Irwin 12.2

426 C HA PTER 1 2 Variable-Frequency Network Performance
□12.2 Sinusoidal Frequency Analysis

Although in specific cases a network operates at only one frequency (e.g., a power system
network), in general we are interested in the behavior of a network as a function of frequency.
In a sinusoidal steady-state analysis, the network function can be expressed as
H( jω) = M(ω)e jϕ(ω) 12.4
where M(ω) = |H( jω)| and ϕ(ω) is the phase. A plot of these two functions, which are com-
monly called the magnitude and phase characteristics, displays the manner in which the re-
sponse varies with the input frequency ω. We will now illustrate the manner in which to
perform a frequency-domain analysis by simply evaluating the function at various frequencies
within the range of interest.
Frequency Response Using a Bode Plot

If the network characteristics are plotted on a semilog scale (that is, a linear scale for the
ordinate and a logarithmic scale for the abscissa), they are known as Bode plots (named
after Hendrik W. Bode). This graph is a powerful tool in both the analysis and design of
frequency-dependent systems and networks such as filters, tuners, and amplifiers. In using
the graph, we plot 20 log10M(ω) versus log10(ω) instead of M(ω) versus ω. The advantage of
this technique is that rather than plotting the characteristic point by point, we can employ
straight-line approximations to obtain the characteristic very efficiently. The ordinate for the
magnitude plot is the decibel (dB). This unit was originally employed to measure the ratio of
powers; that is,
P
number of dB = 10 log10  __2  12.5
P1
If the powers are absorbed by two equal resistors, then
 | 2| 2 = 10 log10 _____

 | 2| 2
V   2/R I 2R
number of dB = 10 log10 _______ 12.6
|V 1|  /R |I1| R
 | 2| = 20 log10 _

 | 2| 
V I
= 20 log10 _
|V1| |I1|
The term dB has become so popular that it is now used for voltage and current ratios, as
illustrated in Eq. (12.6), without regard to the impedance employed in each case.
In the sinusoidal steady-state case, H( jω) in Eq. (12.3) can be expressed in general as
K0( jω)±N (1 + jωτ1 )[1 + 2ζ3 (jωτ3 )+ ( jωτ3 ) 2 ]∙ ∙ ∙
H( jω) =  _______________________________________
    
       12.7
(1 + jωτa )[1 + 2ζb (jωτb )+ ( jωτb ) 2 ]∙ ∙ ∙
Note that this equation contains the following typical factors:
1. A frequency-independent factor K0 > 0
2. Poles or zeros at the origin of the form jω; that is, ( jω)+N for zeros and ( jω)−N for poles
3. Poles or zeros of the form (1 + jωτ)
4. Quadratic poles or zeros of the form 1 + 2ζ ( jωτ) + ( jωτ)2
Taking the logarithm of the magnitude of the function H( jω) in Eq. (12.7) yields
20 log10|H( jω)| = 20 log10 K0 ± 20N log10 | jω|
+ 20 log10 | 1 + jωτ1|
|
+ 20 log10 1 + 2ζ3 ( jωτ3 )+  ( jωτ3 )2 | 12.8
+ ∙ ∙ ∙ −20 log10|1 + jωτa|
| |
−20 log10 1 + 2ζb ( jωτb )+  ( jωτb ) 2 ∙ ∙ ∙
Note that we have used the fact that the log of the product of two or more terms is equal to
the sum of the logs of the individual terms, the log of the quotient of two terms is equal to the
difference of the logs of the individual terms, and log10 An = n log10 A.
12.2 Sinusoidal Frequency Analysis 427
The phase angle for H( jω) is
( 1 − ω2τ 23)
2ζ ωτ
L H(
jω) = 0 ± N(90°) + tan ωτ1 + tan−1 _
−1
  3 3  
( 1 − ω2τ b2)
2ζbωτb
+ ∙ ∙ ∙ − tan−1ωτa − tan−1  _   ∙ ∙ ∙ 12.9
As Eqs. (12.8) and (12.9) indicate, we will simply plot each factor individually on a
c ommon graph and then sum them algebraically to obtain the total characteristic. Let us ex-
amine some of the individual terms and illustrate an efficient manner in which to plot them
on the Bode diagram.
Constant Term
The term 20 log10 K0 represents a constant magnitude with zero phase shift, as shown in
Fig. 12.10a.
Poles or Zeros at the Origin

Poles or zeros at the origin are of the form ( jω)±N, where + is used for a zero and—is used for a
pole. The magnitude of this function is ±20N log10 ω, which is a straight line on semilog paper
with a slope of ±20N dB/decade; that is, the value will change by 20N each time the frequency is
multiplied by 10, and the phase of this function is a constant ±N(90°). The magnitude and phase
characteristics for poles and zeros at the origin are shown in Figs. 12.10b and c, respectively.
Simple Pole or Zero

Linear approximations can be employed when a simple pole or zero of the form (1 + jωτ) is pres-
ent in the network function. For ωτ ≪ 1, (1 + jωτ) ≈ 1 and, therefore, 20 log10|(1 + jωτ)| = 20 log10
Magnitude characteristic
20 log10K0
Phase
Phase (deg)
Log magnitude
characteristic
0
gain (dB)
0.1 1.0 10 100

ω (rad/s:log scale)
(a)
with slope of −20N dB/decade
Phase (deg)
Log magnitude
0 Phase
gain (dB)
characteristic
−N(90°)
1.0
(b)
Log magnitude
+N(90°)
Phase
characteristic
gain (dB)
0
Phase (deg)
with slope of
+20N dB/decade
1.0
(c)
FIGURE 12.10 Magnitude and phase characteristics for a
constant term and poles and zeros at the origin.
1 = 0 dB. Similarly, if ωτ ≫ 1, then (1 + jωτ) ≈ jωτ, and hence 20 log10|(1 + jωτ)|≈ 20 log10 ωτ. There-
fore, for ωτ ≪ 1, the response is 0 dB, and for ωτ ≫ 1, the response has a slope that is the same as
that of a simple pole or zero at the origin. The intersection of these two asymptotes, one for ωτ ≪
1 and one for ωτ ≫ 1, is the point where ωτ = 1 or ω = 1/τ, which is called the break frequency.
At this break frequency, where ω = 1/τ, 20 log10|(1 + j1)| = 20 log10(2)1/2 = 3 dB. Therefore, the
actual curve deviates from the asymptotes by 3 dB at the break frequency. It can be shown that at
one-half and twice the break frequency, the deviations are 1 dB. The phase angle associated with
a simple pole or zero is ϕ = tan−1 ωτ, which is a simple arctangent curve. Therefore, the phase
shift is 45° at the break frequency and 26.6° and 63.4° at one-half and twice the break frequency,
respectively. The actual magnitude curve for a pole of this form is shown in Fig. 12.11a. For a
zero the magnitude curve and the asymptote for ωτ ≫ 1 have a positive slope, and the phase curve
extends from 0° to +90°, as shown in Fig. 12.11b. If multiple poles or zeros of the form (1 + jωτ)N
are present, then the slope of the high-frequency asymptote is multiplied by N, the deviation
between the actual curve and the asymptote at the break frequency is 3N dB, and the phase curve
extends from 0 to N(90°) and is N(45°) at the break frequency.
Quadratic Poles or Zeros

Quadratic poles or zeros are of the form 1 + 2ζ ( jωτ) + ( jωτ)2. This term is a function not only
of ω but also of the dimensionless term ζ, which is called the damping ratio. If ζ > 1 or ζ = 1,
the roots are real and unequal or real and equal, respectively, and these two cases have already
been addressed. If ζ < 1, the roots are complex conjugates, and it is this case that we will ex-
amine now. Following the preceding argument for a simple pole or zero, the log magnitude of
the quadratic factor is 0 dB for ωτ ≪ 1. For ωτ ≫ 1,
| |
20 log10 1 −(ωτ)2 + 2jζ(ωτ) ≈ 20 log10 |(ωτ)2|= 40 log10|ωτ|
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 891
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1 __ 1 _ 1 1 1 I I I I __ 1 __ 1 _ 1 M i l l
dB = 20 log10|(1+jωτ)−1|
0 0
ϕ = tan−1 ωτ
Phase shift (deg)

\
Magnitude (dB)
dB \
−20 dB/decade
−20
−45°/decade ϕ
−6 \ s
^nX −40 —
−45°
−60
−12 -
−80
−18 −90°
−20
10
0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 4.0
ωτ (rad/s)(Log scale)
(a)
+18
dB = 20 log10|(1 + jωτ)| 90°
Phase shift (deg)
ϕ = tan−1ωτ
Magnitude (dB)
+12
ϕ
60
45°
+6 dB
+45°/decade 30
n +20 dB/decade
0
0
0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 4.0 10

(b)
FIGURE 12.11 Magnitude and phase plot (a) for a simple pole and
(b) for a simple zero.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91
ζ=0
20 20 log10|[1+2ζ(jωτ) + ( jωτ)2]−1|
ζ = 0.1
10 0.2
Magnitude (dB) 0.4 0.6
0.8
0 1.0
−10
−20
−30
0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 4.0 10

(a)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 891 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 1
JL IIIII JIIIIIII
0 ζ = 0.1 0.2
0.4 ϕ = −tan−1 —2ζωτ
— —
0.6 1−(ωτ)2
Phase shift (deg)
−40 0.8
1.0
−80
−120
−160
−200
0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 4.0 10
(b)
FIGURE 12.12 Magnitude and phase characteristics for quadratic poles.
and therefore, for ωτ ≫ 1, the slope of the log magnitude curve is +40 dB/decade for a quadratic
zero and −40 dB/decade for a quadratic pole. Between the two extremes, ωτ ≪ 1 and ωτ ≫ 1,
the behavior of the function is dependent on the damping ratio ζ. Fig. 12.12a illustrates the
manner in which the log magnitude curve for a quadratic pole changes as a function of the
damping ratio. The phase shift for the quadratic factor is tan−12ζωτ/[1 − (ωτ)2]. The phase plot
for quadratic poles is shown in Fig. 12.12b. Note that in this case the phase changes from 0°
at frequencies for which ωτ ≪ 1 to −180° at frequencies for which ωτ ≫ 1. For quadratic zeros
the magnitude and phase curves are inverted; that is, the log magnitude curve has a slope of
+40 dB/decade for ωτ ≫ 1, and the phase curve is 0° for ωτ ≪ 1 and +180° for ωτ ≫ 1.
E XAM PLE 12.3
We want to generate the magnitude and phase plots for the transfer function
10(0.1jω + 1)
Gυ( jω) =  _________________
      
( jω + 1)(0.02 jω + 1)
Solution Note that this function is in standard form, since every term is of the form ( jωτ + 1). To
determine the composite magnitude and phase characteristics, we will plot the individual asymp-
totic terms and then add them as specified in Eqs. (12.8) and (12.9). Let us consider the magnitude
plot first. Since K0 = 10, 20 log10 10 = 20 dB, which is a constant independent of frequency, as
shown in Fig. 12.13a. The zero of the transfer function contributes a term of the form +20 log10
|1 + 0.1jω|, which is 0 dB for 0.1ω ≪ 1, has a slope of +20 dB/decade for 0.1ω ≫ 1, and has a break
1 3 5 7 91 3 5 7 91 3 5 7 91 3 5 7 91
40 I I 11 III. I I 11 III I I 11 III
20 log10(10)
20
20 log10|1+0.1jω|
0
−20 log10|1+0.02jω|
Log magnitude (dB)

−20 log10|1+jω|
−20 +90
Phase shift (deg)

+tan−10.1ω +45
−tan−1ω −tan−10.02ω −45
−90
0.1 1.0 10 100 1000
ω (rad/s)
(a)
1 3 5 7 91 3 5 7 91 3 5 7 91 3 5 7 91
40
20
Composite magnitude
0
Log magnitude (dB)
−20 +90
Phase shift (deg)

+45
Composite phase −45
−90
0.1 1.0 10 100 1000
ω (rad/s)
(b)
FIGURE 12.13 (a) Magnitude and phase components for the poles and zeros of the
transfer function in Example 12.3; (b) Bode plot for the transfer function in Example 12.3.
f requency at ω = 10 rad/s. The poles have break frequencies at ω = 1 and ω = 50 rad/s. The pole
with a break frequency at ω = 1 rad/s contributes a term of the form −20 log10|1 + jω|, which is 0 dB
for ω ≪ 1 and has a slope of −20 dB/decade for ω ≫ 1. A similar argument can be made for the pole
that has a break frequency at ω = 50 rad/s. These factors are all plotted individually in Fig. 12.13a.
Consider now the individual phase curves. The term K0 is not a function of ω and does not
contribute to the phase of the transfer function. The phase curve for the zero is +tan−1 0.1ω, which
is an arctangent curve that extends from 0° for 0.1ω ≪ 1 to +90° for 0.1ω ≫ 1 and has a phase of
+45° at the break frequency. The phase curves for the two poles are −tan−1 ω and −tan−1 0.02ω.
The term −tan−1 ω is 0° for ω ≪ 1, −90° for ω ≫ 1 and −45° at the break frequency ω = 1 rad/s. The
phase curve for the remaining pole is plotted in a similar fashion. All the individual phase curves
are shown in Fig. 12.13a.
As specified in Eqs. (12.8) and (12.9), the composite magnitude and phase of the transfer function
are obtained simply by adding the individual terms. The composite curves are plotted in Fig. 12.13b.
Note that the actual magnitude curve (solid line) differs from the straight-line approximation (dashed
line) by 3 dB at the break frequencies and 1 dB at one-half and twice the break frequencies.
EXAM PLE 12.4
Let us draw the Bode plot for the following transfer function:
25( jω + 1)
Gυ( jω) =  ______________
     
( jω)2(0.1jω + 1)
Solution Once again all the individual terms for both magnitude and phase are plotted in
Fig. 12.14a. The straight line with a slope of −40 dB/decade is generated by the double pole at the
origin. This line is a plot of −40 log10 ω versus ω and therefore passes through 0 dB at ω = 1 rad/s.
The phase for the double pole is a constant −180° for all frequencies. The remainder of the terms
are plotted as illustrated in Example 12.3.
The composite plots are shown in Fig. 12.14b. Once again they are obtained simply by adding
the individual terms in Fig. 12.14a. Note that for frequencies for which ω ≪ 1, the slope of the
1 3 5 7 91 3 5 7 91 3 5 7 91
40
20 log10(25) = 28 dB
20 −40 log10|jω|
+20 log10|1 + jω|
0 −20 log10|1 + 0.1jω|
Log magnitude (dB)
Phase shift (deg)

−20 +90
+tan−1ω
0
−tan−10.1ω
−90
−180
−270
0.1 1.0 10 100
ω (rad/s)
(a)
1 3 5 7 91 3 5 7 91 3 5 7 91
60
40 Composite magnitude
20
Log magnitude (dB)
Phase shift (deg)
Composite phase −90
−180
−270
0.1 1.0 10 100
ω (rad/s)
(b)
FIGURE 12.14 (a) Magnitude and phase components for the poles and zeros of the
transfer function in Example 12.4; (b) Bode plot for the transfer function in Example 12.4.
magnitude curve is −40 dB/decade. At ω = 1 rad/s, which is the break frequency of the zero, the
magnitude curve changes slope to −20 dB/decade. At ω = 10 rad/s, which is the break frequency
of the pole, the slope of the magnitude curve changes back to −40 dB/decade.
The composite phase curve starts at −180° due to the double pole at the origin. Since the
first break frequency encountered is a zero, the phase curve shifts toward −90°. However, before
the composite phase reaches −90°, the pole with break frequency ω = 10 rad/s begins to shift
the composite curve back toward −180°.
Example 12.4 illustrates the manner in which to plot directly terms of the form K0/( jω)N.
For terms of this form, the initial slope of −20N dB/decade will intersect the 0‑dB axis at a
| |
frequency of (K0)1/N rad/s; that is, −20 log10 K0/( jω)N = 0 dB implies that K0/( jω)N = 1 and,
therefore, ω = (K0)1/N rad/s. Note that the projected slope of the magnitude curve in Example
12.4 intersects the 0‑dB axis at ω = (25)1/2 = 5 rad/s.
Similarly, it can be shown that for terms of the form K0( jω)N, the initial slope of +20N dB/
decade will intersect the 0‑dB axis at a frequency of ω = (1/K0)1/N rad/s; that is, +20 log10
| |
K0/( jω)N = 0 dB implies that K0/( jω)N = 1 and, therefore, ω = (1/K0)1/N rad/s.
By applying the concepts we have just demonstrated, we can normally plot the log mag-
nitude characteristic of a transfer function directly in one step.
Learning Assessments
E12.4 Sketch the magnitude characteristic of the Bode plot, labeling all Answer:
critical slopes and points for the function
104( jω + 2) |G| (dB)

G( jω) =  _________________
      +20 dB/decade
( jω + 10)( jω + 100)
−20 dB/decade
20 log1020
2 10 100 ω (rad/s)
FIGURE E12.4
E12.5 Sketch the magnitude characteristic of the Bode plot for the transfer Answer:
function
|H| (dB)
5( jω + 10)
H( jω) =  ___________
    −6
jω( jω + 100)
−20 dB/decade
−20 dB/decade
−26
1 10 100 ω (rad/s)
FIGURE E12.5
|G| (dB)
100(0.02 jω + 1)
G( jω) =  ______________
  
 
( jω)2 −40 dB/decade
0
−20 dB/decade
10 50 ω (rad/s)
FIGURE E12.6
|G| (dB)
10jω
G( jω) =  _______________
    0
( jω + 1)( jω + 10)
−20 dB/decade
+20 dB/decade
1 10 ω (rad/s)
FIGURE E12.7
EXAM PLE 12.5
We wish to generate the Bode plot for the following transfer function:
25jω
Gυ( jω) =  _________________________
       
( jω + 0.5)[( jω)2 + 4jω + 100]
Solution Expressing this function in standard form, we obtain
0.5jω
Gυ( jω) =  __________________________
      
(2jω + 1)[( jω/10)2 + jω/25 + 1]
The Bode plot is shown in Fig. 12.15. The initial low-frequency slope due to the zero at the origin
is +20 dB/decade, and this slope intersects the 0‑dB line at ω = 1/K0 = 2 rad/s. At ω = 0.5 rad/s the
slope changes from +20 dB/decade to 0 dB/decade due to the presence of the pole with a break
frequency at ω = 0.5 rad/s. The quadratic term has a center frequency of ω = 10 rad/s (i.e., τ =
1/10). Since
1  
2ζτ =  _
25
and
τ = 0.1
then
ζ = 0.2
Plotting the curve in Fig. 12.12a with a damping ratio of ζ = 0.2 at the center frequency
ω = 10 rad/s completes the composite magnitude curve for the transfer function.
The initial low-frequency phase curve is +90° due to the zero at the origin. This curve and
the phase curve for the simple pole and the phase curve for the quadratic term, as defined in
Fig. 12.12b, are combined to yield the composite phase curve.
1 3 5 7 91 3 5 7 91 3 5 7 91 3 5 7 91
—i
20
Log magnitude (dB)
Phase shift (deg)

−20
−40 +90
−90
−180
0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100
ω (rad/s)
FIGURE 12.15 Bode plot for the transfer function in Example 12.5.
E12.8 Given the following function G( jω), sketch the magnitude character- Answer:
istic of the Bode plot, labeling all critical slopes and points:
0.2( jω + 1) |G| (dB)
G( jω) =  ____________________
      
jω[( jω/12)2 + jω/36 + 1]
0 −20 dB/decade 1
ζ=—
6
−40 dB/decade
0.2 1 12 ω (rad/s)
FIGURE E12.8
Creating Bode Plots using MATLAB

Our approach to the use of MATLAB in the creation of Bode plots will be to explain each step
involved in the process using a fairly complicated example. Since only a few steps are involved,
one can then follow the procedure to produce a Bode plot for any other transfer function. Sup-
pose that we wish to obtain the Bode plot for the transfer function
2500(10 + jω)
H( jw) = ___________________________
     
    
jω(2 + jω) ( 2500 + 30jω + ( jω)2)
over the range of frequencies from 0.1 rad/s to 1000 rad/s using 50 points per decade. The steps
involved in obtaining this Bode plot are outlined as follows. In this step-by-step procedure,
each statement must end with a semicolon.
Step 1. Clear MATLAB memory and close all open figures.
>> clear all;
>> close all;
Step 2. Open figure number i, where i is 1 for a single plot, etc.

>> figure(1);
Step 3. Create a vector of x logarithmically spaced; that is, the same number of points per
decade, frequencies from y rad/s to z rad/s. The variable w represents omega. In this case, we
use 200 points (4 decades and 50 points/decade) and plot from 0.1 rad/s; that is, 10−1 to 1000
rad/s (i.e., 103).
>> w=logspace(-1,3,200);
Step 4. Define the transfer function, H(jω), to be plotted in two figures: magnitude and
phase. Note that the . operators perform array math, element-by-element.
>> H=2500*(10+j*w)./(j*w.*(2+j*w).*(2500+j*w*30+(j*w).^2));
Step 5. Divide the figure window into two parts: the first part is the magnitude plot, and the
second part is the phase plot, as shown on the next page.
The first subplot statement specifies that there are two plots, one column, and the
statements that follow this subplot statement apply to row 1, that is, the magnitude plot.
>> subplot(2,1,1);
The next statement specifies that the plot is semilog, w is the variable, and 20 log 10|H|
is the ordinate.
>> semilogx(w,20*log10(abs(H)));
Bode plot: magnitude response

50
0
|H(jω)|
−50
−100
−150
10−1 100 101 102 103
Bode plot: phase response

50
−100
−150
H (jω) (deg)
−200
\l
−250
−300
10−1 100 101 102 103
ω (rad/s)
FIGURE 12.16 MATLAB-generated Bode plots.
The following statements turn on the grid, specify that the ordinate should be labeled as
|H(jω)|, and indicate that the title for this plot is “Bode Plot: Magnitude Response.” Note that
\omega means use the lower case omega symbol here, and anything contained within the
single quotes is printed.
>> grid;
>> ylabel('|H(j\omega)|');
>> title('Bode Plot: Magnitude Response');
The second subplot statement specifies that there are two plots, one column, and the
statements that follow this subplot statement apply to row 2, that is, the phase plot.
>> subplot(2,1,2);
The next statement specifies that the plot is semilog, w is the variable, and the ordinate
is the angle of H, which though normally in rad/s is converted to degrees. The use of the
“unwrap” feature eliminates phase jumps from +180° to −180°.
>> semilogx(w,unwrap(angle(H))*180/pi);
The following statements turn on the grid; they specify that the variable is omega in rad/s
and the ordinate is the angle of H( jw) in degrees (circ is the little circle used to represent
degrees) and that the title of the plot is “Bode Plot: Phase Response.”
>> grid;
>> xlabel('\omega(rad/s)');
>> ylabel('\angleH(j\omega)(\circ)');
>> title('Bode Plot: Phase Response');
The MATLAB output is shown in Fig. 12.16.
Deriving the Transfer Function from the Bode Plot

The following example will serve to demonstrate the derivation process.
E XAMP LE 1 2 . 6
Given the asymptotic magnitude characteristic shown in Fig. 12.17, we wish to determine the
transfer function Gυ( jω).
1 3 5 7 91 3 5 7 91 3 5 7 91 3 5 7 91
I i Mill
20
−20 dB/decade
0
−20 dB/decade
Magnitude (dB)
−20
−40 dB/decade
0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0

ω (rad/s)
FIGURE 12.17 Straight-line magnitude plot employed in Example 12.6.

Solution Since the initial slope is 0 dB/decade, and the level of the characteristic is 20 dB, the
factor K0 can be obtained from the expression
20 dB = 20 log10 K0
and hence
K0 = 10
The −20-dB/decade slope starting at ω = 0.1 rad/s indicates that the first pole has a break frequen-
cy at ω = 0.1 rad/s and, therefore, one of the factors in the denominator is (10jω + 1). The slope
changes by +20 dB/decade at ω = 0.5 rad/s, indicating that there is a zero present with a break
frequency at ω = 0.5 rad/s and, therefore, the numerator has a factor of (2jω + 1). Two additional
poles are present with break frequencies at ω = 2 rad/s and ω = 20 rad/s. Therefore, the composite
transfer function is
10(2jω + 1)
Gυ( jω) =  ____________________________
   
    
(10jω + 1)(0.5jω + 1)(0.05jω + 1)
Note carefully the ramifications of this example with regard to network design.
E12.9 Determine the transfer function G( jω) if the straight-line magnitude characteristic approximation Answer:
5( _ + 1)( _ + 1)
for this function is as shown in Fig. E12.9. jω jω
5
___________________50
G( jω) =      .
  
jω( _ + 1)( _ + 1)
jω jω
|G| (dB)
20 100
−20 dB/decade
0 dB −20 dB/decade
−20 dB/decade
5 20 50 100 ω (rad/s)
FIGURE E12.9
E12.10 Find H( jω) if its magnitude characteristic is shown in Fig. E12.10. Answer:
|H|(dB) H( jω) =
0.3162( _ + 1)
jω
5
________________________
    
     .
   + 1)(
(    + 1)(
 _ + 1)
20 dB/decade −20 dB/decade jω
_ _jω jω
12 25 40
−10 −40 dB/decade
5 12 25 40 ω (rad/s)
FIGURE E12.10

Irwin 12.2

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426 C HA PTER 1 2 Variable-Frequency Network Performance

□12.2 Sinusoidal Frequency Analysis

H( jω) = M(ω)e jϕ(ω) 12.4

Frequency Response Using a Bode Plot

​​ | 2| 2 ​= 10 log10 _____

​​ | 2| ​​= 20 log10 _

The phase angle for H( jω) is

Poles or Zeros at the Origin

Simple Pole or Zero

0.1 1.0 10 100

Quadratic Poles or Zeros

Phase shift (deg)

0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 4.0 10

0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 4.0 10

E XAM PLE 12.3

Log magnitude (dB)

Phase shift (deg)

−tan−1ω −tan−10.02ω −45

Phase shift (deg)

Composite phase −45

EXAM PLE 12.4

Phase shift (deg)

Phase shift (deg)

Composite phase −90

104( jω + 2) |G| (dB)

EXAM PLE 12.5

Log magnitude (dB)

Phase shift (deg)

Creating Bode Plots using MATLAB

Step 2. Open figure number i, where i is 1 for a single plot, etc.

Bode plot: magnitude response

Bode plot: phase response

The MATLAB output is shown in Fig. 12.16.

Deriving the Transfer Function from the Bode Plot

0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0

FIGURE 12.17 Straight-line magnitude plot employed in Example 12.6.

−10 −40 dB/decade

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H( jω) = M(ω)e jϕ(ω) 12.4

 | 2| 2 = 10 log10 _____

 | 2| = 20 log10 _