UNIT 1 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

-AN OVERVIEW

Structure Page No.

1.1 Introduction
Objectives

1.2 Mathematical Modelling - What arid why?

1.3 Types of Modelling

1.4 Limitations of a Mathematical Model
1.5 Summary
',
1.6 Solutions/Answers
- Appendix

1.1 INTRODUCTION
I n the introduction to this block, we have indicated the need for
mathematical modelling i.e., the use of mathematics to solve real world
problems. I n this unit, we shall introduce you to the basic concepts of
mathematical modelling. Our main aim is to develop the process of
mathematical modelling in which a physical system or a real life problem is
translated into a mathematical problem. The examples are taken from
contexts you are already familiar with e.g., motion of a simple pendulum,
radio active decay, population growth etc.. The need for modelling is
illustrated with the help of real world problems by beginning with a
nontrivial word problem - a problem described in terms of words, about the
'

world around us. The different approaches to modelling a particular problem

are discussed. Simple exercises based on real world problems are inserted at
various places so that you can try to convert the word problem into a n
abstract form by selecting a particular type of modelling. At the end of the
unit we have given an appendix where we have discussed the method of
dimensional analysis. In case you are not familiar with the method, this
would help you in understanding various examples wherever we have used it
for modelling various physical situations.
Objectives
After reading this unit you should be able to

o define mathematical niodelling and explain its importance;

o identify different typcs of modelling;
o convert a word problem into its equivalent mathematical formulation;
o identify many of the formulas you are already familiar with as t h e
mathematical models of the real situation.
6

>P<
 Ma thematical
1.2 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING - WHNF Modelling
- An Overview
AND WHY?
Real life problems arise froin different disciplines - sociology, chemistry,
biology, physics, management, finance etc. At some point of time, while
studying mathematics, you must have solved problems of the following type:
i) Find the height of a tower
ii) Estimate the yield of wheat in India fro111 t,he standing crop.

iii) Estimate the population of India11 in the year 2000 A.D.

iv) Fiud the effect of a 30 % reduction in incorne tax rate on the economy.
It is possible that yon might, have solved some of these probleins with the
help of mathematics and mathematical modclli~igwithout actually knowing
what matllematical inodelliilg is. How do we t r e d the foregoing problems?
For (i) We try to express the height of the towcr in terms of some distances
and angles which can be measured froill the ground.
For (ii) we try to find the area urldc-tr wheat cultivatiou arid find the average
yield per acre by cutting and weighing crops frorn sorne rcpresentdive fields.
For (iii) we extrapolat? population data available from previous censuses or
develop a model expressing the population as a function of time (years). In
simple words we can say that we exanlirie the p;evious data, and try to
calcuate what is lilrely t o happen in the future.
For (iv) we examine the eEects of sirnilar cuts in !:he past or develop a
mathematical model giving roldion between inculnc-: 2.r cuts, y urchasing
power i11 hands of individuals,' its offect,s on productivity and inflation etc.
Examples of some more real life problenls that may be anienilble t;o a
mathematical treat~nerltand are of interest to peoplc are as follows:

i) How do the eye muscles move the eyeball around in its socket?
ii) Forecast a monsoon with precision a month in advance.
iii) How and why do diflerent parts of the persondity of a person compete
for control over him/her?
iv) Suppose the tenth refrigerator producer1 in a, factory t,onlr half as lozig
as the first. What is the progress rate of 1~rocluctio11.

The choice of approach to a real world problem depends on how the results
are to be used. If the aim is to, get k~iowledgefor lcnowledge salcc, then
practical application is of no importance. A present day
e~~gineer/i~ldustrialistwill not undertake any st,rcnuous task without a well
defined purpose. Anyone who likes to invest on the irldustrial prodnction of a
product would like to make calculatiorls either to avoid tlla unrealistically
high cost of real scale experiments or to estimate some futurc siluation. It is
in this context a mathematical model of a real world problcm gairis
enormous significance.
The concept of mathematical modellillg is not a new one. The Chinese, tllc
ancient Egyptians, Indians, Babylo~iiansarid Grcclcs indulged in
understanding and predicting the natural phe~iomenathrough their
Introduction knowledge of mathematics. The architects, artisans and craftsmen based
many of their works of art on geometric principles.
A natural question which must have arisen in your mind is " What is
mathematical modelling?" Mathematical modelling consists of
simplifying real world problems and representing them as mathematical
problems (mathematical model), solving the mathematical problems and
interpreting these solutions in the language of the real world. In other words,
we can divide the modelling process into three main steps: formulation,
finding solution and interpretation and evaluation.

Formulation: Formulation can, in turn, be divided into three steps

i
(i) Stating t h e question: Understanding natural phenomena involves
describing them. An accurate description answers such questions as:
How long? How fast? How loud? etc. But the questions we start with
should not be vague or too complicated. In problems drawn from the
real w ~ r l dthis should be done by describing the context of the problem
and then stating the problem within this context.

(ii) Identifying relevant factors: Decide which quantities and

relationships are important for your question and which are
unimportant for your question and can be neglected. The unimportant
quantities are those that have very little or no effect on the process. For
example, in studying the motion of a falling body, its colour is usually of
I
little interest. 1
(iii) Mathematical description: Each important quantity should be 1
I
represented by a suitable mathematical entity e.g. a variable, a
function, a geometric figure etc. Each relationship should be
represented by an equation, inequality, or other suitable mathematical
assumption.
Finding t h e Solution: The mathematical formulation rarely gives us
answers directly. We usually have .to do some operations. This may involve a
calculation, solving an equation, proving a theorem etc.

NO YES
J L
v

Fig. 1
Evaluation: Since a model is a simplified representation of a real problem,
by its very nature, has built-in assumptions and approximations. Obviously,
the most important question is to decide whether our model is a good one or
not i.e., when the obtained results are interpreted physically whether or not
the model gives reasonable answers. If a model is not accurate enough, we
try to identify the sources of tlle shortcomings. It nlay happen that wc need Mathematicar9
a new formulation, new matllerriatical manipulation and hence a new Modelling
- An Ovcsviewr
evaluation. Thus mathematical modelling can be a cycle of the three
modelling shown in the flowchart of Fig.1.
Before going further into the details of modellirig let us consider some of the
mathematical models or representations you are already familiar with:
i) Any interval of time call be niodelled by an algebraic varia,ble
t, 0 < t < co. The numerical values of t 111ustbe obtained from the
readings of suitable clocks - a starting tiinc t l and the current time ta so
that t = t 2 - t l .

ii) A distance is modelled by a positive algebraic variable, sdy

'd'(0 5 d < oo).This distance 'd' between two points is assigned a
numerical value based on the measureinent using a rigid rrieasuring rocl
' (e.g., a metric rule).
iii) The modelling of space is more interesting and has led t,o the
development of many different axioms and thcorerns in geometry whidl
in turn have played a larger rolc in the application of mathematics (or
-more precisely in civil engineel.ing) to the construction of buildings,
dams ete. To start with, space can be tliougli of as a collection of points.
This basic inodel can be supplemented by further ideas such as di~ection
and distance. We can further supplement these by different results e.g.,
(a) There is a unique circle passing through tliree distinct lion-collinear
points.
(b) Tlle medians of a triangle are concurrent.
You are familiar with the represeritation of the points of space using
coordinate system e.g., the cartesian systern (::, y, z). Tliis representation
introduces you aufomat,ically to the imporl;ant features of space: (i) its three
dimensionality, (ii) its infiniteness (if x, y, z are allowed to take all real
values) (iii) its continuity in the three directions.
Various axioms and geometrical proofs you are familiar witli follow from
these basic models of distance and space.
Example 1. How would you rnodel speed ant1 velocity?
Solution: from their definition, speed/velocity is the rate of change of
distance travelled. Since speed is a scalar, we niodel it as LIT, where L is
the distance travelled and T is the time required to travel (Refer Appendix).
While modelling velocity, the direction too should be specified and hence,
the model for velocity is v = L/T where the vector ilotation is used
additionally. Using Calculus, the model can be further improved by writing
the elementaxy distance as ds = (dx, dy, dz), so that v = $.
Note that the bold letters represer~tvectors.

E l ) How would you model acceleration of a particle?

As you know every branch of knowledge has two aspects, one of whicli is
theoretical involving mathematical, statistical and computer-based methods
and the other of which is empirical based on experiments and observations.
Likewise, mathematical models are basically of two kinds.

i) Empirical models.
Introduction ii) Theoretical models.

Empirical: models ase based on experiinentally founded hypotheses. They

lead to the construction of an underlying theoretical franlework. In other
words, they more often lead to ' 1 ~ 1 of
~ snature' which represent a
fundamental characteristic of nature. Such models are formulated by gia.nts
of mathematics - Newton, Einstein etc. Typica,l examples are: The tl-ieory of
gravitation by Sir Isaac Newton, Electromagnetic waves by Maxwell, theory
of relativity by Ei~lstein?planetary motion by Kepler, wave equation by
Schrodinger etc. Only those hypotheses that; have wikbstood large amounts
of critical scrutiny can be elevated to the status of laws. In other words, the
mere fact that the proposed model agrees well with a small a,mount. of data
does not suffice since the agreement could be just coineide~~tal. It should be
tested against a large amount of data before accepting it as a law. This
aspect should be clear from the
fact that nearly half a century elapsed between the worlcs of Galileo and
Newton.
Theoretical models are inspired by the fornllllations or guidelines provicied
by the modelliilg schemes, The objective is to apply the basic laws or ideas
in small ways and t o particular cases. We shall discuss ahout these
formulations in greater detail in Unit 2.
To illustrate the foregoing discussion, we refer to the problem of the sjn~plc
pendulum with which you are all very familiar. This pendulum is simply a
mass attached to one end of a string whose other end is fixed at a point. The
mass is constrained to move in the plane of the paper, and we have chosen
the (x, y) coordinates system so that the origin coincides with thc lowest
point of the pendulum swing. The symbol 'm' is used to denote the mass of
the pendulum and 'C' symbolizes the length of the pendulum.
Our objective is to describe the motioil of the pendulum using it theoretical
model. The starting point of such a theoretical nod el will be an empirical
law - Newton's law - The n e t force on a particle causes that particle
t o b e accelerated in direct proportion t o i t s mass. Our theoretical
model, based on Newton's law, has to account for the force acting o11 the
mass and relate them to the coordinates (x, y) and their tirrie rates of
change. Thus, the model of force follows from the Newton's law: F = ma
where F is the force, m is the mass and a is the acceleration. Did you notice
the difference here? In the model obtained here acceleration followed from its
definition whereas force was based on an empirical law-Newton's in this case.
We shall not go into further details of the formula ti or^ at this stage. We shall
take this up in Unit 2. But those of you who are fanliliar with thc simple
harmonic motion know that the theoretical model is given by differential
equation. Before we go further how about trying these exercises?

E2) How would you model momentum and work'!

( Hint: momentum = mass x velocity, Work = f ~ r c ex distance)
E3) What is the objective of modelling a simple pendulum? What arc! the
important factors you need here before you apply the Newton's laws of
motion?
*
Why Is It necessary to Formulate a Mathematical Model?
Understanding and solving real-world problems can be done in many ways.
10
We can do experinlents either with scaled physical models i.e., wc call do Mathematical
experiments in the laboratory on a sma,ller scale simulating a,ll the conditions ModePling
of the real problem in a correspondillg scale, or with the real world directly.
- An Overvievu
]But these may be higlily risky as they may irivolvc corrosive or explosive
materials. They nlay be costly as they may irlvo[vt?expensive cliernicals or
materials difficult to obtain jn large quantities ei;c. A mathenratical model is
very inexpensive if we know how to represent a rea,l problem in terms of
appropriate equations and to solve thern. Moreover, in many siiuations like
finding the mass of the earth or predictin.g the Indian population in the year
2500 A.D. mathematical motlelling is the o~ilyrecourse.
The mathematicai approach has a number of,aclvantages which can be
illustrated by considerillg the following specific examples:
i) Wha,t is the corrosive eifect of the discharge of tllc Mathura refinery on
the mosaic of Taj hiIahal?
For sa,fety andl cost Imeasons it would be undesira,ble to carry out the
experirnerlts on tlie Ta,j itself without, first kilowing tlle outcome. A
scaled physical model could be used t,o obtain the desired information,
hut this would requi~cspecial facilitics and will not be cost effective.
What do we do tllen? Ebr this ltiild of sl,udy a irlathelnatical approach is
preferred.

ii) What will be the growth in the number of tourists to a, 1lisl;oric city like
Madurai over the next iivc years?
Information of this nature is frequently needed for planning purposes
e.g., building more hotels or arranging touristic attractions e tc.. There is
really no scientific alternative to a matllematical treatment for problems
of this kind. There are more situations like these where nia,thematical
treatment of the problem becomes necessary. Can you think of any'?

E4) Give two situations where ma.tl~en~atical treatment of problcnl is

xecessary l,o get tlie required solution.

In our earlier discussion, we broadly classified rnrtthcmaticnl models into two

distinct types - empirical and theoretical. Models (:an be further classified as
given in the following section.

1.3 TYFsES OF MODELLING

Accordiilg to the nature of the rrlodels we can classify mathematical models

into the following four types:
(i) Linear o r non-linear:
According as the resulting equations wliicll may be algebraic, diflerential
or difference being linear or non-li~lear,111odels are classified as linear
or non-linear. For instance, consider the equation

when we talce negative sign on the right Iiancl side of Eqn.(l) i.e.,
= -AN, then equation models the radio active decay. Where we
assume that the rate of decay of a radio active atom is proportional to
the number N of radio active al;oms present and X > 0 is a decay
constant. For a positive sign on the right hand side Eqn.(l) gives a
model for the population growth. In both the cases, Eqrl, (1) represent
 Introduction linear models being linear differential equation. You know from your
knowledge of MTE-08 that it is very easy to handle this equation. Its
solution can be written as
N = NO^"^ (2)
where No in the case of decay denote the original number of radio-active
atoms at t = 0. This model, though very simple, agrees excellently with
experimental results. In the case of population growth No would be the
initial population.
We are not as lucky always. Most of the real life problems are not
amenable to such simple mathematical treatment. Many a time, the
resulting equation is non-linear or highly non-linear but still you are able
to solve it. Without going into the details here we give an example of
the population growth model, better than the one given by Eqn.(l), as
--
dN(t) - AN@-N),X >O,B > O
dt (3)
where N is the size of the population and X and B are the constants of
proportionality.
This is a non-linear model but it is still easy to find the solution as
B
N=
+
1 ke-XBt'
where k > 0 is an arbitrary constant. There are numerous experimental
(4)

growth data, say, that of bacteria with which the model agrees
extremely well. Why we call this model better would become clear to
you when we discuss about biological models in detail in Block 3. :

ii) Static o r Dynamic

In static systems, time does not play any part, and hence the
variables and relationships describing the system are time-independent.
In contrast, in dynamic systems, time plays a very important role
with the variables and/or relationships describing the system changing
with time. Consider for instance a fluid flowing through a rigid
diverging tube (see Fig.2)
The point in a fluid flow
at which the flow is di-
rected radially outwards
symmetrically in all direc-
tions is a source. The
fluid enters the system at
this point. The point at
, which the fluid leaves the
system is a sink . The
flow is directed radially in-
wards at this point in a
symmetrical manner.
Fig.2
Let the velocity of the fluid be V1 at the point P1 at which the area of
cross-section of the tube is A1. Let V2 be the velocity at the point P2 at
which the area of cross-section of the tube is A2. The principle of
conservation of mass states that the rate of flow in at P1 is equal to the
rate of flow out at P2since the tube is rigid and no extra fluid is
produced inside or nothing is taken out. In other words, there are no
sources or sinks inside or surrounding the tube.
Now the rate of mass entering the tube at P1 = area x velocity = AlVi
rate of mass leaving the'tube at P2= A2V2.
 c~~onservation
law can be written therefore in the form of an equation. Mathematical
Modelling
AIVl = A2Vz (5) a A n Overview
(liate of rnass entering the tube a t P I = Rate of nlass leaving the tube
at p2).
Eqn.(5) is the conservation equation corresponding to the s t e a d y state
i.e., all variables are independent of time. Such a system is a static
system.
In the d y n a m i c formulations, the equations describing the niodel
i1lvolvc derivatives of the dependent variables with respect to time.
Most of the real life problems e.g., the populatioii growth (Eqn.(3)), the
bacterial growth, simple harmonic oscillator, rocltet lauiicll are time
dependent and come under the category of dynamic systems.

(ii) Discre.te o r C o n t i n u o u s
Mathematical niodel may be discrete or continuous according as the
variables involved are discrete or continuous. I11 a discrete model, the
dependent variable assumes a range of vadues and is charilcterised for
discrete values of the independent variable e.g., suppose a. population of
cells divides synchronously, with each member producing a daughter
cell. Let us define the i~unlberof cells in eacli generation with a
subscript, that is M1,M2,.. . , h4, arc respectively the nuir~herof cells in
the first, second, .... nth generations. T l ~ enumbel: of generd;ion, the
independent variable, is the discretie variable here. A simple equation
relating successive generatlions is the difference ecluatiori
MnS1 = &Mn, a>O ' (6)
If, initially, there are Mo cells, after n g~nc-:rationstlie poplilation will be
M,+l = aMn = a(aMn-1) a [(a~,,-:,'li
-? -
If la1 > 1, M, irlcreases over successive generations
. = alli-'~o (7)

If la( < 1,M, decreases ovcr sliccessive generation

and if a = 1, M,, is constant.
Most of the discrete niodels result in difference equations similar to Ecln.
(6). We shall talk about these equatiorls in rnore detail in Block 4.
Models based on continuous variables are continuous models. The
problem of radioactive decay is best described by treating the tirrle
element as being contiiiuous with the variable of the system descriptioti
i.e., number N of radio active atoixls present. (R,efc.r E911.(1)). Most of
tlie continuous models result in dilfereiitial equ;~tionsordinary or
part i d , the derivatives being instantaneous 1-atesof change. Continuous
models appeals to be easier to handle tha11 the discrete woclels due to
the development of calculus and differerltial equations. However,
continuous nlodels are simpler only when analyLicd solutions we
available, otherwise we have to approximate a ~ont~inuous inodel also by
a discrete model so that; these can be lia,ndled numerically.

(iv) D e t e r m i n i s t i c o r Stochastic
A system is said t o be d e t e r m i n i s t i c if the values assumed by the
variables (for a static system) or the changes to the variable (for a
dynamic system) are predictable with certainity. Co~~sider for
instance, the well known exanlple of Ihc n~otionof a, simple pendulum.
The variables of the system are the positiuri and velocity of the bob of
the pendulum. Since tbe laws of classical dynamics describe the motion
fairly accuratcly the changes in position and velocit,y call be prodictecl
 Introduction with a high degree of certainly. Hence, in this case we can view the
system as being deterministic.
If the values assumed by tlie.variables or the changes t o the variables
are oot predictable with certainity, then uncertainity is a significant
feature of the systern. Such systems are called either probabilistic or
stochastic system. For example, if one drops a rubber ba,ll fiom a
given height and measures the height of the bounce with sufficient
accuracy it will be faund that if the same process is repeated many
times, the height of bounces are not the same every lime. Even if d l the
coliditions associated with laboratory experiments are carefully
maintained, the results show lot of variability. In such cases, the system
must be viewed as a stochastic system.
Very oftea, when you go to a big shop what strikes you is the long
queue .in front of the cash desk. Tlir: qriestion~"Why can't this popular
shop have more than one cash counter?" comes to your mind. How
niany counters the shop needs wil.1 depend on the iiurnber of customers,
their arrival rate, their departure rate, service time, peak periods etc. If
the arrival rate is sailie as departure rate, the queue length will remain
the same. If the departure ra,te is inore than tlie arrival rate, [;hequeue
will disappear after some time.' If the departurelrate is less than the
arrival rate, then tlie queue will grow indefinitely and it is this situai;ion
that requires more cash counters. Here in this situation the arrival time,
departure time and the service time of a customer are not deterministic.
They follow certain probability distributions with mean rate of arrival,
departure and service time. Arrival and departure time satisfies Poisson
distribution whereas service time obeys exponen~ialdistributions.
Models b a c d on fitting these probability distributions to the arrival,
departure and service time can be proposed. For instance, if z people 1
arrive every five minutes (given time interval) then, from Poisson I
distribution e--" ~ e, z- e ~- ~etc. give the probability that 0,1,2 etc.
people will join the queue within that time. We shall not go illto the
details of these models here. We shall take up such models in Unit 14,
I
when we discuss probabilistic models. I

Every real system must be considered to be sub,ject to randomness of

one type or another, all of whicli are ignored in the formulation of a
deterministic model. Hence, deterministic models gelierally pre~eiitfew
mathematical difficulties but, can only be considered to clescribe system
' behaviour in some average sense. Stochastic models are required

I whenever it is necessary to explicitly account for the ra.ndomness of

underlying events.
Most of the discrete and stochastic models lead to differencelalgebraic
equations whereas linear/nonlinear, static/dynarnic and continuous
models require the knowledge of algebraic/differential equations. With
the advent of fast computers, it should be possible (wherever analytic
solutions are noh available) to solve these equations numerically. Apart
from these, the success of mathematical modelling will also depend on
the skills yon have in algebra, calculus, geometry, trigonometry,
transcendental equations, integral equations, integro-differential
equations etc.
As discussed earlier, the typo of model will more or less decide the type
of mathematics required to deal with the resulting equations.
Consider the following example.
14

k-
 Example 2: Which type of modelling will you use for the launching of Mathematical
a rocket/satellite for meteorolog.ica1 purposes? Modelling
- An Overview
Solution: Modelling used wil! be dynamic, continuous and
deterministic.
It js dynamic and continuous because the flight velocity will
continuously depend on time. It is deterministic because equations
describing the flight can be set up based on established laws and the
pakh of the satellite/rocket can be prodicled with certa,inity.
And now an exercise for you.
-- -

E5) ~ t a t e . t h etypes of modelli~lgyou will use for the following problems.

Also give reasons in support of your answer.
(i) Estimating the world populatioil irr the year 2005.
(ii) Finding tile concent;ration levels of pollutioll in the Gangs river
due to discharge of waste.
(iii) Certain diseases like Haernopliilia (bleeding does not stop due to
inadequate clotting agents) are genet8icallytransmitted only by tire
fenides. Predicting the spread of this disease in successive
'
ge~lerations,given the fraction of inales and females suffering from
it at a particular point of time.
(iv) Reducing the costs in large hospitals is to optimise 1lle allocatioli
of resources (beds, doctors, nurses) to types of activities
(orthopaedics, intensive care units, surgery etc.). Helping the
hospital administrators rcduce the cost of operating hospitals.
fv) Ali,kual plants produce seeds at the end of summer. A fraction of
these seeds survive the wiu+er, and some of these gerlnir~ateat the
beginning of the season (say May), giving rise to tlle new
generation of plants. Tlie process ciepends on the age of the seeds,
Understa,nding this ljrocess.

1.4 LIMITATIONS OF A MATHEMATICAL

MODEL
Mathematical modelling is a multi-stage activity requiring a variety of
concepts and tediniques. Utmost caution is required in framing proper
modeis for otherwise a11 absurd inodcl will lead to an absurd solution. If the
basic formulation is wrong, no amou~ltof sophistication in the treatment of
resulting equations can lead to a right answer. It is important to remember
that the model is only ,a simplification of the real world problem and that
the two are not the same. In fact lack of distinction between models.and
reality has often slowed down tlle progress in modelling, It is paradoxical
that some models which were very successful initially in understanding the
problem, have become stumbling-block8 to progress. The reason is we get
used to a model and continue to use it even after it is discredited. For
instance, consider the solar system. Till 16th centuary, it was believid that
earth was the centre of the universe and all the other planets and sun moved
around the earth. Because of this theory the model used to st,udy the solar
. systems were circular paths with earth as the centre. I1 was called a
Geocentric model. This niodel was successful in explaining night, day,
seasons etc. But there were many observations, the lnodcl could not explain.
Introduction Later in 16th centuary Copernicus proposed another theory called
Heliocentric theory which describes that the sun is the centre of the universe,
and that all planets moved around the sun in elliptical paths. So in this case
the models used is an elliptical path with sun as the centre. This model
successfully explained most of the problems connected with solar system, but
people simply refused to accept this model, intially. One of the reason for
this is that the geocentric model put the earth as the centre of the universe
and people were unwilling to discard such a favorite notion.
The model is only as good as the assumptions made while constructing it
aiid any extrapolation which violates the assumptions may b e dangerous.
Consider for instance, Eqn.(l) vie.,

It does not give good results when used for modelling the population growth.
This is because, the solutiori N(t) = ~~e~~of the equation = AN, gives
N(t) + oo for t + m. This means population grows experientially without
any bound. Whereas, solution N(t) = ~ ~ of the
e equations
- ~ ~ -AN
=
gives N(t) -+0 as t + oo,implying that population is ultimately deriven to
extinction.
Both these outcomes are extreme and are not found to occur in the nature.
In this sense, the model has severe limitations. Thus, there is a need to
modify this model. Such a modified model is the logistic model w l i c l ~we
shall discuss in detail in Unit 8 of Bloclc 3.
To end the unit we now give the summary of what we have covered in it.

1.5 SUMMARY

In this unit we have covered the following points.

(1) Mathematical model is a trarlslation of a real life word problem into a
mathematical description.

(2) Performing experiments to understand and solve real-world problems

may be risky and expensive. Also, a t times, it may not b e feasible a t
all to perform experiments. Mathematical Modelling is the only
recourse in such situations, it is very inexpensive if we can
represent a real problem in terms of appropriate equations a,nd solve
them.

(3) The process of mathematical modelling involves three main steps - for
formulation, finding solution and interpretation and evaluation.

(4) Mathematical models may be classified into linear/nonlinear,

static/dynamics, discret;e/continuous and deterministic/stochastic.

(5) Mathematical modelling requires basic knowledge of algebra, geometry,

calculus, difference, 2liierential and integral equations. Different types
of modelling require one or other of these at the formulation stage or at
the time of finding solution.

( 6 ) One has to be cautious about mathematical modelling: Lot of

simplifications are made while translating a real world problem
into mathematical language. One should be aware of it a t every
sf age.
 Mathematical
Modelling
- An Overview

E l ) Acceleration is defined as rate of change of velocity. If s is tlie distance

and v is the velocity, then velocity is modelled as g, and acceleration
a= 3
or equivalently, a = m.
d2s

E2) Momentum is defined as Mass x velocity. Since velocity is already

modelled, the result follows as Momentum = m x v. Also, work = force
x displacement whereas Force = mass x acceleration.
E3) The objective is to understand the dynamics of the motion of the '
pendulum, its period, the position of the bob at any instant of time,
the tension in the string etc. Before rushing to apply tlie laws, you
have to have all information about the pendulum- it length, mass of the
bob (you may find later that this is not necessary), the quality of the
string etc.
E4) (i) dynamic, continuous and deterministic.
It is dynamic and continuous because the population varies
continuously with time, the present years' population depends on
the populatiori of the previous year. It is deterministic because
rate equations with initial conditions can be established and the
equations can be solved.
(ii) dynamic, continuous and deterministic.
(iii) stochastic.
(iv) either stochastic or deterministic.
(v) discrete, dynamic, deterministic.

APPENDIX
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
The successful use of dynamic models is based on the understanding of three
closely related concepts - dimensionality, units and scaling. Natural laws,
when properly writt,en in mathematical form are equally valid whatever
system of scientific unit is used to express them. To say that the universal
laws should be independent of the system of units is another way of saying
that they should be di~nensionallyconsistent. One sliould not equate trains
with match boxes, nor can one add cabbages to kings. If you ran 25 kilo
metres and earned 20 rupees, would it be right to say that you ran as xnuch
as you earned? No, because the equation
Rs. 20 = 20 kilometres (1)
does not make sense. Distance is measured in kilometres i~ndno amount of
rupees can ever equal a kilometre. Technically speaking, we say that distance
has the dimension of length i.e.,
[distance] = L (2)
while income has the dimension of value, or
[income ] = V (3)
So, it is dimensionally inconsistent to write Eqn.(l). However, if you were
paid RS. 1 for every kilometre you ran, it would be absolutely right to say
that
Rs.20 = 20km'x (Rs.lper k.m.) (4)
Introduction This equation is dimensionally correct, because [rupees per kilometre]
= V/L. Tlius, the right hand sicle of Eqn. (4) lias the dimensions of
L x V/L = V, agreeing with t,he left hand side.
Units are either fundamental (or primary) or derived (or secondary).
The nature of the fu~idainent,alunits is somewhat arbitrary. They are
independent of one another. If certain of the rneasurable propertiies of
physical quantities are chosen as fundamental, then tlie units of
measurement of all tlle remaining quantities can be eypressed in terrns of
these fundamental quantities. Hence the latter units are called derived uuits.
We can express all the mechaziicd quanti.ties in terms of units of rnass m,
length 1, and time t . Rut when we consider probleins involving heat, we have
to introduce a new fundamentad unit narrlely the absolut,e temperature 8.
This is necessary as the Chermometric scale is independeilt of tlie definitions
of mechanical units. Modelling i11sociology or econonlics needs an additional
dimension, namely the value of a product or income. Thus mass m, length 1,
time t , absolute temperature 6 and the value V are the five fundamental
units. All the physical quantities czn be expressed in terrns of these
fundamental units. We shall denote the dimensions of these fundamental
units of mass, length, time, temperature and value by [[M,[L], [TI, [HI, [V]
respectively.
Formulation of t h e dimensiollal formulas: Dimensional forlzlulas for
velocity, acceleration, force, worltdone, pressure, power etc. can be obtained
from their definitions directly.

Velocity = tirne rate of displacement

= distancc/time
= [LT-I]
Acceleration = timc rate of change of velocity = velocity/tiinc
= [LT-2]
Force = mass x acceleration
= [MLT-2]
Worlc = Force x displacement = [ M L ~ T - ~ ]
Pressure = force acting on unit area
= [ML-~T-~]
Power = time rate of doing work = worlc/time = [ M L ~ T - ~ ]
We may not always be able to write the climensional formula for a quanitity
from its definition. Sometimes, we have to use a relation involving the
quantity under consideration alld soine other quantities whose dirncnsioizal
formulas are lcnown.
For extxmple, to fix up t,he dimensional formula for elastic modulus, we can
use .the I-Ioolce's law, according to which
final length-Initial l e n g t h '
Tension = Elastic Modulus x
Initial l e n g t h
From this, it is clear. that elastic modulus has the same dimensional forrriula
as the tension i.e. l?orce/unit area. Thus [elastic modulus] = [ M L - ~ T - ~ ]
Dimensions of a quantity The exponent of the powcr of any pnrticula,~
quantity in tlie dimensional Sormula of a qua11i;ity is callcd the? L'dimension"
of that quantity in that fundamental quantity. For example, .the acceleration
has dimension zero in mass, dimension 1 in length and dimensiori -2 in time.
Tbe importance of lcriowing the dimensions of each variable is that there are
certain rules which specify how dimensional entities can be related to each
 I

other. To be valid, any equation which states a, general or theoreiical Mathematical i

relationship between two or more variables nus st follow thcse rules lor Modelling I
dimensional correctness.
- An Overview II

(i) Quantities added or subtractcd must have tlie same dimensiofis.

1
(ii) Quantities equal to each other nus st have the same dirnensions.
(iii) Any quantity may be multiplied 01: divided by any other quanitity
without regard to dimensio~is.However, the resulting product or
quotient must have appropriate dimensions so that the above rules are
not violated.

(iv) The dimensions of all entity are entirely independent of its magnitude.
Hence clx must have the same dinlensio~ias x, even though the
differential, dx, is infinitesirndly small.
For example, consider tlie ecluation for a sadioactive decay where the
quantity disappearing a t a given tiine t is proportional to the quanl-ity Q(t) ,
present at tliat time, i.e.,

Q -
with solution
iJoedk"

where Qo is t,he arnount present at tiine t = 0. lc is a proportionality

constant. Does k have any dirnensions?
,Assuming that Q(t) is expressed as a mass, and letting [lc] stand for the
dimensions of k, the dimensioritll equation correspondir~gto Eqri. ( 5 ) is
[MT-'1 = [lc:I[MI (7)
which leads t o
[k] = [T-'1 (8)
meaning that k must have tlie dimension of reciprocal time, i t . , k must be a
rate - a rate consta~it.
Magnitude of Units
We have not used any numerical magnitudes of the fundamental units in the
above discussion related to climerisio~ialanalysis. Af1;er a quanitity's
dimensionality has been settled, the number that determines its act,ual value
will still depend upon t,he uniis in wliich those basic dimer~sioiisase
measured. For example, velocity has the dirnensio~lsof length per unit of
time. Thus, if length is measured in lcilometres and time in hours then a car
travelling at 50 km.p.h., will, travel at nearly 14 metres pcr second.
Two frequent choices for the basic dimer~sio~ls
of mass, length and time are
kilogram, metre and second (Systeme Internationale, SI) mid gram,
centimetre and second (CGS system).
In the SI system, the units of length, mass and timo are
primary/fundamental. But the unit of force is a derived one: It, is the
newton (N) which is defined as the force whicll wlien acting on a mass of 1
kg. produces an acceleration of lm/s2i,e., 1N = 1Kg.m/s2 . Similarly, tlie
derived unit of work is the Joule (J) which is deiined as the work done by a
force of 1 N i n moving a distance of 1 IDin the direction of the force.
i.e., 1J = 1Nm = Ikg m 2 /s 2 (9)
The derived unit of power is the Watt (W) w l k h is the defined as the rate of
doing work = l J / s .
Introduction In the C.G.S, system, the derived unit of force is dyne. It is the force
required to accelerate a mass of 1 g at a rate of lcrn/s2
We now give below in Table-1 the dimensional formulas for some of the
commonly used mechanical quantities. SI unit representation of these
physical entities is also mentioned alongside. We have given only SI units as
we shall be using mostly these in our further discussions.
Table-1
Dimensions of Some Common Physical antitie$
Physical Entity Description Diniensiond $1 Units
Mass [N[l - kg(ki1ogram)
Length [L] m (metre)
Time [TI ~(secorid)
Temperature PI 00
Area Length Squared
- [ti2] rh2
Volume Langtl~Cubad ~~1 m3
Velocity Distance per unit Time [LT- ms-I
Acceleration Rate of Change of- ~-Vclaeitp- [LT-$1
-- - his-a
Flow Volume par-. unit- - Time
-.
[~3?P-i] m3s-I
Density Mas$ per unit
.
f i o i u-.~ e -
[ML-3] kgm13
Force Mass
- -
x Acceleration [MLT-'1 s -N~
l ~ ~ . r n=
Momentum Mass x Velocity [MLT- '1 kgms-l
Pressure Force per unit Area [ML-~T-~] Nm-2 = P
Work, Energy Force x Distance [ML~T-~] Nm=J
Work.pcr unit Time [ML~T-~]
- Power JS-I
Resistance to Pressure Difference [ML-~T-'] kgm-%-l
F1,uid Flow per unit Flow
Viscosity [ML"T-~] kgrn-liri
-
Fluidity Inverse of Viscosity [M-~LT] kg-' ms
Diffusivity Coefficieilt of diffusion [L~T-'1 m2s-'
Surface Tension Force per unit Length [MT-2] kgK2
Thermal Heat per unit Mass-Degree [L~T-~B-~] ' rn2s-20C-1
Capacity
Gas Law Energy per Mole-Degree [ M L ~ T - ~ o - ~ kgm2s-20~-1
]
Constant
UNIT 2 FORMULATING A MODEL
Structure Page No.

2.1 Introduction
Objectives
2.2 Identifying the Essentials of a Problenl
2.3 Mathematical Formulation
2.4 Summary

Jn Unit 1, we introduced you to the concept of mathematiical modelling. We

discussed the necessity and advantages of st~ldyinga real world probleni
tbrougll mathemat ioal modelling. FIcre we have t alten four prolilerns. Gorn
ppcbanic~,biology and economies and tried to relate them to tlie new
ooncept of mathematical~modclling.You might be familinis with sonie of
these problems even at your school level.
In this unit, we shall proceed with the next step in modelling - i.e., givcn a
real world word problem, how do you coilvert it to model abstraction leading
to a mathenlatical equation? We shizll herei~iJiscuss, through some simple
examples, how to

(i) identify the probleni with all ii;s conlplexities

(ii) identify the essential characteristics of the problem which have to be
incorporated into the model
(iii) simplify the moclel by neglecting features which are of secondary or
lesser importance
(iv) write the basic equations based on the basic laws of nature or intuitive
logic, which retain the essential characteristics of the model.

As in Unit 1, we shall deal with examples you are already familiar with so
that your attention is focussed more on the rnodelling aspect,

Objectives
After reading this unit you shoulcl be able to

explain a real world word problem and register all the complexities involved
in the problem
distinguish the essential characteristics of the problem from the dm-essential
ones.
look for mathematical equations based on laws of nature or intuitive logic
for the problem.