in January by
55%. Meanwhile, the highest irradiation duration
occurs from April to October, which is more than 80%.
Based on groundwater productivity data obtained from
the official portal of the Ministry of Energy and
Mineral Resources, the geology section, aquifer
conditions are dominated by productive aquifers with
a local distribution of 392,320.23 hectares or 38% of
the total area (ESDM, 2022). However, this aquifer
also includes aquifers with rare groundwater
conditions in the West Manggarai region on the
mainland of Flores Island.
Productive aquifers dominate the overall
groundwater condition in West Manggarai with local
distribution and minor productive aquifers (Figure 8).
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10-30 households. However, in the coastal area, well
water is of poor quality because it tastes brackish,
tastes lime, and has a high level of salinity.
Environmental conditions in urban areas are shown in
Figure 7.
In small islands, aquifer productivity conditions are
dominated by minor productive aquifers. Highly
productive aquifers with wide distribution are only
available in the southern part of the mainland of Flores
Island.
In addition to quantity, carrying capacity
analysis is also carried out on water quality. Based on
laboratory tests on four samples of water sources in the
urban area of Labuan Bajo, namely two samples of
groundwater, one sample of water from a spring, and
one sample of rainwater, several parameters exceeded
the threshold water quality. The laboratory test
parameters refer to clean water quality standards
according to Minister of Health regulations No 32 of
2017, Government Regulation No 22 of 2021, and an
additional parameter in the form of salinity.
Laboratory test results presented in Table 2 show
that water sources in the urban area of Labuan Bajo
have several parameters that exceed the clean water
quality standards. Groundwater test sample 1, located
in RT 008/014 Lamtoro, Labuan Bajo, contains
detergent exceeding the quality standard of 1.95 mg/L.
The groundwater test sample 2 had hardness,
detergent, TSS and salinity levels that exceeded the
quality standards. This condition indicates that the
groundwater sample at Kampung Ujung, Labuan Bajo,
has experienced seawater intrusion and is unsuitable
for drinking or cooking water consumption. This is due
to the well's location in the coastal area. Rainwater test
samples in the Wae Mata area, Gorontalo Village,
contained detergents that exceeded the quality
standard but had a lower value than other spring water
sources.
The spring test sample was taken in the RT
008/014 Lamtoro, Labuan Bajo Village, containing
detergent exceeding the quality standard, namely
1.875 mg/L. This condition is caused by people often
washing and bathing right at the location of the spring
water resource. CaCO3 levels in groundwater and
springs are quite high, although only the water in the
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second sample of well water exceeds the quality pipe diameter due to scale buildup, thereby reducing
standard. The high level of CaCO3 material not only the flow rate in the water distribution process (Musli
causes health impacts but can also cause a reduction in and de Fretes, 2016).

Figure 8. Map of aquifers productivity in West Manggarai.

Table 2. Condition of water quality in the research location.

Test Quality Unit Sample Condition
Parameters Standard Ground Ground Rain Springs
Water 1 Water 2 Water
pH 6.5-8.5 - 7.49 7.39 6.98 7.63
Fe 1 mg/L 0.032 0.022 < MDL 0.024
Mangan 0.5 mg/L 0.035 0.045 0.051 0.046
CaCO3 500 mg/L 398 *1240 53 332
Deterjen 0.05 mg/L *1.950 *1.48 *0.94 *1.875 *water sample has
Nitrate 10 mg/L 0.63 6.486 0.893 0.736 exceeded the quality
TDS 1000 mg/L 341 737 51 297 standard threshold
TSS 50 mg/L 6 *53 22 4
Salinity 0.5 ppt 0.3 *0.6 0.1 0.3
BOD 3 mg/L *12.62 *11.44 *15.34 < MDL
COD 25 mg/L 15.640 13.727 19.503 < MDL
Source: Results of UPTD Kupang laboratory test, Environment and Forestry Service agency of NTT. TDS = total dissolved
solid, TSS = total suspended solids, BOD = biological oxygen demand, COD = chemical oxygen demand.

This study also used river water quality data for 2022
obtained from the West Manggarai Regency
Environmental Service. River water quality in the
urban area of Labuan also has conditions that have
been polluted in Labuan Bajo, namely the Wae Ara
River, the Air Kemiri 1 River, and the Air Kemiri 2
River. The water quality data in the three rivers have a
total phosphate content that has exceeded the quality
standard. There is both upstream, midstream and
downstream. Phosphorus levels above the quality
standard threshold indicate that the river water has
been polluted by chemical compounds that can come
from pesticides, fertilizers, or detergent waste (Asrini
et al., 2017). This is in accordance with field
conditions and the results of interviews with local
people that in the middle of the river, there are many
rice fields for residents, where these rice fields
massively use pesticides during the planting season,
and many people wash their clothes in the river bodies.
River water quality data is shown in Table 3.

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Table 3. Condition of river water quality in the research location.

River Sample Sample Parameters
pH BOD COD Total TSS Nitrate Fecal
(mg/L) (mg/L) Phosphorus (mg/L) (mg/L) Coliform
(mg/L) (/100 mL)
Section River Standard Quality
6.5-8.5 3 25 0.2 50 10 1000
Wae ara 7.99 < MDL <MDL 0.858 8.5 0.263 2300
Upstream Air kemiri 1 7.41 3.62 8.231 0.261 5 0.193 400
Air kemiri 2 7.45 371 8.528 0.162 4.5 0.225 2100
Wae ara 7.89 < MDL < MDL 0.634 9.25 0.287 780
Midstream Air kemiri 1 7.59 < MDL < MDL 0.647 11.5 0.569 2400
Air kemiri 2 7.72 < MDL < MDL 1.269 6 1.723 1700
Wae ara 7.77 3.4 9.023 1.971 43.5 0.299 1400
Downstream Air kemiri 1 7.6 3.17 6.623 0.274 4 1.405 450
Air kemiri 2 7.68 < MDL < MDL 1.567 1.5 2.512 2300
Source: West Manggarai Regency of Environmental Service (2022).

The content of fecal coliform was also found to exceed
the quality standard threshold in all parts of the Air
Kemiri 2 River, the upstream and downstream parts of
the Wae Ara River, and the middle part of the Air
Kemiri 1 River. fecal coliform content that exceeds
quality standards indicates that the river water has been
contaminated with human and animal faeces
(Sulistyorini et al., 2016). This is following the field
conditions that many residents live on the riverbanks
and dispose of waste in the river body. The BOD
values in the upstream and downstream samples of the
Air Kemiri 1 River, the upstream Water Kemiri 2, and
the downstream Wae Ara River exceeded the quality
standard threshold. The BOD content that exceeds the
quality standards indicates that the water has been
polluted by organic matter around the river. BOD
levels indicate the amount of oxygen aerobic
microorganisms need to decompose almost all
dissolved and suspended organic matter in water
(Ningrum, 2018).
Water carrying capacity
Clean water sources for surface water types in West
Manggarai Regency are 15 rivers and one lake.
However, only 25% of rivers can flow throughout the
year, with the average total surface runoff in West
Manggarai Regency being 2,008.5 million m3/year
(RPJMD West Manggarai Regency 2021-2026, 2021).
The water carrying capacity map in Figure 6 shows
that the condition of the water carrying capacity in the
uplands and a small part of the coastal area has been
exceeded. In contrast, it has not been exceeded in the
area of small islands and most of the coastal areas.
The total area in West Manggarai that has
exceeded the carrying capacity of water is larger than
the area that has not been exceeded, namely 178,557
ha or 56.87% of the total area of West Manggarai. This
is caused by four factors.
First, the number of residents in the mainland
area of Flores Island, based on BPS 2021 data, is more
than the number of residents on small islands, while
the rainfall conditions in these locations are classified
as dry.
Second, land use in the mainland area is still
dominated by forests, but most plant species that grow
are dry plant types such as teak, Mahogany, Sengon
and Jabon plants, namely plants that do not store much
water content. This is supported by the condition of the
soil type, which is dominated by Cambisol Soil, which
is soil that has little water content.
Third, most of the community and tourism
services in Labuan Bajo use clean water as the main
source, either obtained from suctioning private wells
or purchased from mobile water vendors.
Fourth, the small islands around Labuan Bajo do
not have a water source, be it well water, springs, or
river water, so residents on small islands get clean
water from the Labuan Bajo urban area.
Tourism services such as “pinisi” cruise sailing
around the small islands of Labuan Bajo do the same,
namely buying clean water from the urban area of
Labuan Bajo. This, if left unchecked, could potentially
cause land degradation in the area of Flores Island as
the mainland of Labuan Bajo. The condition of the
Labuan Bajo landscape, dominated by hills with urban
areas located in coastal areas, can exacerbate the
carrying capacity related to water quality. This is
because groundwater extraction in coastal areas can
exacerbate seawater intrusion into the surrounding
groundwater and, in the long term, can change the
process of water circulation in groundwater basins in
the hydrological cycle (Mays, 2014). It is necessary to
strengthen the community's role on small islands by
developing irrigation infrastructure that can
independently meet the needs of the small island
population. The massive tourism development in the
research location that occurs in the coastal area also
affects the environment's carrying capacity. Based on
data from the West Manggarai Tourism and Culture
Service, currently, there are 115 hotels or inns, most of
which are located in the urban area of Labuan Bajo,
and the average tourist visit reaches 119,174 people
per year.

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Figure 9. Map of water carrying capacity in West Manggarai.
The tourism development also increases the potential
for decreasing water quality. The development
activities in coastal areas will cause environmental
changes (Wibowo, 2018), especially water availability
in semi-arid areas (Kent et al., 2002). Small islands are
generally vulnerable to development for tourism but
have limited accessibility and resources, so they are
very dependent on the mainland area (Kerstetter and
Bricker, 2012). In fact, not all water-carrying
capacities in tourism areas are in deficit status if they
have ecosystem services with high rainfall and large
water catchment areas (Harianto et al., 2020).
Therefore water management in Labuan Bajo needs to
optimize the use of surface water, such as river water
and rainwater, during the rainy season. Optimization
of river water can be carried out using the technique of
constructing constructed wetlands to ensure the quality
of the wastewater discharged into the environment is
at most the quality standard. This technique utilizes
pumice media, Thypa latifolia sp., Lemongrass and
Melaleuca trees as filtering pollutants (Rozari et al.,
2020a, 2020b; Greenway et al., 2022). Management in
this way is expected to reduce pollutant loads in rivers,
especially in the upstream and middle riparian areas
with levels of phosphorus and fecal coliform pollution
that exceed quality standards.
Conclusion
The carrying capacity of water in West Manggarai
Regency in most areas has exceeded the carrying
capacity of water, which is 178,557 hectares or
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56.87% of the total area with a deficit status, especially
in the urban area of Labuan Bajo. The factors causing
the environment's carrying capacity to be in a larger
deficit status are the large population but relatively low
rainfall, the condition of the type of soil that is
hydromorphic, and the high use of groundwater for the
community's clean water needs and tourism services.
The status of water carrying capacity that experiences
a water deficit is more common in the mainland of
Flores Island than in the small islands around Labuan
Bajo. This condition does not mean that the small
island areas are still safe from scarcity of clean water.
However, this condition shows that the dependence on
water sources on small islands with the mainland of
Flores Island is still very high.
There is a need for water management based on
the use of surface water, such as the use of rainwater
and the creation of artificial wetlands in river border
areas. Its to prevent land degradation due to high
groundwater extraction. Ultimately, this research is
limited to analyzing landscape conditions, water
quality, and water carrying capacity. Further research
is expected regarding the potential for sustainable land
use for tourism activities in coastal areas and small
islands without causing environmental degradation.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the School of Environmental Science,
Universitas Indonesia, for financing this study through grant
number PKS-0034/UN2.F13/D1/PPM.00.04/2022. The
authors also thank the Komodo Meteorology, Climatology
4656
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and Geophysics Agency (BMKG Komodo), the West Quality-of-Life Research (pp.445-462),
Manggarai Regency Spatial Creation and Water Resources doi:10.1007/978-94-007-2288-0_26.
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service, and the West Manggarai Regency Tourism and Nusantara, A.G. and Ahmad, R. 2020. The dynamics of
Culture Office for their assistance in providing data. access to tourism development in Labuan Bajo,
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