CBSE-11 Mathematics Revision Notes

UNIT – I: SETS AND FUNCTIONS
CHAPTER-1
SETS
Topic-1 Sets, their Types and Representations
Revision Notes
¾¾ Set: A set is a well defined collection of distinct (iv) Infinite set : A set whose elements cannot be
objects. listed by the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, …, n for any
¾¾ Elements: The objects which belong to a set are natural number n is called an infinite set.
called members or elements of a set. e.g., :
¾¾ Representation of a Set: There are two ways by zzSet of all points in a plane.
which a set can be described: zzSet of all lines in a plane.
(i) Tabular form or Roaster form: Here, the elements zz{x Î , 0 < x < 1}.
of a set are actually written down, separated by
commas and enclosed within braces (i.e., curly (v) Cardinal number of a finite set : The number n in
bracket). e.g., : the above definition is called the cardinal number or
order of a finite set A and is denoted by n(A).
zzV, the set of vowels in the English alphabet =
{a, e, i, o, u}. (vi) Equal sets : Two sets A and B are said to be equal, if
zzA, the set of odd natural numbers < 10 = {1, 3, every element of set A is in set B and every element
5, 7, 9}. of set B is in set A.
zzN, the set of natural numbers = {1, 2, 3, …}. It is written as A = B.
(ii) The set builder form or rule method: A set is
described by a characterizing property P(x) of its e.g., :
element x. In such a case, the set is described by zz{1, 2, 5} = {2, 1, 5} = {5, 1, 2},
{x : P(x) holds} or {x | P(x) holds}. e.g., : zz{1, 2, 3, 1} = {1, 2, 3} = {1, 1, 2, 2, 3} etc.
zzM = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19} = {x : x is a prime (vii) Equivalent sets : Two finite sets A and B are said to
number < 20}. be equivalent, if n(A) = n(B), where n(A) or n(B) is
zzA = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11} = {x Î , 5 < x < 12}, the number of elements of set A or B. It is written as
where Î stands for ‘belongs to’. A « B.
¾¾ Types of Sets
(i) Empty set or null set or void set : A set consisting e.g., : If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b, c}. Then A « B,
of no element at all, is called an empty set or a null since, n(A) = n(B) = 3.
set or a void set. It is denoted by f. In roaster form,
it is written as { }. Whenever A = B, then n(A) = n(B). Thus, equal sets are al-
e.g., :
(i) {x : x Î , 1 < x < 2} = f, ways equivalent. But, equivalent sets need not be equal.
(ii) { x : x Î , x2 = – 1} = f (viii) Subset : If A and B are two sets given in such a way
(ii) Singleton set : A set consisting of a single ele- that every element of A is in B, then A is a subset of
ment. The set {x : x Î  and x2 = 9} is a singleton set set B and it is written as A Í B (read as ‘A is contained
equal to {3}. in B’).
(iii) Finite set : A set is called a finite set, if it is either If at least one element of A does not belong to B,
void or its elements can be listed (counted, labelled) then A is not a subset of B. It is written as A Ë B.
by natural numbers 1, 2, 3, … and the process of
listing terminates at a certain natural number n (say). (ix) U
niversal set: If there are some sets under
consideration, then a set can be chosen arbitrarily
e.g., :
which is a superset of each one of the given sets.
zzSet of even natural numbers less than 100.
Such a set is known as the universal set and it is
zzSet of soldiers in Indian army. denoted by U.
zzSet of all persons on the Earth.
2 Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS, Class-XI
e.g. : Let A = {2, 4, 6}, B = {1, 3, 5} and C = {0, 7} are zz Length of an interval: The number (b - a) is
called the length of any of the intervals (a, b),
three subsets,
[a, b], [a, b) or (a, b].
then, U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} is an universal set.
¾¾ Types of Intervals
(i) Open interval : (a, b) = {x Î  : a < x < b} Mnemonics
i.e., All the points between a and b belong to open
Sets And Representations (a)
interval.
Today's Scenario, Equally Talented Singers Find
Infinite New Songs To Sing.
¥ Today's Scenario, Equally talented
-¥ a b
| | |
(ii) Closed interval : [a, b] = {x Î : a ≤ x ≤ b} Types Sets Equivalent Equal
i.e., The interval which contains the end points also, Singers Find Infinite
is called closed interval.
| | | |
Singleton Finite
New Songs to sing.
| |
¥ Null Sets
-¥ a b
Interpretation:
(iii) Semi open or semi closed interval : Types of Sets:
(a, b] = { x Î : a < x ≤ b} 1. Empty or Null Set – A set which has no element.
[a, b) = { x Î : a ≤ x < b} 2. Finite Set – A set having finite number of elements.
3. Infinite Set – A set having infinite number of elements.
Note: (i) The set (0, ∞) defines the set of non-negative real 4. Equivalent Set– Two finite sets A and B are said to
numbers. be equivalent if n(A) = n(B).
5. Equal Set– Two sets A and B are equal if every
(ii) The set (-∞, 0) defines the set of negative real
element of A is in B.
numbers.
6. Singleton Set– A sets having one element is called
(iii) The set (-∞, ∞) defines the set of all real numbers.
singleton set.
Key Facts
We shall denote several sets of numbers by the following symbols :
(i)  : The set of natural numbers (ii) W : The set of whole numbers
(iii)  : The set of integers (iv) Q : The set of rational numbers
(v)  : The set of real numbers (vi) + : The set of positive integers
(vii) Q+ : The set of positive rational numbers (viii) + : The set of positive real numbers
(ix) C : The set of all complex numbers.
Topic-2 Venn Diagrams and Operations on Set
Revision Notes
¾¾ Venn Diagram: In a Venn diagram, the universal set
is represented by a rectangular region and a set is
represented by circle of a closed geometrical figure
inside the universal set.
Oswaal CBSE Revision Notes Chapterwise & Topicwise, MATHEMATICS, Class-XI 3
¾¾ Operations on Sets : difference A - B is the set of all elements of
zzThe
(i)
Union of sets: The union of two sets A and A, which do not belong to B.
B, denoted by A È B is the set of all elements, i.e., x Î (A - B) Þ {x : x Î A and x Ï B}
which is either in A or in B or both in A and B.
i.e., A È B = {x : x Î A and x Î B}
difference B - A is the set of all elements of

zzThe
B, which do not belong to A.
(ii) Intersection of sets: The intersection of two
i.e., x Î (B - A) Þ {x : x Î B and x Ï A}
sets A and B, denoted by A Ç B, is the set of all
elements, which are common to both A and B.
i.e., A Ç B = {x : x Î A and x Î B}
(v) Symmetric difference: For two sets A and B,

symmetric difference is the set (A – B ) È ( B – A)
denoted by A D B .
If A1, A2 . . . . , An is a finite family of sets, then
their intersection is denoted by
n
∩ A i or A1 ∩ A 2 ∩ .... ∩ A n
i =l

(iii) Disjoint sets:
Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if A Ç B (vi) Complement of set : If A is a set with U as universal
=f set, then complement of a set, denoted by Ac or A' is
the set
U - A.
i.e., A’ = Ac = U -A = {x : x Î U and x Ï A}
 Law of algebra of set

(i) A È f = A
(ii) A Ç f = f
zzCommutative Law: ¾¾ Properties of Complements:
(i) A È B = B È A
(i) Complement Laws:
(ii) A Ç B = B Ç A
(a) A È A' = U (b) A Ç A' = f
zzAssociativeLaw:
(i) (A È B) È C = A È (B È C) (ii) De Morgan's Laws:
(ii) (A Ç B) Ç C = A Ç (B Ç C) (a) (A È B)' = A' Ç B'
(b) (A Ç B)' = A' È B'
zzDistributiveLaw: (iii) Law of Double Complementation

(i) A Ç (B È C) = (A Ç B) È (A Ç C) (a) (A')' = A
(ii) A È (B Ç C) = (A È B) Ç (A È C) (iv) Complement of f and U:
zzIfA Ì B, then A Ç B = A and A È B = B (a) f' = U
(b) U' = f
(iv) Difference of sets:
Note: If A Ì B, then B' Ì A'
For two sets A and B

CHAPTER-2
RELATIONS & FUNCTIONS
Topic-1 Cartesian Product and Relations
Revision Notes
or two non-empty sets A and B, the Cartesian
¾¾ F
Product A × B is the set of all ordered pairs of (iv) If there are three sets A, B, C and a ∈ A, b ∈ B and c ∈ C,
elements from sets A and B. then we form an ordered triplet (a, b, c). The set of all
ordered triplets (a, b, c) is called the cartesian
¾¾ In Symbolic form, it is written as,
product of these sets A B and C.
A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B}
i.e., A × B × C = {(a, b, c) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B, c ∈ C}
¾¾ T
hus, Cartesian Product of two sets represents
the set which represents the coordinates of all the Key Facts
points in two dimensional space. ¾¾ Number of Elements
e.g., If A = {a, b, c} and B = {p, q} then, It the set A has m elements and the set B has n
(i) A × B = {(a, p), (a, q), (b, p), (b, q), (c, p), (c, q)}
elements then the number of elements in the
(ii) B × A = {(p, a), (p, b), (p, c), (q, a), (q, b), (q, c)}
cartesian product set is mn elements.
¾¾ Diagrammatic Representation of Cartesian Product
of Two Sets i.e., set A = m elements; set B = n elements
l In order to represent A × B, by an arrow diagram, Then, n(A × B) = m × n elements
we first draw Venn diagrams representing sets ¾¾ Domain and Range of a Relation
A and B, one opposite to the other as shown in
given figure and write the elements of the sets. Let R be a relation from set A to set B. Then,
Now, we draw line segments starting from each set of all first components or coordinates of the
element of Set A and terminating to each element ordered pairs belonging to R is called the domain
of Set B. of R, while the set of all second components or
e.g., If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {f, g}, coordinates of the ordered pairs belonging to R is
Then, following figure gives the arrow diagram of
called the range of R.
A × B.
Thus, domain of R = {a : (a, b) ∈ R} and range of
1 f R = {b : (a, b) ∈ R}
¾¾ Types of Relations
2
(i) Void Relation : As f ⊂ A × A, for any set A, so
3 g
f is a relation on A, called the empty or void
relation.
If A, B and C are three sets, then (a, b, c) where a ∈ (ii) Universal Relation : Since, A × A ⊆ A × A, so
A, b ∈ B and c ∈ C is called an ordered triplet. A × A is a relation on A, called the universal
Note : relation.
(iii) Identity Relation : The relation IA = {(a, a) :
(i) If R = f, then R is called an empty relation.
a ∈ A} is called the identity relation on A.
(ii) If R = A × B, then R is called the universal
relation. (iv) Reflexive Relation : A relation R is said to
be reflexive relation, if every element of A is
(iii) If R1 and R2 are two relations from A to B, then R1
related to itself.
∪ R2, R1 ∩ R2 and R1 – R2 are also relations from A
to B. In a relation from A to B, such that Thus, (a, a) ∈ R, " a ∈ A Þ R is reflexive.
(v) Symmetric Relation : A relation R is said to be
R = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}
symmetric relation, iff
Here, the set of all first elements of ordered pairs
(a, b) ∈ R Þ (b, a) ∈ R, " a, b ∈ A
in a relation R is called the Domain and set of all
second elements of ordered pairs in a relation R i.e.,
is called the range. a R b Þ b R a, " a, b ∈ A
The Set B is called the Co-domain of relation R.
Range Í Codomain.
Some Important Results :
Þ R is symmetric.
¾¾ Properties of Cartesian Product
(vi) Anti-Symmetric Relation : A relation R is For three sets A, B and C
said to be anti-symmetric relation, iff (i) n (A × B) = n(A) n(B)
(a, b) ∈ R and (b, a) ∈ R Þ a = b, " a, b ∈ A (ii) A × f = f and f × A = f
(iii) A × (B ∪ C) = (A × B) ∪ (A × C)
(vii) Transitive Relation : A relation R is said to be (iv) A × (B ∩ C) = (A × B) ∩ (A × C)
transitive relation, iff (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R (v) A × (B – C) = (A × B) – (A × C)
Þ (a, c) ∈ R, " a, b, c ∈ A (vi) (A × B) ∩ (C × D) = (A ∩ C) × (B ∩ D )
(viii) Equivalence Relation : A relation R is said to (vii) If A ⊆ B and C ⊆ D, then (A × C) ⊂ (B × D)
be an equivalence relation, if it is reflexive, (viii) If A ⊆ B, then A × A ⊆ (A × B) ∩ (B × A)
symmetric and transitive simultaneously on a (ix) A × B = B × A ⇔ A = B
(x) If either A or B is an infinite set, then A × B is
set A. an infinite set.
(ix) Partial Order Relation : A relation R is (xi) A × (B ∪ C) = (A × B) ∪ (A × C)
said to be a partial order relation, if it is (xii) A × (B ∩ C) = (A × B) ∩ (A × C)
reflexive, symmetric and anti-symmetric (xiii) If A and B be any two non-empty sets having
simultaneously on a set A. n elements in common, then A × B and B ×
(x) Total Order Relation : A relation R on a set A A have n2 elements in common.
(xiv) If A ≠ B, then A × B ≠ B × A
is said to be a total order relation on A, if R is (xv) If A ⊆ B, then A × C ⊆ B × C for any set C.
a partial order relation on A.
Topic-2 Functions and their Types
Revision Notes
If f is a function from a set A to Set B, then we write, The subset of B containing the images of elements
of A is called the range of the function.
f : A ® B or A  f
→ B Thus, if a function f is expressed as the set of
and it is read as f is a function from A to B. ordered pairs, then the domain of f is the set of all
If (a, b) ∈ f Þ f(a) = b. first elements of ordered pairs and the range of f
Here, b is the image of a under f and a is called the is the set of second elements of ordered pairs of f.
pre-image of b under f. i.e.,
Few Properties to be known : Df = Domain of f = {a : (a, b) ∈ f}
(i) For any real number x, we have Rf = Range of f = {b : (a, b) ∈ f}
Let A and B be two non-empty finite sets such that
x 2 =| x | n(A) = p, and n(B) = q, then number of functions from
(ii) If n is an integer and x is a real number between n A to B = qp
and n + 1, then Identity function: Let R be the set of real numbers.
(a) [ – n] = – [n] A real valued function f is defined as f : R →  by
y = f(x) = x for each value of x ∈ R. Such a function
(b) [x + k] = [x] + k for any integer
is called the identity function.
(c) [ – x] = – [x] – 1
(d) [– x] = – [x] +1, where x ∈  – 
(iii) For any real function,
f : D ®  and n ∈ N, we define
( f f f .... f )( x ) f ( x ) f ( x ).... f ( x )
   =  ={f(x)}n, ∀x ∈ D
n times n times
Key Facts
Domain, Co-domain and Range of a Function
If f is a function from A to B and each element of

A corresponds to one and only one element of B,
whereas every element in B need not be the image Domain =  and Range = 
of some x in A. Then, the set A is called the domain Constant function:
of function f and the set B is called the co-domain The function f : R →  defined by f(x) = C for each
of f. x ∈  is called constant function. (where C is a
constant)
y
5
4
3
2
1
x' x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1
–2
–3
Domain = R and Range = {C} –4
Modulus function: The function f : R →  defined
by f(x) = |x| for each x ∈ R is called modulus –5
function or absolute valued function. y'

From the definition of [x], we have
[X] = -1, for -1 ≤ x <0
= 0, for 0 ≤ x < 1
= 1, for 1 ≤ x< 2
= 2, for 2 ≤ x < 3
Domain =  and Range = 
Polynomial Functions
Graphs of some other important functions
• f : R → , f(x) = x2
i. e.,
x, x 0
f (x)
x, x < 0
Domain =  and Range = [0, ∞)
Domain =  and Range = + ∪ {0} = {x : x ∈ ; x
• f : R → , f(x) = x3
≥ 0}
Signum function : Let R be the set of real numbers,
then the function f : R →  defined by
Domain =  and Range = 

• Exponential function, f : R → , f(x) = ax, a > 0, a ≠ 1
1, x > 0
x
||
f (x) = 0 , x = 0
x
1, x < 0
is known as signum function.
Domain =  and Range = {−1, 0, 1}
Greatest integer function : The function
f : R →  defined by f(x) = [x], x ∈  assumes the
value of the greatest integer, less than or equal
to x, such a function is called the greatest integer
function.

Domain =  and Range = (0, ∞) (i) Addition of two real functions : The sum function
• Natural exponential function, f(x) = ex
(f + g) is defined by
( f + g )( x ) = f ( x ) + g ( x ), ∀ x ∈ D1 ∩ D2
1 1 1
e =1 + + + + ° , 2 < e <3
1! 2! 3! The domain of (f + g) is D1 ∩ D2.
(ii) Subtraction of two real functions : The difference
• Logarithmic function, f : (0, ∞) → R; f (x)

function (f – g) is defined by
= logxa, a > 0, a ≠ 1
( f − g )( x ) = f ( x ) − g ( x ), ∀ x ∈ D1 ∩ D2
The domain of (f – g) is D1 ∩ D2.

(iii) Multiplication of two real functions : The product
function (f g) is defined by
( fg )( x ) = f ( x ). g ( x ), ∀ x ∈ D1 ∩ D2
The domain of (f g) is D1 ∩ D2.
(iv) Quotient of two real functions : The quotient
function is defined by
f f (x)
(x) = , ∀x ∈ D1 ∩ D2 − [ x : g ( x ) ≠ 0]

Domain = (0, ∞) and Range =  g g( x )
• Natural logarithmic function f(x) = log ex or ln x
f
Algebra of Real Functions The domain of   is D1 ∩ D2 – [x : g(x) ≠ 0]
g
Let f : D1 →  and g : D2 →  be two real functions
(v) Multiplication of a real function by a scalar : The
with domain D1 and D2, respectively. Then,
scalar multiple function cf is defined by
algebraic operations such as addition, subtraction,
( cf )( x ) = c. f ( x ), ∀ x ∈ D1
multiplication and division of two real functions
are given below. where, c is scalar (real number).
The domain of cf is D1.
Mnemonics
Trick to learn functions and graphs
Function Graph Shape Diagram How to

Remember
Constant Road Any equation
Function without x i.e., y
f(x) = C = k graphs are all
horizontal graphs
Identity Slope y = mx + c graphs

Function are all straight
f(x) = x lines
f(x) = x2 Bowl All quadratic

graphs are either
u-shaped or
n-shaped
f(x) = x3 Running In a running race,

man arms only top 3 runners
matter. Hence, y =
x3 graph looks like
arms of running
man.
Exponential Plane take- x-men powers help

Function off you take off like a
f(x) = ax plane. Hence, if x
is in power, graph
has a shape of a
plane taking off
f(x) = loga x Rocket Visualise a vertical

a>1 launch tree log taking off
like a rocket.
Hence, log graphs
have rocket launch
shapes

CHAPTER-3
Trigonometric Functions
Revision Notes
There are three measures for measuring an angle. (ii) Radian Measure :
(i) Degree Measure : A right angle is divided into 90 In a circle of radius r, an arc of length l subtends an
equal parts called degree and 1 degree is denoted as angle ‘q’ radian at the centre, then
1°. l
One degree is divided into 60 equal parts, called l=rq⇒q=
r
minutes and 1 minute is denoted by 1’. One minute
is divided into 60 equal parts called second. (iii) Centesimal System :
Thus, 1° = 60’, 1’ = 60” In this system a right angle is divided into 100 equal
parts called grades and each grade is subdivided
into 100 minutes, and each minute into 100 seconds. is true for all those angles for which the functions are
Thus, defined is called trigonometric identity. Some identities
are:
1 right angle = 100 grades
1 1
(i) sin q = or cosec q =
1 grade = 100 minutes cosecq sinq
1 minute = 100 seconds 1 1
(ii) cos q = or sec q =
secq cosq
Relation between three systems of measurement of
an angle is as follows: 1 cosq or
(iii) cot q = =
D G 2R tanq sin q
= =
90 100 p 1 sin q
tan q = =
cot q cosq
Where, D = Degree measure
G = Grade measure (iv) cos2 q + sin2 q = 1 or 1 – cos2 q = sin2 q or 1 – sin2
R = Radian measure q = cos2 q.
A circle subtends at the centre an angle, whose (v) 1 + tan2 q = sec2 q or sec2 q – tan2 q = 1
radian measure is 2p and its degree measure is 360°. (vi) 1 + cot2 q = cosec2 q or cosec2 q – cot2 q = 1
It follows that, Sign of Trigonometric Functions in Different Quadrants
2p radian = 360°
(or) p radian = 180°
180°
\ 1 rad = = 57°16’22” (approx)., where
π
22
p = = 3.14159 (Approx)
7
Thus,
π
Radian = × degree measure.
180°
180°
Degree = × radian measure.
π
Note :
(i) The angle between two consecutive digits in a
 p 
clock is 30°  = radians
 6 
(ii) The minute hand rotates through an angle of 6°

Mnemonics
in one minute. (Which trigonometric ratio is positive in which
(iii) Radian is a constant angle. quadrant)
(iv) 1° =  p  rad = 0.0176 rad Quadrant - I All - All are positive
 
180  Quadrant - II Silver - sin and 1/sin
Quadrant - III Tea - tan and 1/tan
Trigonometric Identities (q measured in radian)
An equation involving trigonometric functions, which Quadrant - IV Cups - cos and 1/cos
Trigonometric Ratios of Some Standard Angles

Angle 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180°
1 1 3 3 1 1
sin 0 1 0
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 1 1 1 1 3
cos 1 0 − − − –1
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1
tan 0 1 3 ∞ − 3 –1 − 0
3 3
1 1 − 3
cot ∞ 3 1 0 − –1 –∞
3 3
2 2
sec 1 2 2 ∞ –2 − 2 − –1
3 3
2 2
cosec ∞ 2 2 1 2 2 ∞
3 3

Domain and Range of Trigonometric Functions x+y x−y
• sin x + sin y = 2 sin cos
2 2
Function Domain Range
x+y x−y
• sin x − sin y = 2 cos sin
sin x  [− 1, 1] 2 2
x+y x−y
cos x  [− 1, 1] • cos x + cos y = 2 cos cos
2 2
x+ y x− y
tan x p  • cos x − cos y = −2 sin sin
 − {(2n +1) ;n ∈ } 2 2
2
(iii) Trigonometric Functions of multiple and sub-
cosec x  − {n p ; n ∈} −(− 1, 1) multiple angles
2 tan x
sec x p  −(− 1, 1) • sin 2 x = 2 sin x cos x =
 − {(2n + 1)   ; n ∈ } 1 + tan 2 x
2
1 − tan 2 x
cot x  − {n p ; n ∈ }  • cos 2 x = cos2 x − sin 2 x = 2 cos2 x − 1 = 1 − 2 sin 2 x =
1 + tan 2 x
(i) Compound Angle Formulae 1 − tan 2 x
cos 2 x = cos2 x − sin 2 x = 2 cos2 x − 1 = 1 −– 22sin
sin2 x =
• sin( x y ) sin x cos y cos x sin y 1 + tan 2 x
2 tan x
• cos ( x y ) cos x cos y sin x sin y • tan 2 x =
1 − tan 2 x
tan x + tan y • sin 3x = 3 sin x − 4 sin 3 x
• tan( x + y ) =
1 − tan xtan y
• cos 3x = 4 cos3 x − 3 cos x
cot x ⋅ cot y − 1
• cot ( x + y) = 3 tan x − tan 3 x
cot y + cot x • tan 3x =
1 − 3 tan 2 x
• sin( x − y ) = sin x cos y − cos x sin y
 A
• cos ( x − y ) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y + , if lies in quadrants I or II
A 1 − cos A  2
• sin = ± 
Note: 2 2 − , if A lies in III or IV quadrants
 2
sin( x + y ) sin( x − y ) = sin 2 x − sin 2 y = cos2 y − cos2 x
 A
+ , if lies in I or IV quadrants
A 1 + cos A  2
cos ( x + y ) cos ( x − y ) = cos2 x − sin 2 y = cos2 y − sin 2 x • cos = ± 
2 2 − , if A
lies in II or III quadrants
tan x − tan y  2
• tan( x − y ) =
1 + tan x ⋅ tan y
 A
+ , if lies in I or III quadrants
cot x ⋅ cot y + 1 A 1 − cos A  2
• cot ( x − y) = • tan = ± 
cot y − cot x 2 1 + cos A  A
− , if lies in II or IV quadrants
 2
tan x + tan y + tan z
− tan x tan y tan z Trigonometric functions of an angle of 18°
• tan( x + y + z) =
1 − tan x tan y −
Let q = 18°. Then
tan y tan z − tan z tan x 2q = 90° − 3q
(ii) Transformation formulae Therefore,
• 2 sin x cos y = sin( x + y ) + sin( x − y ) sin 2q = sin(90° − 3q ) = cos 3q
• 2 cos x sin y = sin(x + y) – sin(x – y)
or
• 2 cos x cos y = cos( x + y ) + cos( x − y ) [x > y]
sin 2q = 4 cos3 q − 3 cosq
• 2 sin x sin y = cos(x – y) – cos(x + y)
Since, cosq ≠ 0 , we get
2 sin q = 4 cos2 q − 3 = 1 − 4 sin 2 q Now, we can easily find cos 36° and sin 36° as
follows:
or
6−2 5 2+2 5 5 +1
4 sin 2 q + 2 sin q − 1 = 0 . cos 36° = 1 − 2 sin 2 18° = 1 − = =
8 8 4
Hence,
6−2 5 2+2 5 5 + 1 [DDE-2017]
4 5 cos 36° = 1 − 2 sin 2 18° = 1 − = =
sinq = = 8 8 4
8 4
Hence,
5 −1 5 +1
Since, q = 18°, sinq > 0 , therefore, sin18° = cos 36° =
4 4
Also, Also,
6−2 5 10 + 2 5 6+2 5 10 − 2 5
cos 18° = 1 − sin 18° = 1 −
2
= sin 36° = 1 − cos2 36° = 1 − =
16 4 16 4
UNIT – II: algebra

CHAPTER-4
COMPLEX NUMBERS AND QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
Topic-1 Complex Numbers
Revision Notes
¾¾ A number consisting of real ‘part’ and imaginary i.e., we can compare two complex numbers
‘part’ is called a Complex number. only if they are purely real.
¾¾ The coordinate plane that represents the complex
� 0 + i 0 is additive identity of a complex number.
numbers is called the complex plane or Argand
plane. −z
� = − a − ib is called the Additive Inverse or
¾¾ "A number of the form a + ib, where a and b are real negative of z = a + ib
numbers is called a complex number." � 1 + i 0 is a multiplicative identity of complex
¾¾ Here, the symbol 'i' is called iota. We have i2 = – 1 i.e.,
number.
± i is the solution of the equation x2 + 1 = 0.
¾¾ Integral powers of 'i' : ¾¾ The Conjugate of a complex number z is the complex
number obtained by changing the sign of imaginary
i4q = 1, q∈ part of z. It is denoted by z. z = a − ib is called the
i4q + 1 = i, q∈ conjugate of z = a + ib.
i4q + 2 = –1, q∈
i4q + 3 = – i, q∈ Key Terms
i –q = 1, q∈ ¾¾ Imaginary Number : The square root of a negative
iq
number is known as an imaginary number,
¾¾ Real and imaginary parts of a complex numbers: e.g., −1 , −2 etc.
� Let z = a + ib be a complex number, then a is
called real part and b is called the imaginary part ¾¾ −1 is denoted by the Greek letter i (iota).
of z and it may be denoted as Re (z) and Im (z) ¾¾ Powers of i : i0 = 1; i2 = – 1; i3 = – i, i4 = 1 etc.
respectively.
If z = 2 + 3i, then ¾¾ An Important Result : For any two real numbers
e.g. : Re (z) = 2, Im (z) = 3.
a and b, a × b = ab is true only when at least
� a ib c id if a = c, and one of a and b is either 0 or positive.
b=d ¾¾ In fact, − a × − b = (i a )(i b ) = i 2 ab = − ab ,
� z1 = a + ib, z2 = c + id . where a and b are positive real numbers.
� In general, we cannot compare and say that Note : Every real number is a complex number,
z1 > z2 or z1 < z2 but if b, d = 0 and a > c then for a ∈ R, it can be written as a = a + i0.
z1 > z2
¾¾ Purely Real and Purely Imaginary Numbers : A ¾¾ Sum, Difference and Product of Complex Numbers :
complex number z is said to be For complex numbers, z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id, it
is defined as
(i) purely real, if Im (z) = 0.
(i) z1 + z2 = (a + ib) + (c + id) = (a + c) + i(b + d)
(ii) purely imaginary, if Re (z) = 0. (ii) z1 – z2 = (a + ib) – (c + id) = (a – c) + i(b – d)
(iii) z1z2 = (a + ib)(c + id) = (ac – bd) + i(ad + bc)
Topic-2 Quadratic Equations
Revision Notes
� We already know that ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, c c is a perfect square if b2 – 4ac = 0.
are real numbers and a ≠ 0, is called a quadratic (or 2. The root are imaginary if b2 – 4ac is negative i.e.,
second degree) polynomial in the variable x with the roots are complex.
real coefficients. Also an equation of the type ax2 + � Sum and Product of the Roots
bx + c = 0, a ≠ 0, is called a quadratic equation in the If α and β are the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 +
variable x.
bx + c = 0, we have
The equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, c are
real numbers and a ≠ 0, is called the general (or − b + b 2 − 4 ac − b − b 2 − 4 ac
α+β = +
standard) quadratic equation in the variable x with 2a 2a
real coefficients. The equation of the type ax2 + c = −b
i.e., α + β =
0, a ≠ 0, is called a pure quadratic equation. a
The roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a ≠ 0)
are − b + b 2 − 4 ac − b − b 2 − 4 ac
αβ = ×
2a 2a
− b + b 2 − 4ac − b − b 2 − 4ac
and
( − b )2 − ( )
2
2a 2a
=
b 2 − 4 ac
=
(
b 2 − b 2 − 4 ac ) = 4 ac ;
The expression b – 4ac is called the discriminant of
2
4a 2
4a 2
4 a2
the quadratic equation denoted by D or D.
c
� Solving Pure Quadratic Equation i.e., αβ =
a
Let the pure quadratic equation be ax2 + c = 0,
where a ≠ 0 Aid to Memory : In a given quadratic equation,
Coeff . of x
c c (1) Sum of the roots = −
⇒ ax2 = – c ⇒ x 2 = − ⇒x=± − Coeff . of x 2
a a
Constant term
(2) Product of the roots =
Coeff . of x 2
c c
Hence, the root are − , − − .
a a −b
α+β =
2
b b 4 ac a
� Nature or character of the roots c
2a αβ =
a
Examining the nature of the roots means to see
what type of roots the equation has, i.e., whether
they are real or imaginary, rational or irrational, � Signs of the Roots
equal or unequal. The nature of the roots depends 1. Positive roots : Both roots will be positive if α
entirely on the value of the expression b2 – 4ac b c
which is called the discriminant of the equation. + β and α β both are positive. i.e., − and
a a
Thus if a, b, c are rational,
1. The roots are real and unequal if b2 – 4ac is are positive. It will be so when b and a are of
positive. opposite sign and c and a are of same sign.
Further, 2. Negative roots : Both roots will be negative if
(i) The roots are rational if b2 – 4ac is a perfect b
square. α + β is negative and aβ is positive, i.e., − is
(ii) The roots are irrational if b2 – 4ac is not a perfect c a
negative and is positive. It will be so when a,
square. a
(iii) The roots are equal if b2 – 4ac is zero, each root b, c all are of same sign.
being equal to − b . It follows that ax2 + bx + 3. Roots of opposite signs : It will occur when ab is
2a negative, i.e., c and a are of opposite sign.
4. Roots equal in magnitude but opposite in sign: � Quadratic Functions
b An algebraic expression of the form ax2 + bx + c is
It will occur when α + β = 0, i.e., - = 0, i.e., b
a called a quadratic function of x.
= 0. For real solutions the sign of a and c should Graph of the Quadratic Function ax2 + bx + c
be opposite. where (a ≠ 0)
Maximum
� Important Algebraic Results turning point
(α – β)2 = α2 + β2 – 2αβ
CONCAVE
(α + β)2 = α2 + β2 + 2αβ
UPWARDS
a2 +b2 = (α + β)2 – 2αβ ...(i) a>0 CONCAVE
DOWNWARDS
(a – b) 2
= (α + β) – 4αb
2
...(ii) a<0
Minimum
a2 – b2 = (α + β)(α – β) turning point
= ( α + β ) ( α + β ) 2 − 4αβ ...(iii) Let, f(x) = ax2 + bx + c
a3 + b3 = (α + β)3 – 3αβ (α + β)...(iv) Procedure:
a3 – b3 = (α – β) (a2 + αβ + b2) 1. Make a table of corresponding values for x and the
function.
= (α – β) [(α – β)2 + 3 α b] 2. Plot these points, as a pair of x, f(x) on the axes.
= (α – β)3 + 3 α β (α – β) ...(v) 3. Draw a smooth curve joining the plotted points.
α4 + β4 = (a2 + b2)2 – 2a2b2 The graph of a quadratic function is a parabola.
= [(α + β)2 – 2 αβ]2 – 2(αβ)2 ...(vi) The point at which its direction changes is
α4 – β4 = (a2 – b2)(a2 + b2) called its turning point. It is more commonly
called the vertex of the parabola.
= (α – β )(α + β)( a2 + b2)
The graph of the function is concave upwards
= ( ) 2 4 (α + β) [(α + β)2 – 2 αβ] when a > 0 and concave downwards when a <0.
...(vii)
� Studying the nature and Character of the Roots of a Quadratic Equation by Graphing
The graphs given below illustrate the following cases.
Real roots Real roots
Case 1: a > 0 Equal roots Case 2: a 0 Equal roots

>
Complex roots Complex roots

(a) If the graph cuts the X-axis, the roots of the equation will be real and unequal. Their values will be given by the
abscissae of the points of intersection of the graph and the X-axis.
(b) If the graph is tangent to the X-axis, the roots are real and equal.
(c) If the graph has no points in common with the X-axis, the roots of the equation are imaginary and cannot be
determined from the graph.
Case 1 : When a is positive. i.e., a > 0 Case 2 : When a is negative. i.e., a <0
(i) b2 – 4ac is +ve. M

O
Y A L B X
L Y'
A B X
O M Real roots OA and OB.
Real roots OA and OB.
4 ac − b 2 4 ac b 2
Minimum value LM = Minimum value LM
4a 4a
-b -b
at x = OL = at x = OL =
2a 2a
(ii) b2 – 4ac = 0 A
O
X
Y
X Y'
O A
Real and equal roots.
Real and equal roots. Each root = OA
Each root = OA
(iii) b2 – 4ac is – ve O L
X
Y
M
M
Y'
L X
O Complex roots : The curve lies entirely below
the X-axis and the vertex will be at a distance
Complex roots : Curve entirely above the X-axis
with lowest point M at a height. 4 ac b 2
LM below the X-axis.
4 ac b 2 4a
LM above the X-axis.
4a
Mnemonics
Mnemonic for Quadratic formula: x =

-b ± b 2 - 4 ac
2a
A negative boy was undecided whether or not he should go to a radical party but his 2 friends who were boys
went and there they met 4 amazing children and stayed up until 2am.
Let’s examine the various parts of this “story”:
A negative boy – (–b)
Was undecided – (+–)
… to a radical party – (square root symbol)
his 2 friends (b2)
… 4 amazing children – (4ac)
stayed up until 2am – (division by 2a).
CHAPTER-5
LINEAR INEQUALITIES
Revision Notes
¾¾ Inequality : Two real numbers or two algebraic occurs in first degree only and there is no term
expression related by the symbol ‘<’, ‘>’, ‘≤’ or ‘≥’ involving the product of the variables.
form an inequality. e.g., ax + b ≤ 0, ax + by + c > 0, ax ≤ 4.
¾¾ Linear Inequality An inequality in one variable in which degree of
An inequality is said to be linear, if each variable variable is 2, is called quadratic inequality in one
variable. Note : Replacement set : The set from which values
e.g., ax2 + bx + c ≥ 0, 3x2 + 2x + 4 ≤ 0. of the variable (involved in the inequality) are
¾¾ Linear Inequality In One Variable chosen is called replacement set.
A linear inequality which has only one variable, is Solution set : A solution to an inequality is a number
called linear inequality in one variable. which when substituted for the variable, makes
e.g., ax + b < 0, where a ≠ 0, 4c + 7 ≥ 0. the inequality true. The set of all solutions of an
(i) Rules for solving inequalities: inequality is called the solution set of the inequality.
zzif a ≥ b then a ± k ≥ b ± k where k is any real
number. Key Facts
zzif a ≥ b then ka is not always ≥ kb
If k > 0 (i.e., positive) then, a ≥ b ⇒ ka ≥ kb
If k < 0 (i.e., negative) then, a ≥ b ⇒ ka ≤ kb Types of Inequality
Thus, always reverse the sign of inequality while ¾¾ Numerical inequality : An inequality which does
multiplying or dividing both sides of an inequality
not involve any variable is called a numerical
by a negative number.
inequality.
(ii) Procedure to solve a linear inequality in one
variable. e.g., 4 > 2, 8 < 21
zzSimplify both sides by collecting like terms. ¾¾ Literal inequality : An inequality which have
zzRemove fractions (or decimals) by multiplying variables is called literal inequality.
both sides by appropriate factor (L.C.M of e.g., x < 7, y ≥ 11, x − y ≤ 4
denominator or a power of 10 in case of decimals.)
¾¾ Strict inequality : An inequality which have only
zzIsolate the variable on one side and all constants
< or > is called strict inequality.
on the other side. Collect like terms whenever
e.g., 3x + y < 0, x > 7
possible.
¾¾ Slack inequality : An inequality which have only
zzMake the coefficient of the variable equal to 1.
≥ or ≤ is called slack inequality.
zzChoose the solution set from the replacement
e.g., 3x + 2y ≤ 0, y > 4
set.
CHAPTER-6
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS
Topic-1 Permutations
Revision Notes
¾¾ If an event can occur in m different ways, following n n!
which another event can occur in n different ways, P( n,r )= Pr= , 0 ≤ r ≤ n.
( n - r )!
then the total number of occurrence of the events in
the given order is m × n. Note :
¾¾ A permutation is an arrangement in a definite order n! n!
(i) When r = 0, then n P= = = 1 [∵ 0! = 1]
of a number of objects taken some or all at a time. 0
( n - 0)! n !
¾¾ e.g., If there are three objects say A, B and C, then
the permutations of these objects taking two at a
time are AB, BC, AC, BA, CB and CA. So, number of (ii) When r = n, then
permutations is 3! = 1∙2∙3 = 6. n n! n!
P= = = n!
¾¾ If n and r are positive integers such that n
( n - n)! 0!
0≤ r≤ n, then the number of permutations of n
distinct things taken r at a time is denoted by nPr (iii) Number of permutations of different things taken
all at a time = n!
or P(n, r).
We have,
(v) The number of permutations of n objects of

Key Terms which p1 are of one kind, p2 are of second kind,
¾¾ Fundamental Principles of Counting
(i) Multiplication Principle : If first operation can … pk are of kth kind and the rest if any, are of
be performed in m ways and a second operation n!
different kinds, is
can be performed in n ways, Then, the two p1 ! p2 !… pk !
operations taken together can be performed ¾¾ Properties of Permutation
in mn ways. This can be extended to any finite
number of operations. (i) n
Pn =n( n - 1)( n - 2) ....1 =n !
(ii) Addition Principle : If first operation can be n!
performed in m ways and another operation, (ii) n
P=
0 = 1
which is independent of the first, can be n!
performed in n ways. Then, either of the two (iii) n
P1 = n
operations can be performed in m + n ways.
This can be extended to any finite number of (iv) n
Pn -1 = n !
exclusive events. (v) n -1
Pr + r ⋅ n -1 Pr -1 =n Pr
(iii) Factorial : For any natural number n we define
n
Pr
factorial as n! or n= n( n - 1)( n - 2) ... 3 × 2 × 1 and (vi) n
= n-r +1
Pr -1
0! = 1! = 1
(iv) The number of permutations of n objects, taken r
at a time, when repetition of objects is allowed is
nr.
Topic-2 Combinations
Revision Notes
¾¾ Each of the different groups or selection which can (ii) n
C1 = n
be made by taking some or all of a number of things
or objects at a time irrespective of their arrangement (iii) If n Cr = n C p , then either r = p or r +p = n
is called a combination. n
Pr
¾¾ The number of combinations of n distinct objects (iv) n
Cr =
r!
taken r at a time is given by,
(v) n n +1
Cr + n Cr - 1 = Cr
n!
=n
Cr , 0≤r≤n
r !( n - r )! (vi) n
C0 + n C1 + n C2 + ... + n Cn =
2n
n (vii) n
C0 + n C2 + n C 4 + ... = n
C1 + n C3 + ... = 2 n -1
It is also denoted by C(n, r) or   .
r  n n n -1 n( n - 1) n - 2
=
(viii) Cr = Cr - 1 Cr - 2
¾¾ Difference between permutations and r r( r - 1)
combinations :
(ix) 2 n +1
C0 + 2 n +1
C1 + 2 n +1
C 2 + ... 2 n +1
22n
Cn =
zzThe process of selecting objects is called
combination, and that of arranging objects is (x) n
Cn + n +1
Cn + n+2
Cn + ... + 2 n -1 2n
Cn = Cn + 1
called permutation.
¾¾ Properties of Combination :
(i) n=
C0 n
=
Cn 1
CHAPTER-7
BINOMIAL THEOREM
Revision Notes
¾¾ An algebraic expression consisting of two terms with
th
+ve or –ve sign between them, is called binomial zz r term from the end in ( b + a )n =
r th term from
expression. If a and b are two real numbers, then for
the beginning in ( a + b )n
any positive integer n, we have,
( a + b )n= n
C0 a n + n C1a n -1 b + n C2 a n - 2 b 2 +... n Cn b n zzIn the expansion ( a + b )n , the term which is free
⇒ n
∑ n Cr a n - r b r
( a + b )n =
r =0
from a and b is know as Independent term.
Where, n C0 , n C1 , ..... n Cn are called binomial

zzIn (1 + x )n , coefficient of x r is n Cr .
coefficients.
¾¾ Important points to be known:

Key Terms
¾¾ Some particular cases:
zzThe total number of terms in (a + b)n is n + 1.
n
zzIn each term of the expansion, the sum of indices ∑ n Cr x r
(1 + x )n =
r =0
of a and b is the same and is equal to the index
n
of (a + b) (1 - x )n = ∑ ( -1)r n Cr x r
zzIn the successive terms of the expansion, powers r =0
of first quantity a goes on decreasing by 1, ¾¾ Some properties of Binomial coefficients:

whereas the powers of the second quantity b n
C 0 + n C1 + n C 2 +  + n C n =
2n
increases by 1.
n
C0 - nC1 + nC2 - nC3 +  + ( -1)nn Cn =0
zzThe binomial coefficients of terms equidistant
from the beginning and end are equal. n
C0 + nC 2 + nC 4 +  = n
C1 + n C 3 + n C 5 +  = 2 n - 1
zzIn ( a + b )n , r th term from the end is same as
( n - r + 2)th term from beginning.
CHAPTER-8
SEQUENCE AND SERIES
Topic-1 Sequence, Series and A.M.
Revision Notes
¾¾ Sequence : Sequence is a function whose domain ¾¾ Real Sequence : A sequence whose range is a subset
is a subset of natural numbers. It represents the of R is called a real sequence.
images of 1, 2, 3, ….., n as f1, f2, f3,….., fn, where fn
= f(n).
¾¾ Series : If a1, a2, a3, ……, an is a sequence, then the [their common difference are equal]
expression a1 + a2 + a3 +….. + an is a series. ⇒ 2A = a + b
¾¾ Progression : A sequence whose terms follow a+b
⇒ A=
certain rule is called a progression. 2
¾¾ Finite Series : A series having finite number of ∴ A.M. between two numbers = Half of their sum
terms is called a finite series. ¾¾ An Important Result : Sum of n A.M. ’s between
two quantities is n times the single A.M. between
¾¾ Infinite Series : A series having infinite number of
them.
terms is called a infinite series.
n Arithmetic Means : Let A1, A2, A3, …, An be the n,
¾¾ Arithmetic Mean : When three quantities are in A.M. ’s between two numbers a and b.
A.P., the middle quantity is said to be Arithmetic So we can find the A.M ’s as
Mean (A.M.) between the other two. b-a 2( b - a ) n(
A1 =a + d , d = , A2 =a + 2d =a + ..., An =a + nd =a +
Thus, if a, A, b are in A.P., then A is the A.M. between n+1 n+1 n
a and b. b-a 2( b - a ) n( b - a )
A1 =a + d , d = , A2 =a + 2d =a + ..., An =a + nd =a +
So, A – a = b – A,
n+1 n+1 n+1
Topic-2 G.P. and Sum to n terms of Special Series
Revision Notes
¾¾ A sequence of non-zero number is said to be G.P.,
if the ratio of each term, except the first one, by its Sn =
(
a 1 - rn ), where r < 1
preceding term is always the same. 1-r
We can say that, a sequence a1, a2, …....., an is called

geometric progression (geometric sequence), if it and Sn =
(
a rn - 1 ),
where r > 1
r -1
a
follows the relation k + 1 = r (constant). ¾¾ Geometric Mean: Geometric mean between a and b
ak is ab or If a, b, c are in G.P., then
The constant ratio is called Common ratio of the Geometric mean (G.M.) b2 = ac
G.P. and it is denoted by r. Some Important Results:
In a G.P., we usually denote the first term by a, the zzReciprocals of terms in G.P. always form a G.P.
nth term by Tn or an. zzIf G1, G2, G3, . . . . , Gn are n numbers inserted
between a and b so that the resulting sequence
Thus, G.P. can be written as, a, ar2, ar3 …… and so
is G.P., then
on. k +1
b
¾¾ General Term of a G.P. : If a is the first term of a G.P. =Gk a   ,1 ≤ k ≤ n
a
and its common ratio is r, then general term or nth
zzIf three terms of G.P. are to be taken, then we
term, a a
choose as, , a, ar.
Tn = ar n-1 or l = ar n-1, where l is the last term. r2 r
mth Term of Finite GP. from the End : Let a be the zzIf four terms of G.P. are to be taken, then we
a a
first term and r be the common ratio of a G.P. having choose as 3 , , ar , ar 3 .
r r
n terms. Then, mth term from the end is (n – m + 1)th
term from the beginning. zzIf five terms of G.P. are to be taken, then we
a a
1
n -1 choose as 2 , , a, ar, ar2
Also, mth term from the end = l   , where l is last r r
term of the finite G.P. r zzIf a, b, c are in G.P. then ak, bk, ck are also in G.P.
a b c
where k ≠ 0 and , , also in G.P. where
¾¾ Sum of First n Terms of a GP. : If a and r are the first k k k
term and common ratio of a G.P. respectively, then k ≠0.
sum of n terms of this G.P. is given by
zzIn a G.P., the product of the terms equidistant
from the beginning and from the end is always
same and equal to the product of the first and Such that -1 < r < 1 or |r|<1
the last terms.
zzIf a, b, c are A.P. then 2b = a + c.
zzIf each term of a G.P. be raised to some power
then the resulting terms are also in G.P. zzIf a, b, c are in G.P. then b2 = ac
zz S∞ =a + ar + ar 2 + ar 3 +  ∞ term if zzIfA and G be A.M. and G.M. of two given
positive real number ‘a’ and ‘b’ respectively then
a a+b
-1 < r < 1 ⇒ S∞ = . A= , G = ab and A ≥ G .
1-r 2
UNIT – III: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
CHAPTER-9
STRAIGHT LINES
Recall of Two Dimensional
Topic-1 Geometry and Slope of
a Line
Revision Notes
¾¾ Coordinate axes and plane plane consists of the axes and four quadrants
zzThe Position of a point in a plane is fixed by is known as XY-plane or equation plane or
selecting the axes or reference which are formed coordinate plane and the axes are known as
by two number lines intersecting each other at co-ordinate axes. These axes are also known as
right angle. The horizontal number line is called rectangular axes and are perpendicular to each
X-axis and vertical number line is called Y-axis. other.
(b)
(b)
(a)
II quadrant I quadrant
III quadrant IV quadrant
¾¾ Section Formulae
zzThe point of intersection of these two lines is
zzIf a point R divide the segments joining the
called the origin. The intersection of X-axis and
Y-axis divide the plane into four equal parts. points P( x1 , y1 ) and Q( x 2 , y 2 ) internally in the
These four parts are called quadrants, Each part is ratio m : n, then its coordinate are
(¼th) of the whole portion. These are numbered  mx 2 + nx1 my 2 + ny1 
I, II, III and IV anti-clockwise from OX. Thus, the  m+n , m+n 
 
.p(x 1, y1)
m
. n
.
Q
Internal
division
(x2, y2)
R
zzIf the division is external, then the co-ordinate of R are

 mx 2 - nx1 my 2 - ny1 
 m-n , m-n .
 
m . External
p
(x2, y2) Q
. R
division
(x1, y 1)
. n
.
¾¾ Distance formulae ¾¾ Equation of the locus of a point
zzDistance between two points P ( x 1 , y1 ) zzThe equation of the locus of a point is the relation
which is satisfied by the coordinates of every
and Q( x 2 , y 2 ) is ( x 2 - x 1 ) 2 + ( y 2 - y1 ) 2 or
point on the locus of the point.
zzThe slope of a line ‘l’ is the tangent of the angle
( x 1 - x 2 ) 2 + ( y1 - y 2 ) 2
. made by the line in the anti-clockwise direction
zzDistance of a point P( x1 , y1 ) from origin is with the positive X-axis.
i.e., slope, m = tan q,
x12 + y12 .
where ‘m’ represents slope and ‘q ’ is the angle
¾¾ Area Formulae made by the line with positive X-axis.
zzArea of ∆ABC with vertices A( x1 , y1 ) , B( x 2 , y 2 ) y
and C( x3 , y3 ) is given by
x1 y1 1
1
∆ = x2 y2 1
2
x3 y3 1
1
= x 1 ( y 2 - y 3 ) + x 2 ( y 3 - y1 ) + x 3 ( y1 - y 2 )
2 x’ x
� If ∆ =0 , then the points A, B, C are collinear (i.e.,
they lie in a same straight line).
y
A(x1y 1)
y'
¾¾ Slope of a line joining two points
zzThe slope ‘m’ of a line segment AB joining the

x’ x
points A( x1 , y1 ) and B( x 2 , y 2 ) , and making
angle ‘q ’ with positive X-axis, is given by
B(x2, y2) C(x3, y3)
y 2 - y1 y1 - y 2
= tan=
m θ =
x 2 - x1 x1 - x 2 .
y’
� Area of quadrilateral ABCD with vertices
A( x1 , y1 ) , B( x 2 , y 2 ) , C( x3 , y3 ) and D( x 4 , y 4 ) is
1 x1 - x 3 x2 - x4
=
2 y1 - y 2 y2 - y4
1
=
( x1 - x 3 )( y 2 - y 4 ) - ( x 2 - x 4 )( y1 - y3 )
2
� Area of a trapezium formed by joining the
vertices P ( x 1 , y1 ) , Q( x 2 , y 2 ) , R( x 3 , y 3 ) and
S( x 4 , y 4 ) is
1
[( y1 + y2 )( x1 - x2 ) + ( y3 + y1 )( x3 - x1 ) + ( y2 + y3 )( x3 - x2 )]
2
¾¾ Angle between two lines ⇒ m1m2 = -1
� Let l1 and l2 be two lines which makes angles a Thus, two lines are perpendicular, if and only
and b respectively with positive X-axis. Then, if their slopes m1 and m2 satisfy m1m2 = −1 or
their slopes are m1 = tan a and m2 = tan b. 1
m1 = -
� Let ‘q ’ be the angle between l1 and l2, then m2
m2 - m1 ¾¾ Collinearity of three points
θ =tan -1
1 + m1m2 zzThree points A,B,C is XY-plane are collinear i.e.,
they lie on the same line if and only if slope of AB
m2 - m1
and θ ′ = π - tan -1 = slope of BC.
1 + m1m2
¾¾ Extra Information
zzIf a point R trisect the line segment joining the
points P( x1 , y1 ) and Q( x 2 , y 2 ) , then it will divide
PQ in the ratio 2 :1 or 1: 2
zzIf a point R is the mid-point of the line segment
joining the points P( x1 , y1 ) and Q( x 2 , y 2 ) , then
 x 1 + x 2 y1 + y 2 
the coordinates of R are  ,
 2 2 
zzIf G is the centroid of a triangle whose vertices are
( x1 , y1 ) , ( x 2 , y 2 ) and ( x3 , y3 ) , then co-ordinates

x + x 2 + x 3 y1 + y 2 + y 3 
of G =  1 , 
 3 3 .
zzThe centroid divides each median of the triangle
in the ratio 2 :1.
� If two lines are parallel, then angle between zzIf the origin O(0,0) is shifted to another point
them is 0°. (a, b), then the co-ordinates of point P(x, y) are
changed to P'(x – a, y – b).
∴ Slope = tan
= θ tan=
0° 0
zzThe angle ‘θ’, which a line makes with positive
m2 - m1
⇒ =0 direction of X-axis, is called inclination angle of
1 + m1m2
the line.
⇒ m1 = m2 zzThe slope of Y-axis (or any line parallel to it) is,
Thus, two lines are parallel if and only if their m = tan 90° = ¥, which is not defined.
slopes are equal i.e., if m1 = m2 . zzLet ‘θ’ be the angle between two lines. Then
� If two lines are perpendicular, then angle between (i) If tan q is positive, then q will be an acute
them is 90°. Therefore, slope = tan 90° = ∞ angle.
m2 - m1 (ii) If tan q is negative, then q will be an obtuse

⇒ = ∞ angle.
1 + m1m2
⇒ 1 + m1m2 =
0
Topic-2 Various forms of equations of a straight line
Revision Notes
¾¾ Horizontal and vertical lines the left of X-axis, then ‘b’ is negative and if the
zzThe equation of a horizontal line (i.e., any line line lie to the right of Y-axis, then ‘b’ is positive.
parallel to x-axis) is y = a or y = −a. If the line lies ¾¾ Slope intercept form
above X-axis, then ‘a’ is positive and if the line lie zzIf a line ‘L’ has slope ‘m’ and make an intercept
below the X-axis, then ‘a’ is negative. ‘c’ on y-axis, then the equation of the line is y =
zzThe equation of a vertical line (i.e., any line mx + c.
parallel to Y-axis) is x = b or x = −b. If line lie to
zzIf the line passes through the origin, then its ¾¾ Intercept form
equation becomes y = mx. zzThe equation of a line which cuts-off intercepts
¾¾ Point-slope form a and b on the X-axis and Y-axis respectively, is
zzThe equation of the straight line having slope given by
‘m’ and passing through the point P0 ( x 0 , y0 ) is x y
+ = 1
a b
y - y0 = m( x - x0 )
¾¾ Two points form
zzEquation of X-axis is y = 0 and equation of Y-axis
zzThe equation of a line passing through the points
is x = 0.
( x1 , y1 ) and ( x 2 , y 2 ) is given by
zzIfa line ‘L’ has slope ‘m’ and X-intercept ‘d’, then
y 2 - y1
y=
- y1 ( x - x1 ) the equation of the line is y = m(x – d).
x 2 - x1
CHAPTER-10
CONIC SECTIONS
Topic-1 Sections of a Cone (circle)
Revision Notes
¾¾ Geometrical Definition of conic sections
A conic section is the locus of a point which moves zzParabola When eccentricity e =1, then the conic
in a plane in such a way that the ratio of its distance is a parabola.
from a fixed point and a fixed line is a constant.
Then (b)
(i) The fixed point is called focus and is denoted by
S.
(ii) The fixed straight line is called directrix.
(iii)
The constant ratio is called eccentricity and is
denoted by ‘e’.
In the adjacent figure,
zzEllipse When eccentricity e < 1, then the conic

is an ellipse.
(c)

Depending on the eccentricity ‘e’, the different
cases are as follows
zzHyperbola When eccentricity e >1, then the
zzCircle When eccentricity, e = 0, then the conic is
a circle. conic is a hyperbola.
(d)
(a)
(iv) T he straight line passing through the focus When the circle touches both the co-ordinate
and perpendicular to the directrix is called axes, then its equation is
the axis of the conic.
( x ± r )2 + ( y ± r )2 =
r2
(v) The point of intersection of the conic and its
axis, is called vertex of the conic. ¾¾ General Equation of a Circle
(vi) A line perpendicular to the axis of the conic The general equation of a circle having centre
and passing through its focus is called latus (h, k) and radius r is
rectum. x 2 + y 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c =0 , where
(vii) The point which bisects every chord of the g = −h , f = − k and c = h 2 + k 2 − r 2
conic passing through it, is called the centre
The above equation of a circle is called the general
of the conic.
equation of a circle with centre ( − g , − f ) and
¾¾ CIRCLE radius
zzA circle is defined as the locus of a point in a plane,
r= h 2 + k 2 − c or g2 + f 2 − c .
which moves in such a way that its distance from
a fixed point in that plane is always constant (i) If g 2 + f 2 − c > 0 , then the radius of the circle is
from a fixed point. The fixed point is called the real and hence the circle is also real.
centre of the circle and the constant distance
from the centre is called the radius of the circle. (ii) If g 2 + f 2 − c =0 , then the radius of the circle is 0
¾¾ Standard equation of a Circle and the circle is a point circle.
Equation of a circle having centre (h, k) and radius r (iii) If g 2 + f 2 − c < 0 , then the radius of the circle is
is imaginary and is not possible to draw.
( x − h )2 + ( y − k )2 =
r2 ¾¾ Diameter form of Equation of a Circle
.
Let ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x 2 , y 2 ) be the end points of the
If centre is at the origin (0, 0), then the equation of
diameter of a circle. Then, equation of circle drawn
the circle with radius ‘r’ is
2 2
on the diameter is
x + y =r2 .
( x − x 1 ) ⋅ ( x − x 2 ) + ( y − y1 ) ⋅ ( y − y 2 ) =
0
y
zzCircle, ellipse, parabola and hyperbola are curves
which are obtained by intersection of a plane
and cone in different positions
C(h, k) zzA circle is the set of all points in a plane that are
r
equidistant from a fixed point in that plane.
k zzTwo circles having the same centre c(h, k)
x
h and different radii r1 and r2 ( r1 ≠ r2 ) are called
0
concentric circles. For e.g., the circles
M
( x − h )2 + ( y − k )2 =
r12 , and (x – h)2 + (y – k)2

(i) When the circle passes through the origin, 2 2
then equation of the circle is ( x − h ) + ( y
− k )= r22 ( r1 ≠ r2 ) are concentric circles.
x 2 + y 2 − 2 hx − 2 ky =
0. zzLet ( x − h )2 + ( y − k )2 =r 2 be the equation of a
(ii) W
hen the centre lies on x-axis, then equation circle with centre (h, k) and radius r and let (a, b)
2
of the circle is ( x − h ) + y =
2
r 2 , and when be any point in the plane. Then,
the centre lies on y-axis, then equation of the (i) The point (a, b) lies inside the circle, if
circle is x 2 + ( y − k )2 =
r2 . ( a − h )21 + ( b − k )2 < r 2 .
(iii) When the circle touches x-axis, then its (ii) The point (a, b) lies on the circle, if
equation is ( a − h )2 + ( b − k )2 =
r2 .
( x − h )2 + ( y ± r )2 =
r2 (iii) The point (a, b) lies outside the circle, if
( a − h )2 + ( b − k )2 > r 2
when the circle touches y-axis, then its equation is
( x ± r )2 + ( y − k )2 =
r2
Topic-2 Parabola, Ellipse and Hyperbola
Revision Notes
¾¾ Parabola
A parabola is the locus of a point which moves in a place such that its distance from a fixed point is always equal
to its distance from a straight line in the same.

In the figure, P1B1 = P1S
P2 B2 = P2S
Here, the fixed line is called the directrix and the fixed point is called the focus of the parabola. A line through the
focus and perpendicular to the directrix is called the axis of the parabola and point of intersection of parabola with
the axis is called the vertex of the parabola. In case of parabola, eccentricity, e =1.
¾¾ Types of Parabola
zzRight handed Parabola
zzLeft handed Parabola
zzUpward Parabola
zzDownward Parabola
¾¾ Main facts about four types of Parabola

Parabola Vertex Focus Latus Rectum Co-ordinate of L·R Axis Directrix Symmetry
y 2 = 4 ax (0, 0) (a, 0) 4a ( a1 ± 2 a ) y=0 x = −a X-axis
y 2 = -4 ax (0, 0) (−a, 0) 4a ( - a1 ± 2 a ) y=0 x=a X-axis

x 2 = 4 ay (0, 0) (0, a) 4a ( ±2 a , a ) x=0 y = −a Y-axis
x 2 = −4 ay (0, 0) (0, −a) 4a ( ±2 a , − a ) x=0 y=a Y-axis
Parabola with y2 term Parabola with x2 term

1 Symmetrical about X-axis 1 Symmetrical about Y-axis
2 Axis is along the X-axis 2 Axis is along the Y-axis
3 It open right handed when co-efficient of ‘x’ is 3 It opens upwards if co-efficient of ‘y’ is positive and
positive and left handed when co-efficient of ‘x’ is downwards if co-efficient of ‘y’ is negative.
negative.
¾¾ Ellipse
An ellipse is the set of all points in a plane, the sum of whose distance from two fixed points in the plane is a
constant.
∴ P1S1 + P1S2 = P2S1 + P2S2 = P3S1 + P3S2 = constant.
¾¾ Terms related to an Ellipse
zzFocus - Two fixed points are called foci of the ellipse and denoted by S1 and S2. The distance between two foci
S1 and S2 is 2c.
zzCentre - The mid-point of the line - segment joining the foci, is called centre of ellipse.
zzMajor Axis - The line segment through the foci of the ellipse is called major axis. The length of major axis is 2a.
zzMinor axis - The line segment through the centre and perpendicular to the major axis is called minor axis. The
length of minor axis is denoted by 2b.
zzVertices - The end points of the major axis are called the vertices of the ellipse.
zzEccentricity - The eccentricity of ellipse is the ratio of the distance from the centre of the ellipse to one of the
foci and to one of the vertices of the ellipse. It is denoted by ‘e’.
c
e= ⇒ c = ae
a
c
Since, c < a ⇒ <a⇒e<1.
a
zzLatus Rectum - Latus rectum of an ellipse is a line segment perpendicular to the major axis through any of the
foci and whose end points lie on the ellipse.
b2
Thus, the length of latus rectum = 2l = 2
a
¾¾ Standard equation of an ellipse
x2 y2
The standard equation of an ellipse is + = 1, a > b having centre at origin and major axis on x-axis and minor
a2 b2
axis on y-axis. It is also called horizontal ellipse.
x2 y2
The another form of the equation of an ellipse is 2 + 2 = 1, a > b , having centre at origin and major axis lie on
b a
y-axis and minor axis lie on x-axis. It is also called vertical ellipse.
¾¾ Facts about two standard ellipse
Vertical eclipse
y
(0, b)
S1
(–b, 0) (b, 0)
x x
S2
(0, –b)
y
Horizontal ellipse Vertical ellipse

2 2
x y x2 y2
Equation 2
+ 2 = 1, a > b + = 1, a > b
a b b2 a2
1. Centre (0, 0) (0, 0)
2. Vertices ( ± a , 0) (0, ± a )
3. Major axis 2a 2a
4. Minor axis 2b 2b
5. Value of c =c a2 - b2 =c a2 - b2
6. Equation of major axis y=0 x=0

7. Equation of minor axis x=0 y=0
a2 a b2 b2
8. Directrix x=
± or ± y=
± or ±
c e c ae
9. Foci ( ± c , 0) or ( ae , 0) (0, ± c ) or (0, ± ae )
c b2 c b2
10. Eccentricity e= = 1- e= = 1-
a a2 a a2
2b 2 2b 2
11. Length of latus rectum
a a
 b2   b2 
12. Co-ordinate of latus rectum  ±c, ±   ± , ±c 
 a   a 
13. Focal distance 2c 2c

¾¾ Hyperbola
A hyperbola is the set of all points in a plane, the difference of whose distances from two fixed points in the plane
is a constant.
∴ P1S2 - P1S1 = P2S2 - P2S1 = P3S1 - P3S2
¾¾ The term difference means the distance to the farther point minus the distance to the closer point.
¾¾ Terms Related to Hyperbola
zzFocus - The two fixed points are called the foci of the hyperbola and denoted by S1 and S2. The distance
between two foci S1 and S2 is 2c.
zzCentre - The midpoint of the line segment joining the foci, is called centre of hyperbola.
zzTransverse axis - The line through the foci is called transverse axis.
zzConjugate axis - The line through the centre and perpendicular to the transverse axis is called conjugate axis.
zzVertices - The points at which the hyperbola intersects the transverse axis are called the vertices of the
hyperbola. The distance between two vertices is 2a.
zzEccentricity - Eccentricity of the hyperbola is the ratio of the distance of any focus from the centre and the
distance of any vertex from the centre and it is denoted by e.
c
∴ e= and c > a ⇒ e > 1 .
a
a2
zzDirectrix - It is a line perpendicular to the transverse axis and cuts it at a distance of from the centre. i.e.,
c
a2 a2
x= ± or y = ±
c c
zzLatus rectum - It is a line segment perpendicular to the transverse axis through any of the foci and whose end
points lie on the hyperbola.
2b 2
Thus, length of latus rectum= 2= l .
a
¾¾ Standard Equation of Hyperbola
x2 y2
Standard equation of hyperbola is of the form 2 - 2 = 1 , whose X-axis as transverse and Y-axis as conjugate
axis. a b
y2 x2
The equation of the hyperbola of the form 2 - 2 =
1 is called conjugate hyperbola, whose X-axis as conjugate
axis and Y-axis as transverse axis. a b
¾¾ Facts about two standard Hyperbolas
(a) Hyperbola (b) Conjugate Hyperbola
Hyperbola Conjugate Hyperbola
x2 y2 y2 x2
Equation - =
1 - =
1
a2 b2 a2 b2
1. Transverse axis 2a 2a
2. Conjugate axis 2b 2b
3. Value of c =c a2 + b2 =c a2 + b2
4. Vertices ( ± a , 0) (0, ± a )
a2 a a2 a
5. Directrices x= ± or ± y= ± or ±
c e c e
6. Foci ( ± ae , 0) or ( ± c , 0) (0, ± ae ) or (0, ± c )
b 2 or c b 2 or c
7. Eccentricity =
e 1+ =
e 1+
a2 a a2 a
2b 2 2b 2
8. Length of latus rectum
a a
zzThe standard equation of parabolas have focus on one of the co-ordinate axis, vertex at the origin and the
directrix is parallel to the other coordinate axis.
2
zzIn case of an ellipse, where c= a 2 - b 2 , if c = 0, then the ellipse is a circle and if c = a, then the ellipse reduces
to a line segment.
zzFoci of an ellipse always lie on the major axis. If the coefficient of x2 has the larger denominator, then major axis
is along x-axis. If the coefficient of y2 has the larger denominator, then major axis is along y-axis.
zzEllipse and Hyperbola are symmetrical with respect to both the axes.
zzIn hyperbola, foci always lie on the transverse axis. If the denominator of x2 gives the positive term, then
transverse axis is along x-axis and if the denominator of y2 gives the positive term, then transverse axis id along
y-axis.
zzIn a hyperbola, no portion of the curve lies between x = a and x = −a.
CHAPTER-11
INTRODUCTION TO THREE DIMENSIONAL
GEOMETRY
Revision Notes
¾¾ Coordinate Axes and coordinates planes in Three Dimensional space
Let XOX ′ , YOY ′ and ZOZ′ be three mutually perpendicular lines, intersecting at O. The point O(0, 0, 0) is called the
origin and the lines ( XOX ′, YOY ′, ZOZ′) are called co-ordinate or rectangular axes ( X , Y and Z respectively). In the
figure below, X'OX is called X-axis, YOY' is called Y-axis and ZOZ' is called Z-axis.
The three co-ordinate axes defines three mutually perpendicular planes XOY , YOZ and ZOX ( or XY , YZ , ZX )
are called coordinate planes which divide space into eight parts called octant.
XOY-XY plane, YOZ-YZ plane
ZOX-ZX plane, XOYZ , X ′OYZ ,
XOY ′Z , X ′OY ′Z′, XOYZ′, X ′OYZ′,
XOY ′Z′ and X ′OY ′Z′ are called octants.
¾¾ Co-ordinates of a point in space.
Let P be a point in space. Then, P(x, y, z) are its co-ordinates where x-coordinate of
P = length of perpendicular from P to YZ-plane with sign.
y-coordinate of P = length of perpendicular from P to ZX-plane with sign.
The sign of co-ordinates of the points in the octant in which the space is divided are given as follows
octants I II III IV V VI VII VIII
coordinates OXYZ OX ′YZ OX ′Y ′Z OXY ′Z OXYZ′ OX ′YZ′ OX ′Y ′Z′ OXY ′Z′
x + − − + + − − +
y + + − − + + − −
z + + + + − − − −
zzThe co-ordinates of a point on x-axis will be of the form (x, 0, 0).

zzThe co-ordinates of a point on y-axis will be of the form (0, y, 0).
zzThe co-ordinates of a point on z-axis will be of the form (0, 0, z).
zzThe co-ordinates of a point in xy plane is of the form (x, y, 0).
zzThe co-ordinates of a point in yz plane is of the form (0, y, z).
zzThe co-ordinates of a point in zx plane is of the form (x, 0, z)
¾¾ Distance formula and its application in Geometry ¾¾ Three points A, B and C are said to be collinear if
The distance between two points P( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and AB + BC = AC or BC + CA = AB or CA + AB = BC.
Q ( x 2 , y 2 , z2 ) is given by ¾¾ Properties of some Geometrical figures
( x 2 - x1 ) + ( y 2 - y1 ) + ( z2 - z1 )
2 2 2
PQ = zzProperties of Triangles
(i) Scalene triangle - All three sides are unequal
( x1 - x 2 ) + ( y 1 - y 2 ) + ( z1 - z 2 )
2 2 2
or PQ =
ight angled triangle - The sum of squares
(ii) R ectangle - Opposite sides are equal and
(i) R
of any two sides is equal to the square of the diagonals are equal.
third sde. arallelogram - Opposite sides are equal and
(ii) P
(iii) Isosceles triangle - Any two sides of a triangle diagonals are unequal, Also, diagonals bisect
are equal each other.
(iv) E
quilateral triangle - All three sides of a (iii) Rhombus - All four sides are equal and
triangle are equal. diagonals are unequal
zzProperties of Quadrilaterals (iv) S
quare - All four sides are equal and diagonals
are equal.
UNIT – IV: CALCULUS
CHAPTER-12
LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES
Topic-1 Limit and its Fundamentals
Revision Notes
 Definition of Limit
Let y = f(x) be a function of x. If at x = a, f(x) takes given function as lim f ( x ) .
x →a
indeterminate form, then we consider the value of
the function which is very near to a. If these values Step II For left hand limit, put x = a – h and
change the limit x ® a– by h ® 0. Then limit
tend to a definite unique number as x tends to a
then the unique number, so obtained is called the obtained in step I in lim f ( a + h ) .
h→0
limit of f(x) at x = a and is written as lim f ( x ) . For right hand limit, put x = a + h and change
x →a
the limit x ® a + by h ® 0. Then, Limit obtained
OR
in step I is lim f ( a + h )
If f(x) approaches to a real number l, when x h→0
approaches to a i.e., if f(x) ¾® l when x ¾® a, then
Step III Simplify the result obtained in step II i.e.,
l is called the limit of the function f(x). In symbolic
form, it can be written as— lim f ( a + h ) or lim f a h .
h→0 h0
lim f ( x ) = l  Existence of limit
x →a
If the right hand limit and left hand limit
 Left hand and right hand limit.
coincide, then we say that limit exists and their
A real number l, is the left hand limit of function
common value is called the limit of f(x) at x = a and
f(x) at x = a, if the value of f(x) can be made as
close as l, at point closed to a and on the left of a. denoted by lim f ( x )
is x →a .
Symbolically,
 Algebra of limits
L.H.L = lim f ( x ) = l1
x →a − Let 'f' and 'g' be two real function with common
A real number l2 is the right hand limit of domain D, such that lim f x and lim g x exists,
x a x a
function f(x) at x = a, if the values of f(x) can be then,
made as close as l2 at points closed to a and on the
right of a symbolically, (i) Limit of sum of two function is sum of the limits

of the function i.e.,
R.H.L. = lim f ( x ) = l2
x →a − lim f g x = lim f x lim g x
x a x a x a
l Method to find left hand and right hand limit

Step I For left hand limit, write the given function (ii) Limit of difference of two functions is difference

of the limits of the function i.e.,
as lim f x and for right hand limit, write the
x a lim f g x = lim f x lim g x
x a x 0 x a
(iii) Limit of product of two functions is product of

To find the limits of trigonometric functions, we use
the limits of the function i.e., the following theorems—
lim f x . g x = lim f x . lim g x (i) Let f and g be two real valued functions with

x 0 x a x a the same domain, such that f(x) £ g(x) for all x
(iv) Limit of quotient of two functions is quotient of
in domain in definition. For some a, if both limit
the limits of the function i.e., exist, then lim f x lim g x
x a x a .
lim f x
f x (ii) Sandwich Theorem—Let f, g and h be real

= lim g x , where lim g x 0 .
x a
lim
x a g x x a functions, such that f(x) £ g(x) £ h(x) for all x in
x a
the common domain in definition. For some
(v) Limit of product of a constant and on function real number a, if lim f x lim h x 1 , then
is the product of that constant and limit of the x a x a
function i.e., lim g x 1 .

x a
lim c· f x = c lim f x , where 'c' is a constant.
x a x 0  Some Standard Limits
 Limit of polynomial function x n an
(i) lim nan1
Let f(x) = a0 + a1x+ a2x + ...... + anxn be a polynomial
2
x 0 x a
function.
sin x
then, (ii) lim 1
x 0 x
lim f x = lim [a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ..... + anxn]
x a x →a tan x
(iii) lim 1
x 0 x
= a0 + a1 lim x + a2 lim x 2 + .... + an lim x n
x →a x →a x →a sin x a
(iv) lim
1
= a0 + a1a + a2a2 + ..... + ana = f(a). n x a xa
 Limit of Rational Function tan x a
A function f is said to be a rational functional if f(x) = (v) lim 1
x a xa
g x
, where g(x) and h(x) are polynomial functions log 1 x
hx (vi) lim 1
such that h(x) ¹ 0. x ® a x 0 x
g x g a ax 1
(vii) lim log e a 0 , a 1
(a)
lim f x = lim x 0 x
x a x a hx h a
ex 1
0 (viii) lim 1
If g(a) = 0 and h(a) = 0 i.e., this is of the form , x
0 x 0
then factor (x – a) of g(x) and h(x) are determined 1 cos x
(ix) lim 0
and then cancelled out. x 0 x
Let, g(x) = (x – a) p(x)  Extra Information :
h(x) = (x – a) q(x) l x ® a– is read as x tends to 'a' from left and it

Then, means that x is very close to 'a' but it is always less
g x x a p x than a.
lim f x = xlim
a h x
= lim
x a x a q x l x ® a+ is read as x tends to 'a' from right and it

x a
means that x is very close to 'a' but it is always
px greater than 'a'.
= lim
x a q x l x ® a is read as x tends to 'a' and it means that x

is very close to a but it is not equal to 'a'.
pq
= q a
l Left hand limit and right hand limit of a constant
function is the constant itself. e.g.,
(b) For any positive integer n,
lim 3 = 3, lim 4 = 4.
x →1− x →3+
n n
x a
lim =n an–1
l Some factorization formulae which we use in
x a x a finding limit of a function are—
 Limits of Trigonometric, exponential and (i) If f(a) = 0, then (x – a) is a factor of f(x).
logarithmic Functions. (ii) a2 – b2 = (a – b) (a + b)
(iii) a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a2 – ab + b2) rational number 'n' and positive 'a'.
(iv) a3 – b3 = (a – b) (a2 + ab + b2)
l The domain of exponential function f(x) = ex is
(v) a4 – b4 = (a2 + b2) (a2 – b2) = (a2 + b2) (a+b) (a – b). (— ¥, ¥) and its range is (0, ¥).

l The domain of logarithmic function f(x) = loge x
x n an
l The result lim
= nan–1 is also true for any is (0, ¥) and its range is (– ¥, ¥).
x a x a
Topic-2 Derivatives
Revision Notes
 Derivative at a point

Suppose f is a real valued function and ‘a’ is a point d d
in its domain. Then, Derivative of f at a is defined by (ii) C f x = C f x C is a constant.
dx dx
f a h f a
lim , provided this limit exists.
h0 h d
(iii) ax b n = na(ax + b)n – 1
dx

The derivative of f(x) at a is denoted by f ’(a).
 Algebra of Derivative of Functions (iv) If f(x) = anxn + an–1xn–1 + an–2xn–2 + .... + a1x + a0,

Let f and g be two function such that their derivatives then f'(x) = nanxn–1 + (n – 1) an–1xn–2 + (n – 2)
are defined in a common domain. Then, an–2xn–3 + .... + a1.
(i) Derivative of sum of two functions is sum of d
(v) sin x = cos x
the derivatives of the functions. dx
d d d
f x g x = f x g x d
dx dx dx (vi) cos x = – sin x
dx
or (u + v)' = u' + v'
d
(ii)
Derivative of difference of two function is (vii) tan x sec2 x
difference of the derivative of the functions. dx
d d d d
f x g x = f x g x cosec x cosec x cot x
dx dx dx (viii)
dx

or (u – v)' = u' – v'
d
(iii) Derivative of product of two functions is (ix) ( sec x ) = sec x tan x
dx
given by the following product rule.
d d  d  d
 f ( x ) · g ( x )  =  f ( x )  g ( x ) + f ( x )  g ( x )  (x) cot x cosec2 x
dx  dx   dx  dx

or (u.v)' = u' . v + v . u'
(iv) Derivative of quotient of two functions is
(xi)
d x
dx

a a x log e a
given by the following quotient rule.

d 1
g x
d d
f x f x g x (xii) log a x
d f x dx x log e a
dx dx , g x 0
=
dx g x g x
2

d 1
(xiii) loge x
u ' vu '− uv ' dx x
or =
v v2
d x
(xiv) e = ex
 Some Important derivatives dx
d n
x nx n1 = nxn–1

(i) d
dx (xv) (C) = 0 , where 'c' is a constant.
dx
 Geometrical meaning of Derivative at a point  Extra Information

Geometrically, derivative of a function at a point x =
l Derivative of f at x =a is also given by substituting
the slope of tangent to the curve y = f(x) at the point
c, f(c). d
x = a in f '(x) and it is denoted by f x or
f x f c dx a
Slope of tangent at P = lim d
xc xc or  df  .
dx a  
 dx  x = a
df x
= dx or f '(c)
x c
UNIT – V: STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY
CHAPTER-13
STATISTICS
Topic-1 Measures of Dispersion
Revision Notes
 Data and its types Mean of grouped data : Let x1, x2, ..., xn be in
A group of information that represents the observations with respective frequencies f1, f2, ..., fn.
qualitative or quantitative attributes of a variable or Then, Mean
set of variables is called data. n
There are two types of data. These are : fi xi
(i) Ungrouped data : In an ungrouped data, data is Mean ( x ) = i 1
listed in series e.g., 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, etc., this is also n
called in divided data.
 Limit of the class
(ii) Grouped data-It is of two types :
(a) Discrete data : In this type, data is presented
The starting and ending values of each class are
in such a way that exact measurements of called lower and upper limits.
items are clearly shown.  Class Interval
(b) Continuous data : In this type, data is
arranged in groups or classes but they
The difference between upper and lower boundary
are not exactly measurable, they form a of a class is called class interval or size of the class.
continuous series.  Primary and secondary data
 Measures of Central tendency
The data collected by the investigator himself is
A certain value that represent the whole data and known as the primary data, while the data collected
signifying its characteristics is called measure of by a person, other than the investigator, is known as
central tendency mean, median and mode are the
secondary data.
measures of central tendency.
l Mean  Frequency
Mean of ungrouped data : The mean of n
The number of times an observation occurs in the
observations x1, x2, x3, ..., xn is given by given data, is called the frequency of the observation.
n  Measure of Dispersion
x1 x 2 x3 ... xn x i

The measures of central tendency are not sufficient
Mean ( x ) = i 1
n n to give complete information about given data.

Variability is another factor which is required to
be studied under statistics. The single number that in the tabular form as
describes variability is called measure of dispersion. xi x1 x2 x3 ..
It is the measure of scattering of the data about . xn
some central tendency. fi f1 f2 f3 ..
There are following measures of dispersion . fn
1. Range 2. Quartile deviation 3. Mean deviation 4.
and is called discrete frequency distribution.
Standard deviation. There, mean deviation about mean or median
 Range is given by
Range is the difference of maximum and minimum n
value of data ∑ fi | xi − A | n
Range = maximum value – minimum value.

i =1
N
, where N = fi = total frequency,
i 1
for eg given marks of sameer and Suresh as follows– and A = mean or median.
Sameer
(ii) For continuous frequency distribution : A
= 79, 62, 40, 5
continuous frequency distribution is a series
Suresh in which the data is classified into different
= 60, 45, 52, 42 class intervals without gaps along with their
For Sameer, Range respective frequencies.
= 79 – 5 = 74
Mean deviation about mean ( x ) , i.e.,
For Suresh, Range
= 60 – 42 = 18 n
MD ( x ) = 1 ∑ fi | xi − x | , where ‘x ’ s’ are the
Thus, range of Sameer > range of Suresh. N i =1 i
So, the scores are scattered or dispersed in case of

mid-point of the intervals and
Sameer while for Suresh, these are close to each
n
other. The range of data gives us a rough idea of Also, mean ( x ) = 1 ∑ fi xi
Variability or Scatter but does not tell about the N i =1
dispersion of the data from the measure of central
Mean deviation about median (M), i.e.,
tendency.
1 n
 Mean Deviation MD (M) = ∑ fi | xi − M |, where xi’ s are the
N i =1

Mean deviation is an important measure of
deviation, which depend upon the deviations of the n
observations from a central tendency. It is defined mid-points of the intervals and fi = N. Also,
i 1
as the arithmetic mean of the absolute deviations of
all the values taken from a central value or a fixed N
−Cf
number a. The mean divination from ‘a’ is denoted 2
median M = l + × h , where l, f, h and
by MD (a) and is defined by– f

M.D. (a) Cf are lower limit, the frequency, the width of
median class and cumulative frequency of class
Sum of absolute values of deviations from 'a'
= just preceding the median class.
Number of observations
 Shortcut (Step-deviation) Method for calculating
 Mean deviation for ungrouped data the Mean deviation about Mean : This method is
Let x, x2, ..., xn be n observations. Then, mean used to manage large data. In this method, we take
deviation about means (x) or median (M) can be an assumed mean, which is in the middle or just
found by the formula close to it, in the data. we denote the new variable
n n by and is defined by
| xi x | ∑|xi − M| xi − a
i 1 or i =1
, where n is the number of
ui = , where a is the assumed mean and h
n n h
observations is the common factor or length of class interval the
 Mean deviation for grouped data mean x by step deviation method is given by
(i) For discrete frequency distribution : Let the n
data have ‘n’ district values x1, x2, ..., xn and ∑ fiui
their corresponding frequencies are f1, f2 ..., xn x = a + i =1 ×h
N
respectively. Then, this data can be represented
 Limitations of Mean Deviation be subjected to further algebraic treatment.

(i) If the data is more scattered or the degree of Sometimes, it gives unsatisfactory results.
variability is very high, then the median is not  Extra Information
a valid representative. Thus, the mean deviation
l The cumulative frequency of a class is the
about the median is not fully relied. frequency obtained by adding the frequencies of
(ii) The sum of the deviations from the mean is more all the classes preceding the given class and the
than the sum of the deviations from the median. frequency of given class.
Therefore, the mean deviation about mean is not
l Mean deviation may be obtained from any
very scientific. measure of central tendency. However, we
(iii) The mean deviation is calculated on the basis of
study deviations from mean and median in this
absolute values of the deviations and so cannot chapter.
Topic-2 Variance and Standard Deviation
Revision Notes
 Variance 2
n n n
The mean of squares of deviations from mean is ( xi x)2 xi 2 xi
called the variance and it is denoted by the symbol i 1 i 1
\s=
or i 1
‘s2’. n n n
The variance of ‘n’ observations x1, x2, ..., xn is given 2
n n
by :
xi xi
2
n i 1
2 = i 1
( xi x) n n
s2 = i 1
n  Variance and Standard deviation of Grouped data
 Significance of deviation (i) For discrete frequency distribution
(i) If the deviation is zero, it means there is no Let the discrete frequency distribution be x1,
deviation at all and all observations are equal to x2, x 3, ..., xn and f1, f2, f3, ..., fn. Then by direct
mean. method :
(ii) If deviation is small, this indicates that the

1 n
Variance (s2) = N fi ( xi x)
2
observations are close to the mean.
i 1
(iii) If the deviation is large, there is a high degree of

dispersion of the observation from the mean.
2 f i xi
2
1
 Standard Deviation = fi xi
N N
Standard deviation is the square root of the
arithmetic mean of the squares of deviations from andStandard deviation (s)
mean and it is denoted by the symbol s.
1 n
or = fi ( xi x)2
N i 1
The square root of variance, is called standard
deviation i.e., σ2 = s. It is also known as root

N fi xi 2 fi xi
1 2
=
mean square deviation. N
 Variance and Standard deviation of ungrouped n
data where N = fi
i 1
Variance of n observations x1, x2, ..., xn is given by
By short cut method, variance (s2)
2
n n n
2 fi di
2
( xi x)2 xi 2 xi 1 n
= fi di
s2 = i 1 i 1 i 1 N i 1 N
n n n
andstandard deviation (s)
and,Standard Deviation, s = Variance = σ2
σ
fi di 2 Ni i
2
1 n fd C.V. = × 100
= x
N i 1
where x and s are respectively the mean and
where di = xi – a, deviation from assumed mean standard deviation of the data. For comparing the
and a = assumed mean. variability of two series, we calculates the coefficient
(ii) For Continuous frequency distribution
of variations for each series.
Direct Method : If there is a frequency  Comparison of Two frequency Distributions with
distribution of n classes and each class defined same Mean
by its mid-point xi with corresponding Let us consider two frequency distributions with
frequency fi, then the variance and standard standard deviations s1 and s2 and having same
deviation are :
mean x , then
1 n σ1
Variance (s2) = N fi ( xi x)
2
C.V. (1st distribution) = × 100
i 1 x
1 n σ2
and C.V. (2nd distribution) = × 100
andStandard deviation (s) = fi ( xi x)2
N i 1 x
σ1
× 100
N fi xi 2 fi xi
1 2 st σ
or, s2 = C.V . (1 distribution) x = 1
N 2
st
= σ
2 × 100 σ2
C.V . (2 distribution)
x
N fi xi fi xi
1 2
and s = 2
N2 Thus, two C.V.’s can be compared on the basis of
Step-Deviation (short-cut method) : Sometimes
values of s1 and s2. Thus, if two series have equal
the values of mid points xi of different classes in means, then the series with greater standard
a continuous distribution are large and so the deviation (or variance is said to be more variable
calculation of mean and variance becomes tedious than the other. The other series with lesser value of
and time consuming. For this, we use the step- the standard deviation is said to be more consistent
than the other.
deviation method. Here,
 Extra Information
2
n l A characteristics that varies in magnitude from
2
Variance (s ) = h 1 n
2 fiui
2 observation to observation e.g., weight, height,
fiui i 1 income, age, etc. are variables.
i 1
N N
l Due to the limitations of mean deviation,
and Standard deviation (s) some other method is required for measure of
2 dispersion. Standard deviation is such a measure
n
n
fiui of dispersion.
1
= h fiui 2 i 1N
N i 1
l The ratio S.D. (s) and the A.M. ( x ) is called the

 σ
coefficient of standard deviation   .
xi - a  x
where, ui = , a = assumed mean and
h

l The percentage form of coefficient of S.D. i.e.,
h = width of class interval.  σ
 Analysis of frequency distribution   is called coefficient of variation.
x
The mean deviation and standard deviation have

l The distribution for which the coefficient of
the same units in which the data is given. The
variation is less is called more consistent.
measures of dispersion are unable to compare the
variability of two or more series which are measured
l Standard deviation of first n natural numbers is
in different units. So, we require those measures n2 - 1
which are independent of units. .
12
The measures of variability which is independent of

l Standard deviation is independent of change of
units, is called coefficient of variation denoted as CV
and it is given by origin, but it depends of change of scale.
CHAPTER-14
PROBABILITY
Experiments, Events and
Topic-1
Sample Space
Revision Notes
 Experiment
An operation which can produce some well—defined outcomes, is known as experiment. There are two types of
experiments. These are.
(i) Deterministic experiment and
(ii) Random experiment.
 Random experiment e.g., on rolling a die, we have the sample space,
An experiment conducted repeatedly under the
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
identical conditions does not give necessarily the
same result every time, then the experiment is Then, E = {2, 4, 6}, F = the event of getting
called random experiment. For e.g., : rolling an an odd number are compound events.
unbiased die, drawing a card from a well shuffled
(iii) Sure event—The event which is certain to occur is
pack of cards, etc.
said to be the sure event. The whole sample space
 Outcomes and sample space
A possible result of a random experiment is called ‘S’ is a sure or certain event, since it is a subset of
its outcome. The set of all possible outcomes in itself.
a random experiment is called sample space and e.g., on throwing a die, we have sample space,
is denoted by S i.e., sample space = {All possible S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
outcomes}.
Then, E = Event of getting a natural number less
each element of a sample space is called a sample than 7, is a sure event, since, E = {1, 2. 3, 4, 5, 6) = S.
point or an event point.
(iv) Impossible event—The event which has no
For e.g., : when we throw a die, then possible
element is called an impossible event or null event.
outcomes of this experiment are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6.
The empty set ‘f’ is an impossible event, since it is a
\ The sample space, S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} subset of sample space S.
 Event
e.g., on throwing a die, we have the sample space,
A subset of the sample space associated with a
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
random experiment is called an event, generally
denoted by ‘E‘. Then E = event of getting a number less than 1, is
An event associated with a random experiment is an impossible event, since E = f.
said to occur, if any one of the elementary events (v) Equally likely events—Events are called equally
associated to it is an outcome of the experiment. likely when we do expect the happening of one
For e.g., : Suppose a die is thrown, then we have the event in preference to the other.
sample space S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Then, (vi) Mutually exclusive events—Two events are said to
E = {2, 3, 4} is an event. be mutually exclusive, if the occurrence of any one
of them excludes the occurrence of the other event
Also, If the outcome of experiment is 4. Then we say
i.e., they cannot occur simultaneously.
that event E has occurred.
 Type of events Thus, two events E1 and E2 are said to be mutually
exclusive, if E1 Ç E2 = f.
On the basis of the element in an event, events are
classified into the following types— e.g., in throwing a die, we have the sample space
(i) Simple event—If an event has only one sample S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
point of the sample space, it is called a simple Let, E1 = Event of getting even numbers
(element) event. = {2, 4, 6}
e.g., Let a die is thrown, then sample space,
and E2 = Event of getting odd number
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
= {1, 3, 5}
Then, A = {4} and B = {6} are simple events.
then, E1 Ç E2 = f
(ii) Compound event—If an event has more than one
sample point of the sample space, then it is called So, E1 and E2 are mutually exclusive events.
compound event. In general, events E1, E2, ......, En are said to be
mutually exclusive, if they are pair wise disjoint, i.e.,
same as the event A – B = (A Ç B') and it contains all
if E1 Ç E2 = f"i¹j.
those elements which are in A but not in B.
(vii) Exhaustive events—A set of events is said to be
Thus, A but not in B = A – B = {x : x Î A or x Ï B}.
exhaustive if the performance of the experiment
always results in the occurrence of at least one of  The following are some events and their
them. corresponding equivalent sets.
Let E1, E2, ..........En be n subsets of a sample space S. Events
Then, events E1, E2, ........, En are exhaustive events, if (i) Neither A nor B
E1 È E2 È E3 È ... È En = S. (ii) Exactly one of A and B
eg., consider the experiment of throwing a die. (iii) At least one of A, B or C
Then,
(iv) All three of A, B and C
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Let E1 = event of getting a number less than 3. (v) Exactly two of A, B and C
E2 = event of getting an odd number. Equivalent sets
E3 = event of getting a number greater than 3. A Ç B or U – (A Ç B) [U – universal set]
Then, E1 = {1, 2}, E2 = {1, 3, 5}, E3 = {4, 5, 6} (A Ç B) È (A Ç B) or (A Ç B) – (A Ç B)
Thus, E1 È E2 È E3 = S. Hence, E1, E2, E3 are A È B È C.
exhaustive events. A Ç B Ç C.
 Algebra of events (A Ç B Ç C) È (A Ç B Ç C) È (A Ç B Ç C)
Let A and B be two events associated with a sample Extra Information
space S, then— l A sample spaces is called a discrete sample space, if
(i) Complementary event—For every E, there S is a finite set.
corresponds another event E‘ called the l We can define as many events as there are subsets of
complementary event of E, which consists of those a sample space. Thus, number of events of a sample
outcomes that do not correspond to the occurrence space S is 2n, where ‘n’ is the number of elements in
of E. E’ is also called the event ‘event E’. S.
e.g., in tossing three coins, the sample space is l Elementary events associated with a random
S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, TTT} experiments are also known as in decomposable
Let E = {THT, TTH, HTT} = the event of getting events.
only one head. l All events other than elementary events and
Then, E = {HHT, HTH, THH, TTT, HHH}. impossible events associated with a random
experiment are called compound events.
(ii) The event A OR B—The even ‘A or B’ is same as the
event A È B and it contains all those element which l For any event E, associated with a sample space S, E’
are either in event A or in B or in both. Thus, = not E = S – E = {w : w Î S and w Ï E}.
A or B = A È B = {x : x Î A or x Î B} l Simple events of a sample space are always mutually
(iii) The event A and B—The event ‘A and B’ is same as exclusive.
the event ‘A Ç B’ and it contains all those elements l If Ei Ç Ej = Î for i ¹ j i.e., events Ei and Ej are pair
which are both in A and B. Thus, wise disjoint and E1UE2U ... UEn = S, then events
A and B = A È B = {x : x Î A and x Î B} E1, E2, ...., En are called mutually exclusive and
(iv) The event A but not B—The event A but not B is exhaustive events.
Topic-2 Axiomatic Approach to Probability
Revision Notes
 Probability of occurrence of an event. Number of observed frequencies
i.e., P(A) =
A numerical value that conveys the chance of Total frequency
occurrence of an event, when we perform an
experiment, is called the probability of that event. (ii) Classical approach to probability—To obtain the
The different approaches of probability are— probability of an event, we find the ratio of the
number of outcomes favourable to the event to
(i) Statistical Approach to Probability—In statistical the total number of equally likely outcomes. This
approach, probability of an event ‘A’ is the ratio of theory is known as classical theory of probability or
observed frequency to the total frequency. theoretical probability.
Number of favourable outcomes If A and B are two events associated with a random

i.e., P(A) = experiment, then—
omes
Total number of possible outco
P(A È B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A Ç B)
(iii) Axiomatic Approach to Probability—Let ‘S’ be
the sample space of a random experiment. The or P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B)
probability P is a real valued function whose domain it is known as addition law of probability for two
is the power set of S and range is the interval [0, 1] events A and B.
satisfying the following axioms
When A and B are mutually exclusive events, then
(a) For any event E, P(E) ³ 0.
P(A È B) = P(A) + P(B)
(b) p(S) = 1.
(c) If E and F are mutually exclusive, then When A and B are mutually exclusive and exhaustive
events, then p(A È B) = p(A) + p(B) = 1.
P(E È F) = P(E) + P(F)
Let ‘S‘ be a sample space containing outcomes.  Probability of the event A or B or C
E1, E2,....En i.e., S = {E1, E2, ......., En}
If A, B and C are three events associated with a
Then, from the axiomatic approach to probability, random experiment, then—
we have— P(A È B È C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C) – P(A Ç B) – P(B

(i) 0 £ P(Ei) £ 1, "Ei Î S. Ç C) – P(A Ç C) + P(A Ç B Ç C).
(ii) P(E1) + P(E2) + .... + P(En) = 1.  Probability of complementary event
n

Let E be an event and (E) be its complementary
(iii) For any event A, P(A) = ∑ P(Ei ) , Ei Î A. event. Then, p(E) = 1 – p(E).
i =1
 Some result on probability of events
 Probability of equally likely outcomes
(i) For any two events A and B, A £ B Þ P(A) £ P(B).

The outcomes of a random experiment are said to
be equally likely, if the chance of occurrence of each (ii) For an event A, 0 £ P(A) £ 1.
outcome is same. (iii) For any two events A and B
Let the sample space of an experiment is— P(A – B) = P(A) – P(A Ç B)

S = {s1, s2, ......, sn}. Also, let all the outcomes. or P(A Ç B') = P(A) – P(A Ç B)
are equally likely. i.e., P(si) = p " si Î S, 0 £ p £ 1. Extra Information
n  Probability of an impossible or null event is zero i.e.,
By Axiomatic approach to probability, ∑ P(Si ) = 1. P(f) = 0.
i =1
 In case of equally likely outcomes, axiomatic
p + p + ... + p approach coincide with the classical approach
Þ
   =1 of probability. (Try to check with the help of an
n times
example)
Þ
np = 1  If A, B and C are mutually exclusive events, i.e., A Ç
1 B f, B Ç C = f, C Ç A = f, A Ç B Ç C = f, then p(A
Þ
p = È B È C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C).
n
 For any two events A and B,
1
\
P(Si) = = 1, 2, ......, n. P ( A ∩ B) = P ( A ∪ B )
n
 Addition rule of probability and, P(A Ç B) £ P(A), P(A Ç B) £ P(B).


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UNIT – I: SETS AND FUNCTIONS

Topic-1 Sets, their Types and Representations

Topic-2 Venn Diagrams and Operations on Set

difference B - A is the set of all elements of

(v) Symmetric difference: For two sets A and B,

 Law of algebra of set

Topic-1 Cartesian Product and Relations

Topic-2 Functions and their Types

function or absolute valued function. y'

Domain =  and Range = 

The domain of (f – g) is D1 ∩ D2.

Function Graph Shape Diagram How to

Identity Slope y = mx + c graphs

f(x) = x2 Bowl All quadratic

f(x) = x3 Running In a running race,

Exponential Plane take- x-men powers help

f(x) = loga x Rocket Visualise a vertical

(ii) The minute hand rotates through an angle of 6°

Trigonometric Ratios of Some Standard Angles

UNIT – II: algebra

Topic-1 Complex Numbers

Topic-2 Quadratic Equations

Case 1: a > 0 Equal roots Case 2: a 0 Equal roots

Complex roots Complex roots

(i) b2 – 4ac is +ve. M

Mnemonic for Quadratic formula: x =

(v) The number of permutations of n objects of

Where, n C0 , n C1 , ..... n Cn are called binomial

¾¾ Important points to be known:

of first quantity a goes on decreasing by 1, ¾¾ Some properties of Binomial coefficients:

zzIn ( a + b )n , r th term from the end is same as

( n - r + 2)th term from beginning.

Topic-1 Sequence, Series and A.M.

Topic-2 G.P. and Sum to n terms of Special Series

We can say that, a sequence a1, a2, …....., an is called

UNIT – III: COORDINATE GEOMETRY

III quadrant IV quadrant

zzIf the division is external, then the co-ordinate of R are

zzThe slope ‘m’ of a line segment AB joining the

( x1 , y1 ) , ( x 2 , y 2 ) and ( x3 , y3 ) , then co-ordinates

m2 - m1 (ii) If tan q is negative, then q will be an obtuse

Topic-2 Various forms of equations of a straight line

Topic-1 Sections of a Cone (circle)

zzEllipse When eccentricity e < 1, then the conic

Topic-2 Parabola, Ellipse and Hyperbola

¾¾ Main facts about four types of Parabola

y 2 = 4 ax (0, 0) (a, 0) 4a ( a1 ± 2 a ) y=0 x = −a X-axis

y 2 = -4 ax (0, 0) (−a, 0) 4a ( - a1 ± 2 a ) y=0 x=a X-axis

x 2 = 4 ay (0, 0) (0, a) 4a ( ±2 a , a ) x=0 y = −a Y-axis

x 2 = −4 ay (0, 0) (0, −a) 4a ( ±2 a , − a ) x=0 y=a Y-axis

Parabola with y2 term Parabola with x2 term

Horizontal ellipse Vertical ellipse

6. Equation of major axis y=0 x=0

9. Foci ( ± c , 0) or ( ae , 0) (0, ± c ) or (0, ± ae )

13. Focal distance 2c 2c

Hyperbola Conjugate Hyperbola

6. Foci ( ± ae , 0) or ( ± c , 0) (0, ± ae ) or (0, ± c )

zzIn a hyperbola, no portion of the curve lies between x = a and x = −a.

zzThe co-ordinates of a point on x-axis will be of the form (x, 0, 0).

UNIT – IV: CALCULUS

Topic-1 Limit and its Fundamentals

(iii) Limit of product of two functions is product of

function i.e., lim g  x   1 .

given by the following quotient rule.

function i.e., lim g x 1 .