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GH Affari Soda 2019
GH Affari Soda 2019
Mohsen Ghaffari∗
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1/2−ε
breakthrough of Barenboim, Elkin, Pettie, and Schnei- log ∆ = (log n) .
der [5]. They √ gave an algorithm with round complexity
O(log ∆ · log n), which improves over the celebrated √
O(log n) round complexity whenever log ∆ = o( log n). 1.2 Our Results MIS: We present a CONGEST-
Shortly after, and as presented in their journal ver- model MIS algorithm that breaks the O(log n) barrier
sion√ [6], they improved this bound to O(log2 ∆) + for a wide range of degrees. Particularly, it has a round
complexity that comes close to that of the best known
2O( log log n) . The bound was √ then improved by Ghaf- algorithm with unbounded message sizes:
fari [14] to O(log ∆) + 2O( log log n) . The latter is a
nearly optimal complexity, in the following sense: (A) Theorem 1.1. There is a randomized distributed
The dependency on ∆ cannot be improved significantly, algorithm, with O(log n)-bit messages, that com-
as Ω( logloglog∆∆ ) is a lower bound [21, 22], (B) By a beau- putes an MIS in min{O(log ∆ · log log n) +
√ √
tiful result of Chang, √
Kopelowitz, and Pettie [10], we 2O( log log n·log log log n) , log ∆ · 2O( log log n) } rounds,
know that the 2O( log log n)√ term cannot be improved w.h.p.
unless we improve the 2O( log n) complexity of deter-
ministic MIS algorithms. The latter has resisted any Network Decomposition: On the way to this
improvement since 1992 [28] and improving it would be MIS algorithm, we present the first deterministic
considered a major breakthrough in distributed graph CONGEST-model algorithm for network decomposition
algorithms. In particular, improving it to poly(log n) that matches the bounds of the celebrated algorithm
would answer one of the most well-known open ques- of Panconesi and Srinivasan [28], which works with un-
tions of the area, first asked by Linial [23]. See [3] for bounded message sizes. See Theorem 1.2 for the formal
more on this question, and also [15, 16] which provide a statement. In fact, our algorithm is considerably sim-
complexity-theoretic study of it. pler than that of [28]. Therefore, and especially due to
However, all the algorithmic improvements men- the extensive applications of network decompositions,
tioned in the previous paragraph suffer from one known we hope that this contribution will be of interest on its
drawback: they all need large messages. Concretely, own.
while the algorithms of [1, 25] work in the CONGEST Another aspect of the improvement that is crucial
model — i.e., with O(log n)-bit messages — the algo- for our application and might prove useful elsewhere is
rithms of [5, 6, 14] require much larger messages, up to that our network decomposition can handle much larger
poly(∆ log n) bits. Indeed, in the CONGEST model, the identifiers (so long as the message size is large enough
O(log n) bound of [1, 25] remains the state of the art, to fit one identifier). This is formalized in Theorem 1.2.
for more than three decades, for essentially the whole Previous algorithms [2, 28] did not have this property,
range of maximum degrees. The only exception is when due to their reliance on a ruling set subroutine that
∆ = o(log n) in which case deterministic algorithms depends on the ID space size. Indeed, this was one
with complexity O(∆+log∗ n) suffice [4]. To summarize, of the key obstacles toward o(log n)-round CONGEST-
this state of the art exhibits one clear question: model randomized MIS algorithms. See the discussion
in Section 1.4.
Can we obtain an o(log n)-round randomized Before stating the theorem, let us recall the defini-
MIS algorithm, with O(log n)-bit messages, tion. An (α, β)-network decomposition of graph G =
when log ∆ = o(log n)? (V, E) is a partition of V into sets V1 , . . . , Vα such that
for each i, each connected component of the subgraph
G[Vi ] induced by Vi has diameter at most β. The sub-
As a side remark, we comment that even minor im- graph G[V ] is known as the ith color class or block of
i
provements over this O(log n) barrier have been of in-
terest: Pai et al. [27] gave a CONGEST-model algorithm 2 Our MIS algorithm leads to a much faster algorithm for 2-
with complexity O(log ∆ · (log n)1/2+ε + logloglogn n ) for 2- ruling set with small messages. Particularly, for the log ∆ =
ruling set. This problem asks for an independent set (log n)1/2−ε range discussed above, our complexity is at most
√
S which for every node v ∈ / S, has at least one node o( log n). See Theorem 1.4.
bitrary S, computes a (g(N ), g(N )) network decomposi- significant improvement for the CONGEST model:
√
tion in g(N ) · log∗ S rounds, for g(N ) = 2O( log N )
.
Theorem 1.4. There are randomized distributed algo-
rithms with O(log n)-bit messages that, w.h.p., compute
1.3 Implications on Other Problems Given that a β-ruling set, for any β ≥ 2, with the following asymp-
many other problems reduce to MIS, we obtain improve- totic round complexities:
ments also for other problems.
1/β
Vertex Coloring: Computing a (∆ + 1)-vertex color- • β log√ ∆ + log1/β ∆ log log n +
O( log log n·log log log n)
ing is one of the other central and well-studied prob- 2 .
√
lems in distributed graph algorithms; cf. [3]. As men- • β log1/β ∆ + log1/β ∆ · 2O( log log n) .
tioned above, this problem reduces to MIS and thus √
admits O(log n)-round CONGEST-model algorithms [1, • β log1/(β−1) ∆ + 2O( log log n) .
25]. Similar to MIS, there have improvements using
larger messages: Barenboim et al.√[5] gave an algorithm 1.4 Large Message in the Shattering Tech-
with complexity O(log ∆) + 2O( log log n) , which uses nique, and Our Method in a Nutshell We review
poly(log n)-bit messages. This round complexity was the shattering technique used in many of the recent de-
√ √
then improved to O( log ∆) + 2O( log log n) by Harris, velopments [5, 6, 11, 14, 18] and briefly mention why ba-
Schneider,
√
and Su [18] and then, very recently, to just sically all of these algorithms needed large messages.
2 O( log log n)
by Chang, Li, and Pettie [11]. Though, We then explain how we obtain our MIS algorithm with
there is no clear upper bound on message size in these small messages.
two algorithms and it seems that they can be up to The Shattering Method: The shattering technique is
polynomially large. We obtain the first improvement for inspired by Beck’s breakthrough [7], which provided the
(∆ + 1)-vertex coloring over the classic O(log n) round first algorithmic version of the Lovasz Local Lemma. It
complexity, in the CONGEST-model: was first used by Barenboim et al. [5] in the distributed
setting and it has played a significant role since then
Theorem 1.3. There is a randomized distributed algo-
in many other developments in distributed graph al-
rithm with O(log n)-bit messages that, w.h.p., computes
√ gorithms for local problems [6, 11, 14, 18]. In its dis-
a (∆ + 1) vertex coloring in O(log ∆) + 2O( log log n) tributed version, this method works in two phases: (A)
rounds. a so-called pre-shattering phase that is randomized and
solves the problem for “most” of the graph except for
Ruling Set: Another well-studied problem closely leaving some (potentially large) number of “small” com-
related to MIS is that of computing a β-ruling set. ponents, and (B) a so-called post-shattering phase that
This problem asks for an independent set S which solves the problem on these remaining components, us-
for every node v ∈ / S, has at least one node u ∈ S ing a deterministic algorithm that is run concurrently
within distance β of v. Since it is a relaxation of MIS, and independently in each of the remaining components.
this problem clearly admits O(log n)-round CONGEST- Almost all shattering-based algorithms [5, 6, 11, 14,
model algorithms [1, 25]. 18] for MIS and (∆ + 1)-vertex coloring3 suffer from the
There have improvements using large messages: need for large messages in the post-shattering phase,
Schneider and Wattenhofer [30] gave a random-
ized β-ruling set algorithm with complexity O(2β/2 ·
3 For maximal matching, [5] gave an O(log ∆ + log4 log n)-
log2/(β−1) n), which was improved
√
by Bisht et al. [8]
round algorithm. That algorithm works in the CONGEST model
to O(β log1/(β−1) ∆) + 2O( log log√n) , by Barenboim et because (1) the pre-shattering phase leaves components of size
al. [6] to O(β log1/(β−0.5)∆ ) + 2O( log√log n) , and then by N = poly(log n) and (B) for the post-shattering phase, the deter-
Ghaffari [14] to O(β log1/β ∆) + 2O( log log n) . ministic O(log4 N )-round maximal matching algorithm of Hanck-
owiak et al. [17] for N -node networks can tolerate large identifiers,
For the CONGEST-model variant of the problem, e.g, poly(N )-bit identifiers. The randomized complexity was im-
the only o(log n)-time algorithms that we are aware of proved to O(log ∆ + log3 log n) by Fischer [12], via improving the
is that of Pai et al. [27]. They gave an algorithm with deterministic complexity.
We next discuss these three steps, in three different probability n−(1/2)(2/3) . Then, we remove from B ∗ any
subsections. unmarked node that has a marked node within distance
2k. This can be done in 2k rounds of the CONGEST
2.2 Post-Shattering: Ruling Set First, we com- model, in fact with single-bit messages. Notice that
pute a (5, O(log log n)) ruling set B ∗ of B 0 = V \ (S 0 ∪ some unmarked nodes may remain in B ∗ . We next
N (S 0 )) in O(log log n) rounds, with respect to distances discuss the properties provided by this procedure.
in the graph induced by vertices B = V \ (S ∪ N (S)). Let us now argue about the domination property of
The algorithm’s behavior in each connected component the obtained set B ∗ : Notice that we are working only
C of HB is independent of the other components, but with B ∗ and in each phase, we remove some more nodes
we guarantee that the ruling set algorithm succeeds in of it; in particular, we remove any unmarked node of B ∗
the whole graph HB , w.h.p. We present a formal state- that has a marked node within distance 2k. Thus, the
ment of our algorithm’s guarantee in Lemma 2.2, which distance of each original node of B 0 from the remaining
we will apply with parameter k = 5. B ∗ increases by at most 2k hops, per phase. This means
We comment that [14] also did this, in order to that after log3/2 log n phases, the remaining set B ∗ must
be able to enjoy the properties provided by Lemma be a (2k log3/2 log n)-dominating set of B 0 . That is,
2.1. However, the procedure in [14] is not suitable for each node in B 0 has a node of B ∗ within its distance
small messages. In particular, [14] used the randomized 2k log3/2 log n. However, this set B ∗ is not necessarily
algorithm of Gfeller and Vicari [13] for this step. That our desired ruling set because it might not be a k-
algorithm is not suitable for the CONGEST model: even independent set. We next argue that B ∗ has certain
some of its most basic steps may need large messages, local-sparseness properties: particularly, each node of
e.g., knowing the degree in the 5-power of the graph, B ∗ has O(log2 n) other nodes of B ∗ within its distance
where two nodes are adjacent if they have distance k. We use this property in the fine-grained part.
at most 5. In fact, even in the special case where For each node v ∈ B ∗ , let its ultra-degree be the
this 5-th power of the graph has small poly(log n) number of nodes of B ∗ within k hops of v, with respect
degrees, which is treated as a simpler case by Gfeller to the distances in H. We argue inductively that at
and Vicari [13] and where they resort to deterministic the end of phase i, the ultra-degree of each node is at
i
algorithms, the coloring part of those deterministic most max{n(2/3) , O(log2 n)}, w.h.p. By this invariant
algorithms cannot be implemented with O(log n)-bit applied to the previous phase, we have that at the
messages of the CONGEST model. beginning of phase i, the ultra-degree of each node v is
i−1
We next provide a new randomized ruling set algo- at most max{n(2/3) , O(log2 n)}. For phase i, if ultra-
i
rithm which is suitable for the CONGEST model. This degree of v is at most max{n(2/3) , O(log2 n)}, we have
algorithm performs a degree reduction in its initial part, nothing to prove for v. Suppose that the ultra-degree
i i−1 i
which is as fast as that of Gfeller and Vicari [13] in its of v is in (n(2/3) , n(2/3) ] and n(2/3) = Ω(log2 n).
initial part, without reading degrees in G5 . In its fi- Then, in phase i, when we mark each node of B ∗ with
i i
nal part, it departs completely from the (deterministic) probability n−(1/2)(2/3) , we expect n(1/2)(2/3) marked
(1/2)(2/3)i
method of Gfeller and Vicari [13] and uses a special ran- nodes within k hops of v. Notice that n =
domized coloring to complete the ruling set computation Ω(log n). Hence, with high probability, the number of
in the remaining graph. marked nodes within k hops of v is at least 1 and also
i
at most max{n(2/3) , O(log2 n)}. On the other hand,
Lemma 2.2. There is a randomized distributed algo- all unmarked nodes within k hops of v will be removed
rithm in the CONGEST model that, in any network from B ∗ , because v has at least one marked node within
H = (V, E) with at most n vertices, and for any set its k hops. Hence, not only the number of marked
B 0 ⊂ V and any integer k ≥ 1, with high probability, nodes within k-hops of v, but also the ultra-degree of
i
computes a (k, 10k 2 log log n) ruling set B ∗ ⊆ B 0 , with v is at most max{n(2/3) , O(log2 n)}. Recall that the
respect to the distances in H, in O(k 2 log log n) rounds. ultra-degree is the total number of nodes in B ∗ that
are within k hops of v, regardless of whether marked or
Proof. The algorithm is made of two parts, a coarse-
nodes of B ∗ within its k hops. We now perform k distH (v, b0 ) = distH (v, b), then v still belongs to the
epochs, to attain k independence. In the ith epoch, we territory of b. Hence, the territories are not necessarily
remove some vertices from B ∗ in a manner that ensures vertex-disjoint. However, each node in the territory of b
that B ∗ is an i-independent set (i.e., any two vertices has an edge to a node that is only in the territory of b.
of it have distance greater than i in H) and moreover, Because of this, we can deliver the message describing
the distance of any B 0 node to B ∗ increases by at most all the color choices of b to all nodes in its territory,
10i log log n during this epoch. Thus, after k epochs, we in O(i) rounds. Now consider two nodes b, b0 ∈ B ∗
have a k-independent set B ∗ such that any vertex of B 0 which are at distance exactly i. If i is even, on the
has at least one vertex of B ∗ within its 10k 2 log log n shortest path connecting b and b0 , there will be one node
hops. w exactly in the middle of the path which belongs to the
In the ith epoch, we first compute a coloring of B ∗ territories of both, and hence receives the color choices
vertices with χ = O(log5 n) colors such that any two of both of them. See the right side of the Figure 1, as
vertices that are at distance i from each other have an illustration. If i is odd, as depicted on the left side
different colors. Then, we use this coloring to perform a of Figure 1, then on the shortest path connecting b and
ruling set update of this phase. We next explain these b0 , there are two consecutive nodes w and w0 with the
two steps, separately. following properties: (A) node w is at distance (i − 1)/2
Computing the coloring for one phase: For i = 1, from b and belongs exclusively00 to the∗ territory of b. This
the coloring can be done easily by applying Linial’s is because any other node b ∈ B cannot be within
(single-round) algorithm [23]. However, for i ≥ 2, distance (i − 1)/2 of b, as that0 would be a node within
computing such a coloring for a general set B ∗ does i − 1 hops 0
of b. (B) node w is at distance (i − 1)/2
not seem possible, in sublogarithmic-time. Almost any from b and belongs exclusively to the territory of b0 ,
standard method would require each node of B ∗ to know with a similar reason as before. In this case that i is
the identifiers of the other B ∗ neighbors within distance odd, we can make all nodes that belong exclusively to
i. Since there can be up to O(log n) such nodes, learning one territory send the color-choice message that they
their identifiers could take Θ(log n) rounds, which is received from their 0
own territory to all their neighbors.
more than our desired run time. We now explain how Hence, w and w are now both aware of the color choices
0
we compute a coloring of B ∗ vertices with χ = O(log5 ) of b and b . In either case of i being odd or even, node w
colors such that any two vertices that have distance at that belongs to the territory of b gets informed whether
least i have different colors, for i ≥ 2. Here, we make any of the color choices of b is blocked or not through
use of the inductive invariant that at the beginning of connections to other territories incident on w. It can
epoch i, any two vertices of B ∗ have distance at least i. thus mark each blocked color with a single bit on the
Each node b ∈ B ∗ picks Θ(log n/ log log n) colors message that carries the color choices. Once we send
uniformly at random, independently and with replace- back these marked color-choice messages from all nodes
ment, from {1, . . . , χ}. The probability that at least of the territory to b, node b learns ∗
which of its colors
one of these colors in not chosen by any of the at most is blocked by other nodes of B at distance exactly i.
2 ∗
O(log n) other B -nodes within i hops of b is at least Hence, it can pick one color that is not blocked by any
of them. This completes the coloring procedure of this
epoch.
log2 n · log n/ log log n Θ(log n/ log log n)
1−( ) = 1−1/poly(n).
log5 n Using the coloring to update the ruling set, in one
phase: Given this χ = O(log5 n)-coloring where any two
That is, b has at least one color that is not blocked vertices of B ∗ at distance at most i have different colors,
by any of the other B ∗ -nodes within its i-hops. It we can compute a ruling set B ∗∗ such that any two
just remains for b to find one such color, which we vertices of B ∗∗ have distance at least i+1 and any vertex
explain in the next paragraph. Also, notice that the of B ∗ is within 5(i + 1)(log log n) hops of some vertex of
Θ(log n/ log log n) color choices of each node b0 ∈ B ∗ B ∗∗ . For that, we find a (i + 1, (i + 1) log χ) ruling set of
can be described using Θ(log n/ log log n) · log χ = B ∗ by applying the algorithm of Awerbuch, Goldberg,
Figure 1: Territories of two nodes b, b0 ∈ B ∗ at distance i, presented for the odd case f i on the left and for the even case on the
right. Blue nodes depict those of B ∗ and the white ones are those of H \ B ∗ . In epoch i, we are given the inductive invariant that
any two vertices of B ∗ have distance at least i.
Luby, and Plotkin [2, Figure 1], using the colors as vasan [28]. We note that the latter does not work in
the identifiers. This algorithm runs in O(i log χ) = the CONGEST model.
O(i log log n) rounds of the CONGEST model. We recall The algorithm that we present deviates consider-
that an (α, β) ruling set of B ∗ means a set B ∗∗ where ably from the complex recursive structure of Panconesi
each two vertices of B ∗∗ have distance at least α from and Srinivasan [28]. In fact, our algorithm can be
each other and moreover, each node of B ∗ has at least seen as going back to an outline similar to that of
one node of B ∗∗ within its distance β. We then update the earlier network decomposition algorithm by Awer-
B ∗ ← B ∗∗ . As a consequence, the maximum distance buch, Luby, Goldberg, and Plotkin [2]. We make certain
of any vertices in B 0 from B ∗ increases by additive changes in the approach of Awerbuch et al. [2] which im-
(i + 1) log χ ≤ 10i(log log n). This achieves the invariant proves their produced network decomposition and also
of the ith epoch, ensuring that at the beginning of epoch the round complexity of the construction to match those
i + 1, any two vertices of B ∗ have distance at least i + 1. of Panconesi and Srinivasan [28], while also fitting in the
The algorithm then moves to the next epoch. CONGEST model.
There is one more difference, our network decom-
position can handle much larger identifiers. This prop-
After Ruling Set, Preparation for Network De- erty is very crucial for us in our MIS algorithm, because
composition: As mentioned before, we apply this rul- of what we have after the pre-shattering phase, as we
ing set algorithm on the whole graph HB induced by ver- briefly mentioned in Section 1.4. Let us elaborate. Af-
tices B = V \ (S ∪ N (S)) to compute a (5, O(log log n))- ter the ruling set computation performed above and the
ruling set B ∗ of B 0 = V \ (S 0 ∪ N (S 0 )) vertices. For each clustering around the ruling set vertices, we now have
component C of HB , the computed ruling set B ∗ ∩C has at most log n clusters in each component. These will be
at most log n vertices, by the third property of Lemma treated as initial clusters by the network decomposition,
2.1. We now cluster the nodes of B 0 around vertices thus allowing us to think that we start with N = log n
of B ∗ , where each node b ∈ B 0 joins the cluster of the clusters, essentially as if the network decomposition al-
closest B ∗ node according to distances in C, breaking gorithm is working on a graph with N = log n vertices.
ties by IDs. This is easy to implement in the CONGEST However, as we explained in Section 1.4, the identifiers
model by simply flooding the IDs of the B ∗ nodes for of these initial clusters (i.e., cluster centers) are inher-
O(log log n) rounds, where each node b ∈ B 0 joins the ited from the original graph and thus have Θ(log n) bits.
cluster of the first B ∗ -node whose ID it receives. These This is much larger than logarithmic in N . Hence, the
clusters will be used as the initial clusters, in the com- network decomposition algorithm that we want should
putation of the network decomposition, as we describe work for ID length linear in the network size.
next. Our network decomposition algorithm provides
this, and works even when √nodes have much larger iden-
2.3 Post-Shattering: Network Decomposition tifiers, up to S = 2 ↑↑ 2O( log N ) bits, so long as O(S)-
Next, we present a deterministic distributed algo- bit messages are admitted. The algorithms of Awerbuch
rithm for constructing network decompositions in the et al. [2] and Panconesi and Srinivasan [28] do not work
CONGEST model, which matches the bounds obtained when identifiers have length linear or even a small poly-
by the celebrated algorithm of Panconesi and Srini-
Finally, we comment that our network decompo- of broadcasts and convergecasts in each cluster.
sition algorithm is short, simple, and self-contained, We next focus on one phase and explain how we
except for one well-known algorithmic tool: it makes merge old clusters into much fewer new clusters, with
use of Linial’s algorithm [23] that colors any network at most a constant factor larger diameter. During
of maximum degree ∆ which has S-bit identifiers with this process, we will permanently discard some old
O(∆2 ) colors, in O(log∗ S) rounds and using O(S)-bit clusters, making them clusters of the output network
messages. decomposition, after coloring them.
Building a small in-degree virtual graph H: Call
Theorem 2.1. There is a deterministic distributed al-
two clusters C and C 0 neighboring if they contain vertices
gorithm that in any N -node network, which has S-bit
v ∈ C and v 0 ∈ C such that v and v 0 are adjacent. First,
identifiers and supports O(S)-bit messages for some ar-
we make each cluster send its cluster identifier to all
bitrary S, computes a (g(N ), g(N )) network decompo-
√ neighboring clusters. Then, each cluster C convergecasts
sition in g(N ) · log∗ S rounds, for g(N ) = 2O( log N ) .
all of the identifiers that it has received, up to at most
Moreover, if initially we have N clusters, each with an
2d many
√
of them, to the cluster center, in O(d + hi ) =
S-bit center identifier and with radius at most r, the
2O( log N ) rounds. When there are more than 2d
algorithm computes a (g(N ), rg(N )) network decompo-
identifiers, the selection is arbitrary; we just need to
sition in rg(N ) · log∗ S rounds.
make sure that 2d different identifiers reach the center
Proof. We describe the algorithm for the setting where of C. This creates a directed virtual graph H among
initially each node is its own cluster. The description the clusters, where an edge C → C 0 indicates that the
is such that it easily extends to the second part of center of C 0 received the identifier of C. We call a cluster
the theorem statement, where we initially have a given high-degree if it has at least 2d neighboring clusters, and
clustering. low-degree otherwise. Notice that any low-degree cluster
√ will have all of its neighboring clusters in the base graph
Overall Structure: The algorithm √ consists of log N as incoming neighbors in H. It might have some of them
phases, each of which runs in 2O( log N ) · log∗ S rounds. as outgoing neighbors as well (though, not necessarily).
During each phase, the (remaining) vertices are parti- Moreover, each high-degree cluster will have at least 2d
tioned into vertex-disjoint clusters. Each cluster has incoming edges.
one center node, as well as a tree rooted at the center
that contains only vertices of this cluster and spans to Making H undirected with small degrees: One
all of the vertices of the cluster. As mentioned above, problem is that H is a directed graph but we would
we start with the initial setting where each node is its like to have an undirected graph (while ensuring that
own cluster. Throughout the phases, some clusters join all neighbors of a low-degree cluster are neighbors of it
each other to form a new cluster, that is, each cluster in in this virtual graph as well). For that, we first mark
phase i + 1 is formed by merging a few clusters in phase clusters of extremely high out-degree (which we define
i. Moreover, some clusters get discarded permanently, to be out-degree higher than 4d2 ), as follows: we reverse
√
after receiving a color. Let d = 2 log N
. Throughout, the communication direction where each cluster C sends
we maintain two invariants: (A) In the ith phase, we one message to each of its up to 2d many incoming
have at most N/di clusters, and (B) the radius of each neighboring clusters. We pass these messages to the
neighboring clusters, essentially traversing in reverse of
the direction of the virtual edge. Now, each cluster C 0
5 An alternative way would allow us to replace this log S factor
may have a large number of different messages that are
in the ruling set complexity with log χ, if we can compute a χ- sent to C 0 by its supposed out-neighbors in the virtual
coloring of G3 . For instance, G3 certainly a O(∆3 ) coloring,
existentially. However, it is unclear how to compute such a
cluster graph. Cluster C 0 accepts all up to 4d2 of these
coloring in the CONGEST model with O(S)-bit messages, without messages. If cluster C 0 detects that it has more than 4d2
incurring a round complexity overhead linearly proportional to the different messages directed to C 0 , we call C 0 a marked
degree of G. In fact, even the simpler task of knowing the number cluster. There are at most 2dNi+1 many marked clusters.
of neighbors in G3 seems to require a large round complexity.
arguments are similar to Theorem 2.1 except that now, at most log N hops.
each new cluster is formed by putting together some Then, we proceed to the next iteration. In the
clusters that were within O(1) hops in the K-th power ith iteration, we perform a similar ball growing process
graph. Hence, here, the diameter of the new clusters from the clusters of color i of the intermediate network
can be an O(K) = O(log log n) factor larger than the decomposition (while ignoring meta-nodes that were
maximum p diameter of the old clusters. This means deactivated in previous iterations). After going through
after O( log log n/ log log log n), the√ maximum cluster all the iterations and all the colors, we have managed to
diameter can become at most 2O( log log n·log log log n) . put at least 1/2 of the meta-nodes in super-clusters and
Since the last coloring step in each phase is run on the at most N/2 meta-nodes remain for the next phases.
K-th power of the cluster graph, any two clusters that The next phases repeat the same process by reac-
receive the same color must have distance at least K in tivating all the deactivated meta-nodes and then per-
G. forming a similar iterative ball carving on them. Since
We now compute the log log n colors of the output each time the number of remaining meta-nodes reduces
network decomposition, in log log n phases, using the by a 2 factor, we are done after log N = O(log log n)
intermediate network decomposition computed above. phases. By the construction, and since in each phase,
Let us describe the first phase; the other phases are we deactivated the boundary meta-nodes of each ball,
similar. √
it is clear that no two super-clusters of the same color
For the first phase, we have √ 2O( log log n·log log log n) are adjacent. This gives property (A) of the lemma.
iterations, each made of 2O( log log n·log log log n) rounds. Property (B) is follows directly from the construc-
In the first iteration, we start a deterministic ball tion of the super-clusters in the phase. This is because
growing process centered at the clusters of color 1 of we managed to deliver one message√from each super-
the intermediate network decomposition. Let us start cluster center to all of its nodes in 2O( log log n·log log log n)
with the description for one ball; we then explain that rounds when carving the related ball. We can repeat the
different balls that grow at the same time can work in same schedule of communications to satisfy (B) and de-
parallel and independently. liver any other O(log n)-bit message from the center of
Consider one ball which initially is just all the a super-cluster to all of the nodes in its super-cluster,
meta-nodes in one cluster of color 1 of the intermediate all at the same time.
network decomposition. We Call a meta-node of G a
boundary for this ball if at least one of its neighbors in MIS atop Network Decomposition: Given the de-
G is not in the ball. We call the ball good if the size composition provided by Lemma 3.1, we can now eas-
of its boundary is at most equal to the non-boundary ily solve MIS on the remaining components, using a
nodes of it. If the ball is not good, we grow it by one style similar to Theorem 2.2. In particular, we work on
hop in G. In that case, by definition of a good ball, the O(log log n) color classes of this network decompo-
this ball grows by at least a 2 factor in terms of its sition one by one. Per color class, we spend O(log ∆) +
√
number of meta-nodes. We repeat this until we reach 2 O( log log n·log log log n)
rounds. In one color class, we
a good ball. That happens within log N = O(log log n) just need to solve MIS in each super-cluster, which is
steps of growth as otherwise the ball would have more disconnected from the other super-clusters of the same
√
than 2log N meta-nodes of G, which is a contradiction. color and has radius at most 2O( log log n·log log log n) .
Notice
√ that each step of growth can be performed in We simply run O(log n) parallel randomized MIS al-
2O( log log n·log log log n) rounds, because we simply need gorithms, similar to Theorem 2.2, and then use time
to aggregate at the center the number of meta-nodes in proportional to this radius to pick the first successful
the ball as well as the number of boundary meta-nodes, run, by leveraging property (B) of Lemma 3.1 which al-
after which we can determine whether the boundaries lows us to deliver one O(log n) bit from the center of
are more than half or not. Once a ball is good, we super-cluster to all its nodes (and also the reverse of
take its boundary meta-nodes and deactivate them for that, simply by reversing the timing of the communica-
this phase. The non-boundary meta-nodes of one ball tions).
contradicts the properness of the coloring computed by that of the MIS algorithm, the overall round complexity
the algorithm with palettes from {0, . . . , p − 1}. is
Each run that is not badly hashed succeeds in log ∆ log(f1 log n) log(fβ−2 log n)
coloring all nodes of each cluster of with probability + +· · ·+ +Tfβ−1 log n .
log f1 log f2 log fβ−1
1 − 1/poly(N ). The probability of being badly hashed
in 1/N , in which case the run is detected and discarded. Here, Td denotes the complexity of solving MIS in the
Hence, each run produced a proper coloring with proba- CONGEST model in a graph with maximum degree
bility at least 1 − 2/N , and unsuccessful runs can be de- at most d, which√
we know is at most min{O(log √
d·
tected. Since we have O(log n) independent runs, with log log n) + 2O( log log n·log log log n) , log d · 2O( log log n) }.
probability 1 − √
1/poly(n), at least one run succeeds. By setting fi properly, we can obtain the following three
i
O( log log n)
We spend 2 rounds in each cluster to iden- complexities. By setting fi = √(log ∆)1− β and using
tify one such successful run (by a simple convergecast Td = O(log d · log log n) + 2O( log log n·log log log n) , we
and broadcast, similar to what we did for MIS) and we obtain asymptotic complexity
keep its colors. We then proceed to the next color class √
of the network decomposition. Before doing that, we β(log ∆)1/β +(log ∆)1/β log log n+2O( log log n·log log log n)
.
need to update the lists of the remaining colors, in one
single round, by removing colors that are already taken i
By √setting fi = (log ∆)1− β and using Td = log d ·
by permanently colored neighbors. Then, we are ready
2O( log log n) , we obtain asymptotic complexity
for the next color √ class of the network decomposition. √
Over all the 2O( log log n) color classes of the network de- β log1/β ∆ + log1/β ∆ · 2O( log log n) .
composition, the round complexity√complexity for this
post-shattering phase becomes 2O( log log n) . i
By setting fi = (log ∆)1− β−1 and using TO(log n) =
√
O( log log n)
Ruling Set: We next explain how one can use our 2 , we obtain asymptotic complexity
√
MIS algorithms, in combination with a recursive spar- β log1/(β−1) ∆ + 2O( log log n) .
sification of Kothapalli an Pemmaraju [20] and Bisht
et al. [8], to obtain the ruling set algorithm claimed in
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Remark: We comment that the code of the algorithm 6 Though, we decided not to present it that way, in the interest
can be changed slightly to work with just single-bit mes- of keeping it more understandable.