NORTHEASTERN COLLEGE

Villasis, Santiago City

COLLEGE OF ACCOUNTANCY AND BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

MATH IN THE MODERN WORLD

Module 3

PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is drawing a general conclusion from a repeated observation or limited sets of observations
of specific examples, Basically, there is a given data, then we draw conclusion based from the frame these data
or simply from specific case to general case. The conclusion drawn by using inductive reasoning is called
conjecture. The conjecture may be true or false depending on the truthfulness of the argument, A statement is a
true statement provided that it is true in all cases and it only takes one example to prove the conjecture is false,
such example is called a counterexample. Some examples of inductive reasoning are shown below.

Example 1: 1 is an odd number.

11 is an odd number.
21 is an odd number.
Therefore, all number ending with 1 are odd numbers.

Example 2: Essay test is difficult.

Problem solving test is difficult.
Therefore, all tests are difficult

Example 3: Mark is a Science teacher.

Mark is bald.
Therefore, all Science teachers are bald.

Deductive reasoning is drawing general to specific examples or simply from general case to specific case.
Deductive starts with a general statement (or hypothesis) and examines to reach a specific conclusion. Some
examples of inductive reasoning are shown below.

Example 4: All birds have feathers.

Ducks are birds.
Therefore, ducks have feathers.

Example 5: Christopher is sick.

If Christopher is sick, he won’t be able to go to work.
Therefore, Christopher won’t be able to go to work.

Example 6: All Science teachers are bald.

Mark is a Science teacher.
Therefore, Mark is bald.

Note: Logical reasoning maybe valid but not necessarily true.

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Intuition, Proofs and Certainty

In a mathematical practice, intuitive can be found in all places such as in the mathematical literature and in
mathematical discovery. One good example was the letter from Srinivasa Ramanujan (an Indian mathematician)
to Godfrey Harold Hardy (a British mathematician), containing astonishing formulas for infinite sums, products,
fractions, and roots. Ramanujan’s formulas prove there is mathematical intuition, for they’re correct, even though
he didn’t prove them, and in some cases there is no idea on how it will be proven. Hardy made a sound judgment
with his reasonable understanding in the field of mathematics without directly proving the formulas of
Ramanujan’s were correct. Even in the academic community we make judgments every day by reviewers and
referees, by teachers and paper-graders, by search committees and admission committees. This kind of judgment
is referred as mathematical intuition. Intuition is a reliable mathematical belief without being formalized and he
proven directly and serves as an essential part of mathematics. The word “intuition” carries a heavy load of
mystery and ambiguity and it is also somewhat dangerous, illegitimate substitute for a formal proof.

Intuitive is the counterpart of rigorous. Being rigorous is not completely clear and never gives precise meaning.
It can be said that intuitive means lacking in rigor, yet the concept of rigor is defined intuitively, not rigorously.
Being intuitive means being visual just like geometry differs from rigorous geometry in two ways. On a lighter
note, the intuitive version has a meaning, a referent in the domain of visualized curves and surfaces, which is
absent from the rigorous formal or abstract version. In some aspects, intuitive is superior it contains a valuable
quality the rigorous version lacks. On contrary, we may be misled by visualization where obvious or self-evident
statements that are dubious or false.

Intuitive has different meanings like plausible, or convincing in the absence of proof, incomplete, holistic or
integrative as opposed to detailed or analytic. In all different usages, intuition is vague. It changes from one usage
to another. Consideration of intuition as actually experienced leads to a notion that is difficult and complex, but
not inexplicable. A realistic analysis of mathematical intuition should be a central goal of the philosophy of
mathematics.

In mathematics, a proof is an inferential argument for a mathematical statement, In mathematical argument,

statements such as theorems can only be used if it is already proven. In principle, a proof can use axioms which
are denoted as self-evident or assumed statements along with accepted rules of inference. Axioms may be served
as conditions that must be met before the statement applies. Proofs are examples of exhaustive deductive
reasoning and inductive reasoning. A mathematical proof demonstrates that a certain statement is always true in
all possible cases. An unproved proposition that is believed to be true is known as a conjecture.

Proof is important to mathematics, if one has a conjecture, the only way that it can safely be sure that it is true, is
by presenting a valid mathematical proof. Being able to write down a valid proof may indicate that one has a
thorough understanding of the problem. The efforts to prove a conjecture, requires a good understanding of the
theory being tested. A mathematician that tries to prove something may gain a great deal of understanding and
knowledge, even if his efforts to prove that conjecture will end with failure. This is evident in theorems which
have been raised by well-known mathematicians, some took hundreds of years before it has been proven and
some remain unproven.

We know that the need for certainty is inherited from the ancient past, and is religiously motivated, its validity is
independent of its history and its motivation. Mathematics has a tradition and standard point of view that it
provides certainty. When a mathematical knowledge correctly formulated, it is forever beyond error and
correction. Any possible errors may be attributed to human error, comprising carelessness, oversight or mis-
formulation. Mathematics has no problem of being certain, for certainty is just an essential defining attribute of
mathematics and mathematical knowledge.

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Polya’s Four-Steps In Problem Solving

George Polya (1887-1985) was a mathematics educator who strongly believed that the skill of problem solving
can be taught. He developed a framework known as Polya’s Four-Steps in Problem Solving. This process
addressed the difficulty of students in problem solving. He firmly believed that the most efficient way of learning
mathematical concepts is through problem solving and students and teachers become a better problem solver.

This section presents the four-step process that forms the basis of any serious attempt at problem solving. The
Polya’s four step in problem solving are:

Step 1: Understand the problem.

Step 2: Devise a plan.
Step 3: Carry out the plan.
Step 4: Look back.

In order to become a good problem solver, one should follow Polya’s four steps which help to examine each of
the steps and determine what is involved. Usually, a mathematical problem is presented in words whether orally
or written. We will solve the mathematical problems using mathematical symbols, and then interpret the answer.
This process is summarized below.
Process of Problem Solving

Mathematical
Original Problem Translate Version of the
Problem
Solve
Check

Solution to the
Answer to
Mathematical Interpret
Original Problem
Version

Step 1: Understanding the Problem

Sometimes the problem lies in understanding the problem itself. To help us understand the problem, we might
consider the following:

What is the goal?

What is being asked?
What is the condition?
What sort of a problem is it?
What is known or unknown?
Is there enough information?
Can you draw a figure to illustrate the problem?
Is there a way to restate the problem? In your own words?

Step 2: Devise a Plan.

Devising a plan (translating) is a way to solve the problem by picturing how we are going to attack the problem.
Act it out.
Be systematic.
Work backwards.
Consider special cases.
Eliminate possibilities.
Perform an experiment.

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 Draw a picture/diagram
Make a list or table/chart.
Use a variable, such as x.
Look for a formula/formulas.
Write an equation (or model).
Look for a pattern or patterns.
Use direct or indirect reasoning
Solve a simple version of the problem.
Guess and check your answer (trial and error).

Step 3: Carry Out the Plan.

In carrying out the plan (solve), we need to execute the equation we came up in Step 2. The main key is to be
patient and careful, even if we have necessary skills.

Be patient.
Work carefully.
Modify the plan or try a new plan.
Keep trying until something works.
Implement the strategy and strategies in Step 2.
Try another strategy if the first one isn’t working.
Keep a complete and accurate record of your work.
Be determined and don’t get discouraged if the plan does not work immediately.

Step 4: Look Back.

This step helps in identifying if there is a mistake in the solution. It is time to reflect and look back at what is
done, what worked, and what didn’t.

Look for an easier solution.

Does the answer make sense?
Check the results in the original problem.
Interpret the solution with the facts of the problem.
Recheck any computations involved in the solution.
Can the solution be extended to a more general case?
Ensure that all the conditions related to the problem are met.
Determine whether there is another method of finding the solution.
Ensure the consistency of the solution in the context of the problem.

Problem Solving Strategies

This section covers some examples of problem-solving strategies using the Polya’s Four Steps in problem solving.

Example 1: Suppose the NCAA basketball championships is decided on a best of five series game. In how many
different ways can a team win the championships?

Solution:
Step 1: Understand the Problem.

There are many different orders to win the championships. The team may have won three straight games
(WWW) or maybe they could lose the first two games and won the last three games (LLWWW). There
are also other possibilities such as WWLW, WLWW, or WLWLW.

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Step 2: Devise a Plan.

Make an organized list of all possible orders and ensure that each of the different orders is accounted for
only once.

Step 3: Carry Out the Plan.

Each entry in the list must contain three Ws and may contain one or two losses. Use a strategy to each
order. One strategy is to start to write Ws, then write L if it is not possible to write W. This strategy
produces ten (10) different orders shown below

WWW (Start with three wins)

WWLW (Start with two wins)
WWLLW (Start with two wins)
WLWW (Start with one win)
WLLWW (Start with one win)
WLWLW (Start with one win)
LWWW (Start with one loss)
LWWLW (Start with one loss)
LWLWW (Start with one loss)
LLWWW (Start with two losses)

Step 4: Look Back.

The list above is organized and contains no duplications. It includes all possibilities, we can conclude that
there are ten (10) different ways in which a basketball team can win the NCAA championships in the best
of 5 games.

Example 2: Two times the sum of a number and 3 is equal to thrice the number plus 4. Find the number.

Solution:
Step 1: Understand the Problem.

We need to make sure that we have read the question carefully several times. Since we are looking for a
number, we will let x be a number.

Step 2: Devise a Plan.

We will translate the problem mathematically. Two times the sum of a number and 3 is equal to thrice
the number plus 4.

2(x +3) = 3x + 4

Step 3: Carry Out the Plan.

We solve for the value of x, algebraically.

2(x +3) = 3x +4
2x +6 = 3x + 4
3x - 2x = 6-4
x= 2

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Step 4: Look Back.

If we take two times the sum of 2 and 3, that is the same as thrice the number 2 plus 4 which is 10, so
this does check. Thus, the number is 2.

Example 3: Three siblings Sofia, Achaiah and Riana. Sofia gave Achaiah and Riana as much money as each had.
Then Achaiah gave Sofia and Riana as much money as each had. Then Riana gave Sofia and Achaiah
as much money as each had. Then each of the three had P128. How much money did each have
originally?

Solution:
Step 1: Understand the Problem.

The problem is a little bit confusing and needs to be carefully analyzed.

Step 2: Devise a Plan.

We will be working backwards.

Step 3: Carry Out the Plan.

There are four stages to this problem. We will number it from fourth to first.

Fourth: Each has P128.

Third: Riana gave Sofia and Achaiah as much money as each has.
Second: Achaiah gave Sofia and Riana as much money as each has.
First: Sofia gave Achaiah and Riana as much money as each has

Stages Sofia Achaiah Riana

Fourth P128 P128 P128
Third 64 64 256
Second 32 224 128
First 208 112 64

Initially Sofia had P208, Achaiah had P112, and Riana had P64.

Step 4: Look Back.

We check the result.

Stages Sofia Achaiah Riana

First 208 112 64
Second 208 – 112 – 64 = 32 112 + 112 = 224 64 + 64 = 128
Third 32 +32 = 64 224 – 32 – 128 = 64 128 + 128 = 256
Fourth 64 + 64 = 128 64 + 64 = 128 256 – 64 - 64 = 128

Thus, Sofia, Achaiah, and Riana’s initial money are P208, P112, and P64, respectively.

Example 4: If the length of the top of a rectangle is 15 inches more than its width and the area is 1,350 square
inches. Find the dimension of the table.

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Solution:
Step 1: Understand the Problem.

We are looking for the length and width of the rectangular table; and we will let l be the length and w be
the width. It is indicated in the problem that the length is 15 inches longer than the width (l = 15 + w).

Step 2: Devise a Plan.

We will apply the area of the rectangle formula Area = l × w.

1,350 = l × w = (15 + w) w

Step 3: Carry Out the Plan.

1,350 = (15 + w) w
1,350 = 15w + w2
2
w - 15w = 1,350
(w + 45) (w – 30) = 0
w + 45 = 0 w – 30 = 0
w= -45 w = 30

Since, measurement cannot be negative, the width of the rectangle is 30. The length is l = 15 + w = 15 +
30 = 45 inches.

Step 4: Look Back.

If the width of a rectangle is 30 inches and the length is 15 inches longer than the width which is 45
inches. The area of a rectangle is Area = l × w = 30 (45) = 1,350 square inches. Thus, the width is 30 and
the length is 45 inches.

Mathematical Problems involving Patterns

Numbers are everywhere in our daily lives and mathematics is based on numbers. Mathematics is useful to predict
and number pattern is about prediction. Number pattern leads directly to the concept of functions in mathematics
in relation to different quantities which is defined as a list of the same numbers following a particular sequence.
Number pattern can also be applied to problem-solving whether a pattern is present and can be used to generalize
a solution to a problem. Pattern can be in the form counting up or down and the missing number is of the form of
completing count up or down. One of the most famous number patterns is 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, .. the Fibonacci
sequence. Some types of pattern are prime number pattern, imaginary number pattern, geometric number pattern,
and growing number pattern. This section covers the discussion of sequence and application of number pattern to
some word problems.

An infinite sequence is a function whose domain is the set of positive integers. The function values a1, a2, a3, a4,
…, an-1, an, … are terms of the sequence. If the domain of the function consists of the first n positive integers only,
the sequence is a finite sequence.

Example 1: Identify whether the following are finite or infinite sequence.

a. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,7
b. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14 Finite sequences
c. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15
d. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, …
e. 1,1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, … Infinite sequences
f. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, …

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A general sequence a1, a2, a3, a4, …, an-1, an, … having the first term a1, the second term is a2, the third term is
a3, and the nth term, also called the general term of the sequence, is an.

Example 2: Write the first three terms of the sequence whose nth term is given by the formula an=3n +1.
Solution:
an = 3n + 1
a1 = 3(1) + 1 = 3 + 1 = 4 Replace n by 1.
a2 = 3(2) + 1 = 6 + 1 = 7 Replace n by 2.
a3 = 3(3) + 1 = 9 + 1 = 10 Replace n by 3.

Thus, the first three terms of the sequence are 4, 7, and 10.

A difference table shows the differences between successive terms ot the sequence. The differences in rows maybe
the first, second, and third differences. In the first differences, each number in the first row of the table is the
differences of the closest numbers just above it (subtract the upper left number to the upper right number). If the
first differences are not the same, compute the successive differences of the first differences (called the second
and third differences). The following examples will show how to predict the next term of a sequence, and we look
for a pattern in a row differences.

Example 3: Construct the difference table to predict the next term of each sequence.
a. 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, … b. 1, 4, 9, 17, 28, … c. 6, 9, 14, 26, 50, 91, …
Solution:
a. 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, …
Sequence 3 7 11 15 19 23

First differences 4 4 4 4 4
The next term is 23.

b. 1, 4, 9, 17, 28, …
Sequence 1 4 9 17 28 42

First differences 3 5 8 11 14

Second differences 3 3 3 3
The next term is 42.

c. 6, 9, 14, 26, 50, 91, ….

Sequence 6 9 14 26 50 91 154

First differences 3 5 12 24 41 63

Second differences 2 7 12 17 22

Third differences 5 5 5 5
The next term is 154.

Example 4: Determine the nth term formula for the following polygonal numbers in the nth figure: (a) triangular
number; (b) square number; (c) pentagonal number; and (d) hexagonal number.

Solution:
We first define what polygonal number is. A polygonal number is a type of figurative number
represented as dots or pebbles arranged in the shape of a regular polygon.

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 a. Triangular Number

Observe that the number sequence is

n=1 1
n=2 1+2=3
n=3 1+2+3=6
n=4 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10
n=5 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15
n=6 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 21

which can be generalized as Tn = 1 + 2 + 3 +… + (n – 1) + n = ½ (n2 + n)

Expanding the triangular number sequence: 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, 55, …

b. Square Number

Observe that the number sequence is

n=1 12 = 1
n=2 22 = 4
n=3 32 = 9
n=4 42 = 19
n=5 52 = 25
n=6 62 = 36

which can be generalized as Sn = ½ (2n2 + 0n) = n2

Expanding the square number sequence: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, …

c. Pentagonal Number

Observe that the number sequence is

n=1 1
n=2 1+4=5
n=3 1 + 4 + 7 = 12
n=4 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 = 22

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 n=5 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 + 13 = 35
n=6 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 +13 + 16 = 51

which can be generalized as Pn = ½ (3n2 - n)

Expanding the pentagonal number sequence: 1, 5, 12, 22, 35, 51, 70, 90, 117, 145, …

d. Hexagonal Number

Observe that the number sequence is

n=1 1
n=2 1+5=6
n=3 1 + 5 + 9 = 15
n=4 1 + 5 + 9 +13 = 28
n=5 1 + 5 + 9 + 13 +17 = 45
n=6 1 + 5 + 9 + 13 + 17 + 21 = 66

which can be generalized as Hn = ½ (4n2 - 2n) = 2n2 - n

Expanding the hexagonal number sequence: 1, 6, 15, 28, 45, 66, 91, 120, 153, 190, …

Example 5: A diagonal of a polygon is a line segment that connects vertices (corners) of the polygon. Following
are polygons: triangle, quadrilateral, pentagon, and hexagon.

Determine the number of diagonals in a heptagon and an octagon.

Solution:
The sequence of the diagonals is shown in the table.

Number of Sides 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of Diagonals 0 2 5 9

Applying the difference table, we get

Sequence 0 2 5 9 14 20

First differences 2 3 4 5 6

Second differences 1 1 1 1

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 Thus, the pentagon has 14 diagonals, while the octagon has 20 diagonals. Verifying the result of the
sequence using the diagrams of a pentagon and an octagon.

Example 6: Given a circle with n points on its perimeter what is the maximum number of regions determined by
the chords and the circle rim.

Solution:
We will set the visual representation with the case when n = 0 and continuing the case to n = 6. We first
locate a point on a circle and connect it with other point on a circle and we count the number of regions
it generates; we will continue this process as we add one point at a time. The figure below shows the
number of chords and regions produced with given n points on a circle.

The result of the preceding observations is summarized in the table

Number of Points 1 2 3 4 5 6
Number of Chords 0 1 3 6 10 15
Number of Regions 1 2 4 8 14 31

If we were to draw out seven points on a circle, we would be able to count and find that the maximum number of
regions is 57. If we were to continue it to n = 8, we could obtain a maximum of 99 regions. We can observe the
pattern using a portion of Pascal’s Triangle. If the Pascal’s triangle will be split as shown in the diagram, then
only the numbers to the left of the portion are added in rows, the result gives us the pattern.

1 =1
1 1 =2
1 2 1 =4
1 3 3 1 =8
1 4 6 4 1 = 16
1 5 10 10 5 1 = 31
1 6 15 20 15 6 1 = 57
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1 = 99

Recreational Problems using Mathematics

Recreational mathematics is a carried out mathematical activity which involves mathematical puzzles and games.
Most topics in recreational mathematics require no deeper knowledge in advanced mathematics. Some of the
topics are the magic square, logic puzzles, aesthetics, culture mathematics, and others.

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One of ancient “square” mathematical recreations of all 1s the magic square. A Chinese myth, on the time of
Emperor Yu, came across a sacred turtle with a strange marking on its shell know as Lo Shu. The markings are
numbers, and they form a square pattern of order 3. In 1514 the artist Albrecht Durer made an engraving
“Melancholia”, containing a square pattern of order 4.

Magic square of order n is an arrangement of numbers in a square such that the sum of the n numbers in each
row, column, and diagonal is the same number. The magic squares in below have order 3, and the sum of the
numbers is each row, column, and diagonal is 15; and the other one has order 4, and the sum of the numbers in
each row, column, and diagonal is 34.
34
15 16 3 2 13 34
4 9 2 15 5 10 11 8 34
3 5 7 15 9 6 7 12 34
8 1 6 15 4 15 14 1 34
15 15 15 15 34 34 34 34 34
Magic Square of Order 3 Magic Square of Order 4

Another fascinating topic is the palindrome. A palindrome is a number (or word, or phrase) sequence of characters
(or symbols) which reads the same backward as forward, for example 131, 12,321, 1,234,321, etc. Palindrome
maybe in the form of palindromic number, palindromic triangle, palindromic primes, and others.

Palindromes of squares are as follows:

12=1
112 121
1112 12,321
1,1112 1,234,321
11,1112 123,454,321
111,1112= 12,345,654,321
1,111,1112 =1,234,567,654,321
11,111,1112= 123,456,787,654,321

9-digit palindromic primes:

Plateau Primes Smoothly Undulating 5 Consecutive Digits

18888881 323232323 120343021
199999991 727272727 354767453
355555553 919191919 759686957

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 8 like Digits Peak Primes Valley Primes
111181111 123494321 765404567
111191111 345676543 987101789
777767777 345686543 987646789

One of the most famous palindrome triangles is the Pascal’s Triangle named after French mathematician Blaise
Pascal (1623-1662). The Pascal’s triangle has intrigued mathematicians for hundreds of years. Although, other
mathematicians studied it centuries before Blaise Pascal in India, Persia, China, Germany, and Italy, it was first
published by Zhu Shijie (1260-1320) a Chinese mathematician in 1303 in his “Si Yuan Yu Jian”. The triangle
was called Jia Xian Triangle or Yanghui Triangle by the Chinese. The numbers in the Pascal’s Triangle are created
starting with one at the top, continuously placing numbers below it in a triangular pattern (each number in the
numbers directly above it added together).

Blaise Pascal Blaise Pascal’s Version Zhu Shijie Version

Figures below show the Pascal’s Triangle. The Fibonacci sequence can be found in the sum of the diagonals of
the Pascal’s Triangle.

Blaise Pascal’s Triangle

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One of the simple number triangles is shown below, the product of any two consecutive number vertically is
contained in the same column.
1
2 3 4
5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49
50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81
82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100

Example 1: The lazy caterer’s sequence describes the maximum number of pieces of a pizza that can be made
with a given number of straight cuts. One straight cut across a pizza produces 2 pieces. Two straight cuts produce
a maximum of 4 pieces. Three straight cuts produce a maximum of 7 pieces. Four straight cuts produce a
maximum of 11 pieces. Determine the number of pieces in which it is the maximum possible pieces to divide the
pizza for a given number of straight cuts.

Solution:
We can illustrate the given by showing the number of cuts and the number of regions it creates.

Cuts 0 1 2 3 4 5
Regions 1 2 4 7 11 16

To maximize the number of pieces in the next cut, then nth cut must cut each of the n – 1 previous one. When the
new cut meets one of the n – 1 previous one, a pizza piece is cut in two. Also, a piece cut in two when the new
cut finishes on the opposite side of the pizza. The total number of pieces of pizza increases by n when we pass
from n – 1 cuts to n cut, which is exactly what the recurrence reveals.

Illustrating the recurrence relation and showing the nth cut creates new regions, so
f(1) = 2
f(2) = 4 = 2 + f(1)
f(3) = 7 = 3 + f(2)
f(4) = 11 = 4 + f(3)
:
f(n) = n + f(n – 1)

Therefore, f(n) = n + f(n – 1).

f(n) = n + (n – 1) + (n -2) + ... + 2 + f(1)

= f(1) + ∑𝑛𝑘=2 𝑘
= 2 + ½ (n + 2) (n - 1)
= 2 + ½ (n2 + n - 2)
= ½ (n2 + n + 2)

Evaluating for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, … gives 1, 2, 4, 7, 11, 16, 22, 29, …

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Example 2: There are twelve (12) coins (identical in appearance) and a balance beam. If exactly one of these is
fake and heavier than the other eleven, find the fake coin, using at most three weighing on a balance beam.

Solution:
Note that the balance beam has no graduations for weights; they just have two pans, and we can tell whether they
are balance (the heavier one will go down and the lighter one will go up). We first label the coins 1, 2, 3, …, 12.
In using the balance beam, we compare the sets of coins there are three outcomes to be considered: (i) the two
sides of the beam are balanced, indicating that the coins in the two pans are not fake; (ii) the left pan of the beam
goes down, indicating that the fake coin is in the left pan; or (iii) the right pan of the beam goes down, indicating
that the fake coin is in the right pan.

Step 1: Balance the coin 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 (left side) against 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 (right side).

If the balance beam tips to the left, we follow the left side. It indicates that the fake coin is
In the left side of the beam.

Step 2: Balance the coins 1, 2, 3 (left side) against 4, 5, 6 (right side).

If the balance beam tips to the right, we follow the right side. It indicates that the fake
Coin is in the right side of the beam.

Step 3: Select any two coins, say we balance the coin 4 and 5.

There are two possibilities: (i) if 4 and 5 are balance, then coin 6 is the fake coin; or (il) if
The one of the coins between 4 and 5 goes down, then it is the fake coin.

Example 3: Given a magic six-pointed star, place the numbers 1 to 12 in the circles, using
one of each. Each line of four numbers should have the same total.

Solution:
Observe that there are six lines in the magic pointed star. And every time we add each line,
each of the number is considered twice. Thus, we can say that adding the numbers 1 to 12,
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10 + 11 + 12 = 78 and each number is considered twice, 2(78) = 156. Then we
divide the sum of the totals 156 by the lines obtaining a value of 26.

Now we start by looking a sum of 26 in each line. Obtaining the result below:

10

4 7 9 6

8 5

1 11 12 3

An Alphametic is a type of number puzzle containing sum (or other arithmetic operation) in which digits (0 to 9)
are replaced by letters of the alphabet. One of the most famous alphametic puzzles is the one introduced by Henry
Dedeney in 1924.

Math in the Modern World - Module 3 Page 15

Example 4: Find which digit is equivalent by each of the letters so that the addition is correct.

S E N D
+ M O R E
M O N E Y

Solution:
Note that it is not allowed to begin with zero. The numbers SEND, MORE, and MONEY; S and M cannot be
zero.

Also, the sum of two four-digit numbers cannot exceed 19,998; so, we can deduce that M is 1.

S E N D S E N D
+ M O R E + 1 O R E
M O N E Y 1 O N E Y

We have S + 1 = O. Recall that we carry into the thousand place, S + 1 = 10 + O (Note that S ≠ 1 and O ≠ 1, since
M = 1).

We need to consider that there may or may not be a carry into the thousand place.

Thus, O = 0.
S E N D
+ 1 0 R E
1 0 N E Y

We have E + 0 = N. There is carry in the next column, since each letter must represent a different number and N
must be equal to E + 1. (Note: E ≠ 9 and N ≠ 0). Since there is no carry into the thousand column, we have S = 9.

9 E N D
+ 1 0 R E
1 0 N E Y

In the ten column, we have N + R = E. Note that N = E + 1, thus 1+ N + R = 9+ N or R =8

9 E N D
+ 1 0 8 E
1 0 N E Y

This means the D + E ≥ 12 (Since S = 9, R = 8, and D ≠ 1). By the process of elimination, the only possibility is
when D = 7, E = 5, and N = 6, then Y =2.

The resulting sum is

S E N D 9 5 6 7
+ M O R E + 1 0 8 5
M O N E Y 1 0 6 5 2

Math in the Modern World - Module 3 Page 16