Today’s topics

(1) More examples on limits

Lec 5—Chapter 3 (2) Continuous functions; Intermediate value theorem

Yijun Lou
(3) First principle
February 18, 2016

2/25

Methods of evaluating limits

Additional Example 6: Let
(1) Substitution (always try this method first!!!) ⎧
⎨ 3x − 2
⎪ if x ≤ 0;
f (x) = 5x + 1 if 0 < x < 2;
(2) Cancelation of factors ⎪
⎩ 4
x − 5 if x > 2.
sin ax a
(3) Use lim bx = b (a) Find lim f (x) if it exists.
x→0 x→0

(b) Find lim f (x) if it exists.

(4) Use the Sandwich principle x→2

(5) Limit at infinity

3/25 4/25
Solution:
Additional Example 7:
(a) Since 3x3 −4x+2 3x3
(a) lim 7x3 +5 = lim 3 = 37 ;
x→∞ x→∞ 7x
lim f (x) = lim (3x − 2) = −2;
x→0− x→0−
lim f (x) = lim (5x + 1) = 1;
x→0+ x→0+

then lim f (x) = lim f (x) and lim f (x) does √ √

x→0− x→0+ x→0
not exist. (b) lim ( x2 + 4x + 1 − x2 + 2)
x→∞ √ √ √ √
2 2
= lim ( x2 + 4x + 1 − x2 + 2) √xx2 +4x+1+ √x +2
+4x+1+ x2 +2
x→∞
(b) Since 4x−1 √
= lim √
x2 +4x+1+ x2 +2
x→∞
lim f (x) = lim (5x + 1) = 11; = lim √ 4x√
x→2− x→2− x→∞ x2 + x2
lim f (x) = lim (x4 − 5) = 11; = lim 4x = 2.
x→∞ 2x
x→2+ x→2+

then lim f (x) = lim f (x) and lim f (x) exists

x→2− x→2+ x→2
with lim f (x) = 1.
x→2

5/25 6/25

Additional Example 8: Suppose

⎧ Additional Example 9: Find the following limits:
⎪
⎪
⎪ x cos x1 , if x < 0;
⎪ 5u2 −4
⎨ 1110, x = 0; (a) lim ;
if u→0 u+1
f (x) =
⎪
⎪ 6x + c, if 0 < x < 1;
⎪
⎪ (b) lim x2 −x−12
⎩ x2 +1
x > 1; x−4 ;
3x−2 , if x→4

1 4
(a) Find c such that lim f (x) exists; (b) For this value (c) lim ( x−2 − x2 −4 );
x→2
x→0
of c, does lim f (x) exist? sin 3x
x→1 (d) lim ;
x→0 sin 4x
Solution: (a) lim f (x) = 0 and lim f (x) = c. If (e) lim x cos x1 ;
x→0− x→0+ x→0
lim f (x) exists, we have lim− f (x) = lim f (x) and
x→0 x→0 x→0+ 1−cos ax
therefore, c = 0. (f) lim x2 .
x→0

(b) If c = 0, we have lim− f (x) = 6 while lim f (x) = Solve them by yourself
x→1 x→1+
2, hence lim f (x) = lim f (x) and lim f (x) doesnot
x→1− x→1+ x→1
exist.

7/25 8/25
Solution: Continuity
5u2 −4
(a) lim = 0−4
0+1 = −4;
u→0 u+1
(b)
2
lim x −x−12 Definition of Continuity:
x→4 x−4
= lim (x−4)(x+3)
x−4 = lim (x + 3) = 7; (i) If lim f (x) = f (x0 ), then we say y = f (x) is
x→4 x→4 x→x0
1 4
(c) lim ( x−2 − x2 −4 ) continuous at a point x0 .
x→2
= lim xx−22 = lim x+2 1
= 14 ; (ii) If f (x) is continuous at every point in its domain
x→2 −4 x→2
(d) lim sin 3x = lim sin3x3x 3x sin4x4x 4x
1
D: f (x) is continuous (on D).
x→0 sin 4x x→0
= 43 lim sin3x3x lim sin4x4x = 34 × 1 × 1 = 34 ; Examples of continuous functions: All polynomials, ra-
x→0 x→0
tional functions, trigonometric functions and their in-
(e) Since lim x = 0 and | cos x1 | ≤ 1, then lim x cos x1 = verses are continuous at every point of their respective
x→0 x→0
0 based on the squeezing theorem (Sandwich prin- domain.
ciple).
Remark: f is continuous at x0 ⇔
2(sin ax )2
(f) lim 1−cos ax
= lim 2
x→0 x 2
x→0 x 2
(i) lim f (x) exists, i.e., lim f (x) = lim f (x)
sin ax sin ax 2 x→x0 x→x0 + x→x0 −
= 2 lim x 2 lim x 2 =2 × a2 × a2 = a2 .
x→0 x→0
(ii) lim f (x) = f (x0 ).
x→x0

9/25 10/25

Continuous at the boundary points

Example: Discuss the continuity of the function
x2 − x − 2
Remark: Only one-sided limits need to be considered f (x) = , x = −1 .
x+1
for the boundary points of D. For example, suppose
D is a closed interval [a, b]:
Solution: It is continuous at x ∈ {x : x = −1}. At
(i) f is continuous at the point a: x = −1, f (−1) is undefined. Hence it is not continuous
at x = −1.
lim f (x) = f (a);
x→a+

(ii) f is continuous at the point b:

lim f (x) = f (b).

x→b−

11/25 12/25
 Example: Is the following function g(x) continuous Operations on continuous functions
at x = −1:
 (x+1)(x−2)
(x+1) , when x = −1;
g (x) = 1. Suppose that f and g are continuous at a point
−3, when x = −1;
x0 ∈ D. Then:

Solution: Since a) f ± g and f g are continuous on D;

f
(x + 1)(x − 2) b) is continuous at x0 if g(x0 ) = 0.
lim g(x) = lim = lim (x−2) = −3, g
x→−1 x→−1 (x + 1) x→−1
2. Suppose f is continuous on D and g is contin-
and g(−1) = −3, we have lim g(x) = g(−1). There- uous on E with f (D) ⊂ E, then g ◦ f is also
x→−1
fore, g(x) is continuous at x = −1. continuous on D.

13/25 14/25

Application of the intermediate value theorem

Properties of continuous functions: 1.

Intermediate Value theorem
Example: Show that f (x) = x5 + 4x − 4 must have
at least one real root on [0, 1].

Steps:
If f is a continuous function defined on a closed and
bounded interval [a, b] such that f (a) = f (b), and if
1. f (x) = x5 + 4x − 4 is continuous on R and hence
γ is a number between f (a) and f (b), then there
on [0, 1];
exists a point c ∈ (a, b) such that f (c) = γ.
2. f (0) = −4 < 0 and f (1) = 1 > 0;

3. Apply the intermediate value theorem to f (x) =

x5 + 4x − 4 on [0, 1], there exists c ∈ [0, 1] such
that f (c) = 0.

15/25 16/25
Properties of continuous functions: 2. boundness Derivative: slope of the tangent line to a curve
in a closed bounded interval

Theorem: Let f be a continuous function on [a, b].

Then f is bounded on [a, b], i.e., there is a positive
constant M such that

−M ≤ f (x) ≤ M,

for all x ∈ [a, b]. Figure 1: Tangent lines as the limit of secant lines.

Caution: Closed interval is important

Definition: tangent line: if the secants P Q approach
1
to the same limiting straight line (from the left hand
Example: y = x on (0, 1] is not bounded, what’s
side and from the right hand side), we call this lim-
wrong?
iting line as the tangent line (or simply the tangent)
Although y = x1 is continuous, the interval (0, 1] is not to the curve at P (TL =TR ).
a closed interval.

17/25 18/25

How to find slope of the tangent line algebraically

• C is a given curve: y = f (x)

Remark: Not everyone curve (function) has tangent.
For example, the curve y = |x| doesnot admit a tangent
line at x = 0. (limiting line from the left = limiting line
from the right)
• P (a, f (a)) is a point on C, choose Q on C with
coordinates (a + h, f (a + h)).
• h: an increment in x. The point x = a + h is
on the left or on the right of the point x = a
according as h is negative or positive.

• The increment in y is f (a + h) − f (a).

• As Q → P from the both sides along C, h → 0

from both sides. Consequently, if the curve C has
a tangent line at P , we have

secant line PQ → tangent line at P

f (a+h)−f (a)
h → slope of the tangent at P

19/25 20/25
 Let f be a function defined on an open interval I.

Theorem 3.1 (first principle): The slope of the (1) If the limit
curve C : y = f (x) at x = a is equal to the limit
f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
lim
f (a + h) − f (a) h→0 h
lim .
h→0 h exists, we call f is differentiable at a point x0 ∈ I

f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
(2) f  (x0 ) = lim : the derivative
h→0 h
of f (x) at x0

(3) If y = f (x) is differentiable at every point in the

domain, we call the function is differentiable.

21/25 22/25

Theorem 3.1 (first principle):

f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
f  (x0 ) = lim . First principle:
h→0 h
f (a + h) − f (a)
f  (a) = lim .
Remark: If f (x0 ) is not defined, then f  (x0 ) is also h→0 h
not defined, that is, y = f (x) is not differentiable at
x = x0 .
Example: Use the first principle to find the derivative
Remark:
  Sometimes, we use the notation of y = x2 at point x = a.
dy
to denote the derivative f  (x0 ).
dx at x=x0

dy
The derivative of f is the function f  (x) (or ),
dx
whose domain is the set of all points at which f is
differentiable, defined as
f (x + h) − f (x)
f  (x) = lim .
h→0 h

23/25 24/25
First principle:

f (x + h) − f (x)
f  (x) = lim .
h→0 h

Example: Use the first principle to find the derivative

of y = x1 for x = 0.

25/25