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UNIT FOUR
Idea of Limits
Using f(x) = x2 to get an idea of the function f(x) near to the value of x = 2, we use two sets of
values ‘say’ one set approaches 2 from values less than 2 (left) and the other set approaches 2
from values greater than 2 (right).
Example 4.0:
2 2
x 1.5 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.95 1.99 2.01 2.03 2.05 2.1 2.3 2.5
f(x) = x2 2.25 2.89 3.24 3.61 3.80 3.96 4.04 4.12 4.2 4.41 5.29 6.25
As x approaches 2 from the left f(x) As x approaches 2 from the right f(x)
approaches 4. approaches 4.
As x takes values closer to 2, regardless of whether x approaches from the left or right, the
corresponding values of f(x) get closer to one single value that is 4.
Notation:
Lim x 2 4
x 2
Definition: If f(x) becomes close to a single number L, as x approaches a from either side,
then we say that the limit of f(x), as x approaches a, is L and this is written
Lim f ( x) L .
x a
Note: If the function remains the same as x approaches a from the left and right,
then we simply substitute for x = a in the function f(x) to evaluate the limit.
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ECON 1003 Mathematics for Social Sciences I
The limit is different from finding the value of the function. The limit finds
the value the function approaches as x approach a value.
Solution:
Lim x 2 3x 22 3(2)
x 2
4 6 2
x2
Example 4.2: Evaluate Lim
x 3 4 2x
Solution:
x2 3 2 5 5 1
Lim
x 3 4 2 x 4 2(3) 4 6 10 2
Properties of Limits
(2) Lim c f ( x) cA
xa
(3) Lim
xa
f ( x) g ( x) Lim
xa
f ( x) Lim
x a
g ( x) A B
f ( x) Lim f ( x) A
(5) Lim xa provided B 0
xa g ( x) Lim g ( x) B
xa
1
(6) Lim n f ( x) n Lim f ( x) n
A An .
xa x a
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ECON 1003 Mathematics for Social Sciences I
Solution:
Lim
x 4
25 x 2 Lim
x 4
25 x
2
25 42 25 16 9 3 .
0
If the Lim f (a)
(as in example 4.4) this is known as an indeterminate form (since from the
xa 0
form or result alone we cannot determine the limit).
When we encounter this form we must factorize the numerator and/or denominator, simplify then
evaluate the limit.
2 x
Example 4.4: Evaluate Lim
x 2 4 x2
Solution:
2 x 22 0
Lim indeterminate form
x 2 4 x 2
4 22 0
x 1 1 1
Factorizing and simplifying gives Lim Lim
x 2 2 x x2 2 x 22 4
x3
Example 4.5: Evaluate Lim
x 3 x x 12
2
Solution:
x3 3 3 0
Lim indeterminate form
x 3 x x 12 (3) (3) 12 0
2 2
x3 1 1 1
Hence Lim Lim
x 3 x 3 x 4 x3 x 4 3 4 7
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ECON 1003 Mathematics for Social Sciences I
Lim f ( x) means x gets larger and larger without any limit to its value. (The idea of infinity
x
is simply a concept since one cannot identify any value as being infinity).
Example 4.6:
Lim 2 x 3 means that the limit goes to infinity or the limit does not exist.
x
Example 4.7:
3x 1
Lim since the numerator gets larger and larger while the denominator remains
x 4 4
constant.
Example 4.8:
3
Lim 0 since the denominator gets larger and larger while the numerator remains
x x 1
constant hence the function tends to zero.
k
Lim 0
x x
x
Lim
x k
Indeterminate Form
f ( x)
If Lim then this represents another indeterminate form.
x g ( x)
In order to evaluate the limits when this form occurs, we divide both numerator and denominator
of the function by the highest power of the variable, simplify, then evaluate the limit.
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ECON 1003 Mathematics for Social Sciences I
2 x 2 3x
Example 4.9: Evaluate Lim
x x3 2 x
Solution:
2 x 2 3x
Lim indeterminate form
x x3 2 x
2 x 2 3x 2 3
Dividing by the highest power of x gives Lim x 3 x 3 Lim x x2 0 0 0 0 .
x x3 2 x x 2
1 2 1 0 1
3
3
x x x
3x3 2 x
Example 4.10: Evaluate Lim
x 1 x3
Solution:
3x3 2 x
Lim indeterminate form
x 1 x3
3x3 2 x 2
3 3 2
Dividing by the highest power of x gives Lim x 3
x Lim x 3 0 3 3 .
1 0 1 1
3
x 1 x x 1
3
3 3
x x x
3x3 4
Example 4.11: Evaluate Lim
x x2 4 x
Solution:
3x3 4
Lim indeterminate form
x x2 4 x
3 x3 4 4
3
Dividing by x3 gives Lim x 3 x3 Lim x3 3 0 3 .
x x 2 4 x x 1 4 00 0
x3 x3 x x2
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ECON 1003 Mathematics for Social Sciences I
Example 4.12:
Given
2 x 1 x 2
f ( x) 1 x 2 2 x 1
3x 1 x 1
Solution:
(iv) To evaluate Lim f ( x) we need to evaluate both left and right hand limits since the
x 1
Lim 1 x 2 1 12 2
x 1
Lim 3x 1 3(1) 1 2
x 1
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ECON 1003 Mathematics for Social Sciences I
Continuity of Functions
In mathematics the term continuous has a similar meaning in everyday usage. When one says
that a function is continuous at x = a, it means that there is no interruption in the graph of f at a.
That is, the graph of f(x) is unbroken at a, and there are no holes, jumps or gaps. In example 2.13
(page 28) that graph has holes (broken) at x = -2 and x = 3. Hence not continuous at these
points.
Note: If a function is not continuous (any one of the conditions are not satisfied) then it is
said to be discontinuous.
Example 4.14:
x2 x 6
Determine whether the function f ( x) is continuous at x = 3.
x 3
Solution:
32 3 6 0
f (3) , so f(3) is not defined. Therefore f(x) is not continuous at x = 3.
x3 0
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ECON 1003 Mathematics for Social Sciences I
Example 4.15:
5 x x 1
f ( x) 2
3 x 1 x 1
is continuous at x = 1.
Solution:
Lim f ( x) 5 1 4
x 1
Lim f ( x) 3(1) 2 1 4
x 1
Example 4.16:
2 x x2
f ( x) 2
x 4x 1 x2
at x = 2.
Solution:
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ECON 1003 Mathematics for Social Sciences I
(ii) Lim f ( x)
x 2
Lim 2 x 2(2) 4
x 2
Lim x 2 4 x 1 22 4(2) 1 3
x 2
Types of Discontinuities
(a) Infinite Discontinuity: when the limit tends to infinity.
Example 4.17:
x
Discuss the continuity of f ( x) at x = -1.
x 1
Solution:
1 1
(i) f (1) hence not defined.
1 1 0
x 1 1
(ii) Lim hence infinite discontinuity.
x 1 x 1 1 1 0
(b) Removeable Discontinuity: exists where f(a) is undefined but Lim exists.
x a
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ECON 1003 Mathematics for Social Sciences I
Example 4.18:
x2 1
Discuss the continuity of f ( x) at x = 1.
x 1
Solution:
12 1 0
(i) f (1) undefined.
1 1 0
(ii) Lim
x 1 x 1 Lim x 1 1 1 2 therefore the limit exists.
x 1 x 1 x 1
x2 1
x 1
f ( x) x 1
2 x 1
(c) Finite/Jump Discontinuity: exists where f(x) is defined/not defined and Lim does not
x a
Example 4.19:
2 x x2
f ( x) 2
x 4x 1 x2
at x = 2.
Solution:
(ii) Lim f ( x)
x 2
Lim 2(2) 4
x 2
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ECON 1003 Mathematics for Social Sciences I
Lim 22 4(2) 1 3
x 2
Lim f ( x) does not exist, however the left hand and right hand limits exist.
x 2
Example 4.20:
Given
2x 1 x 1
f ( x) 2 x 1 x 3
2 x3
(v) Lim f ( x)
x 0
(vi) Discuss the continuity of f(x) at the points x=-1 and x=3.
Solution:
Lim 2 x 1 2(1) 1 3
(i) x 1
(iii) Lim 2 x 2 3 1
x 3
(iv) Lim 2 2
x 3
(v) Lim 2 x 2 Left and right limits are not required since the
x 0
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