1

INDEX
Schools Of Indian Philosophy 3

Temple Architecture & Rock cut architecture, Regional Architecture &

Indo - Islamic Architecture 18

Dance and Music of India 61

Languages & Literature 83

Indian Paintings, Sculptures, Indian Theatre and Puppetry & Festivals,

Craft and Martial Arts 95
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Schools Of Indian Philosophy

1 Indian Schools of Ancient Philosophy 4

1.1 Orthodox School (Astika) 5
1.2 Indian Schools of Philosophy 5
1.3 Heterodox School (Nastika) 10
1.4 Philosophical schools of Medieval India: 13
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Ancient Philosophy
The term "Indian Schools of Ancient Philosophy" refers to several philosophical systems that have their roots in the Indian
subcontinent. In India, philosophy emerged as a search for answers to the mysteries of life and existence. Over the
years, two streams of philosophy have emerged in India's intellectual pursuit of truth: the Orthodox school and the
Heterodox school.

1 Indian Schools of Ancient Philosophy

● Philosophy has a long history in ancient Indian literature.

● Several philosophers have contemplated the mysteries of life and death, as well as what lies beyond these two
forces.
● There are frequent overlaps between religious denominations and the philosophy that they espouse.
● When the state and varna-divided social order became the mainstay of the Indian subcontinent, the
differences between philosophical schools became clear.
● All schools of thought agreed that man should strive for four things:

Goals for Meaning Treatise on the Goal

Life

Dharma Social order In the Dharmasastra, state-related issues were debated.

regulations

Artha Wealth or Economic Arthashastra was a book that explored economic

means matters.

Kama Love or physical Kamasastra/Kamasutra was composed to expound on the

pleasures pleasures of sexuality.

Moksha Salvation Salvation is addressed in severalDarshana or philosophical

writings.

● Even though everyone advocated for these four goals as the ones that a person should strive for, the main goal
of life was to be free of the never-ending cycle of life and death.
● Slowly, differences in some schools of thought about the means to salvation arose, and by the beginning of the
Christian Era, two distinct schools of thought were ascending.

1.1 Orthodox School (Astika)

● Orthodox (astika) schools of Indian Philosophy,
originally known as Sanatana dharma, are
now collectively referred to as Hinduism.
● Their source and scriptural authority are the ancient
Vedas. Hinduism is divided into six philosophical
and theological systems.
● Almost all Indian schools of thought accepted the
theory of karma and rebirth, and the ideal of moksha
is defined as freedom from the cycle of births and
deaths.
● Moksha/liberation is regarded as the ultimate goal
of human struggle.
● The Vedas, according to this school, are the
greatest revealed scriptures that contain the keys of
salvation.
● They had no doubts about the Vedas' authenticity.
● They had six sub-schools, called Shada Darshana -
such as Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika,
Mimamsa, and Vedanta.
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1.2 Indian Schools of Philosophy

1.2.1 Samkhya School
● Samkhya school is an orthodox school of Indian Philosophy put forward by Kapila Muni. ● Samkhya philosophy
gave Nyaya and Vaisheshika their materialistic ontology, yet Samkhya has relatively little original literature.

1.2.1.1 Features of Samkhya School

● This is the oldest philosophical system, founded by Sage Kapila, who is credited with writing the Samkhya
Sutra.
● The term 'Samkhya' or 'Sankhya' is literally translated as 'count'.
● The main cause of man's sorrow is said to be a lack of information. ● This school believed in dvaitavada
or dualism, in which the soul and matter are two distinct beings.
● This idea is the foundation of all true knowledge.
● Three primary principles may be used to gain this knowledge:
○ Pratyaksha which means perception.
○ Anumana which means Inference.
○ Shabda which means hearing.
● This school is well-known for its scientific inquiry system.
● The ultimate philosophy claimed that Prakriti and Purusha are the absolute and independent basis of
reality.
● Purusha is linked to awareness and cannot be modified or altered since it resembles masculine
characteristics.
● Prakriti, on the other hand, is made up of three primary characteristics: thought movement, and
transformation. These characteristics bring it closer to a woman's physiognomy.

1.2.1.2 Phases of Development

● The development of this school was divided into two phases: Original Samkhya View and New Samkhya View.
● Both schools of thought claimed that acquiring knowledge may lead to salvation.
Original Samkhya View New Samkhya View

This viewpoint is regarded as early During the 4th century AD, modern features blended
Samkhya philosophy, and it dates from the with the older Samkhya paradigm, resulting in this
1st century AD. view.

They thought that the presence of a divine agent was not Purusha, or spirit, they claimed, was required for the
required for the Universe's the formation. formation of the Universe, together with the element of
nature.

They advocated for a reasonable and scientific perspective of They advocated for a spiritual interpretation of the Universe's
the universe's genesis. creation.

They also claimed that nature, or Prakriti, was responsible for They claimed that the world was formed by the collision of
the world's existence. natural and spiritual components.

This viewpoint is seen as belonging to the materialistic school This point of view is associated with a more spiritual school of
of thought. thought.
 6

● The earliest of all the philosophies

proposed by the philosopher Kapil
Muni in Samkhya Sutra.
● 'Samkhya' or 'Sankhya' translates to
'count'.
● This school went through two stages
of development: Original Samkhya
View and new Samkhya View.
● This school believed in dualism or
dvaitavada, which means that the
soul and matter are separate
entities. This concept is the
foundation of all true knowledge.
● Purusha (soul) and Prakriti (nature)
are both present in this dualistic
worldview.
● Sankhya School is the foundation of
Advaita Vedanta and also the
philosophical foundation for Yoga.
● It stresses the use of meditation and
focuses on gaining self-awareness.
1.2.2 Yoga School
● Yoga school, founded by the Sage Patanjali, is one
of the orthodox schools in Indian philosophy.
● It presents a method of physical and mental discipline.
● Yogic techniques control the body, mind, and sense organs, and are thus thought to be a means of achieving
freedom or mukti.
● Yoga acknowledges God's existence as a teacher and guide.
1.2.2.1 Features
● Yoga literally means the "union of two
major entities."
● They think that by combining meditation
and the physical application of yogic
practices, humans might obtain
redemption.
● These procedures, it is claimed, lead to
Purusha's deliverance from the Prakriti
and, as a result, to redemption.
● The Yogasutra of Patanjali, which is likely
dated to the 2nd century BC, explains the
origins of Yoga and the school.
● The physical part of this school focuses on
exercises in various postures, often known
as asanas.
● The term "pranayama" refers to a variety
of breathing exercises.
● Other ways to get Mukti, or liberation, include:
○ Yama - Self-discipline is a skill that may be
learned.
○ Niyama - The ability to follow the rules that
regulate one's life.
○ Pratyahara - Choosing an object.
○ Dharna - Getting the mind in order (over the chosen object).
○ Dhyana - Focusing on the selected object.
○ Samadhi - It is the fusion of the mind and the object that leads to the self's eventual destruction.
● These practices are favored by the Yoga school because they aid in the regulation of the mind, body, and sensory
organs.
● They argue that these activities might be beneficial if one believes in God as a guide, mentor, and instructor.
● They would assist the person in moving away from earthly things and achieving the focus necessary for
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redemption.
1.2.3 Nyaya School
● Nyaya school is one of the six astika schools of Indian Philosophy.
● This school's most significant contributions to Indian philosophy were the systematic development of the
theory of logic, methodology, etc.
● According to Nyaya Philosophy, nothing is acceptable unless it is in accordance with reason and experience
(scientific approach).
● Nyaya is regarded as a logical thinking technique.
1.2.3.1 Features
● They believe in the process of logical reasoning to obtain salvation, as the name of the school implies.
● They regard life, death, and redemption as enigmas that can be deciphered via rational and analytical reasoning.
● Gautama, who is also known as the author of the Nyaya Sutra, is said to have developed this school
of thought.
● According to the Nyaya Sutras, there are four ways to gain valid knowledge: perception, inference, comparison,
and verbal testimony.
● The school claims that a human being can check the validity of a proposition or statement using logical techniques
such as inference, listening, and analogy.
● It holds that God not only created but also sustains and destroys the Universe.
● The emphasis in this philosophy was always on methodical reasoning and thinking.
● Many treatises on epistemology (branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge) were written and polished by
the Nyaya school, and they impacted many other schools of philosophy.
○ It was considered as a theory of knowledge by Nyaya, and it was evolved into Pramana-sastras
by its experts.
○ Pramana is a Sanskrit term that literally means "means of knowledge." It refers to one or more trustworthy
and legitimate methods for humans to get correct, real information.
● Ancient Mithila University was famous for Nyaya Shastra teaching.
1.2.4
1.2.5 Vaisheshika School
● Vaisheshika school is one of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy from ancient India.
● It is significant for its naturalism, a feature that is not characteristic of most Indian thought.
● The school's philosophy is based on the idea that all objects in the physical universe can be reduced to a finite
number of atoms, and that Brahman is the fundamental force that causes consciousness in these atoms.

1.2.5.1 Features
● The Vaisheshika school is a realistic and objective philosophy that rules the Universe.
● It believes in the physicality of the Universe.
● The main book guiding Vaisheshika philosophy was written by Kanada,
who is commonly regarded as the school's founder.
● They claim that the five primary elements of fire, air, water, earth, and
ether (sky) formed everything in the universe.
○ Dravya is another name for these material constituents.
● They also claim that reality is divided into several categories, such as
action, attribute, genus, inherence, substance, and distinguishing
character.
● Because of this school's scientific inclination, they also established the
atomic hypothesis, which states that all material objects are made up of
atoms.
○ They claim that atoms and molecules merged to form matter,
which is the foundation for everything that can be physically felt
or seen, to explain the
phenomena of this universe.
● This institution was also the birthplace of physics in the
Indian subcontinent. They are said to be the
proponents of the Universe's mechanical creation
process.
● Even though they advocate for scientific thought, they
believe in god and see him as the driving principle.
● God determines the merits and demerits of our
conduct, and man is sent to either heaven or hell as a
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result.
● They also believe that the principles of karma govern this Universe, implying that everything is determined by
human deeds.
● They believed in redemption as well, but it was in tandem with the cyclic process of the Universe's
creation and destruction, which was determined by God's intentions.
1.2.6 Difference Between Nyaya And Vaisheshika:
● The classical Indian philosophy Vaisheshik was the physics of ancient times.
● It propounded the atomic theory of its founder Kannada. At one time Vaisheshik was regarded as part
of the Nyaya philosophy since physics is part of science.
● But since physics is the most fundamental of all sciences, Vaisheshik was later separated from Nyaya and put
forth as a separate philosophy.
● To make it short, Vaisheshik is a realistic and objective philosophy of the universe.
Points of reference Nyaya Vaisheshika

End Goal Liberation of the individual Liberation of the individual

Philosophy Liberation of the individual Ignorance is the root cause of all pain and
misery

Medium to attain Right knowledge of reality Right knowledge of reality

salvation

Source of knowledge Perception; inference; comparison; and Perception; inference

testimony

Reality is comprehended by 16 padarthas 7 categories of reality; dravya

(substance), guna (quality), karma
(action), samanya (generality), visesa
(uniqueness), samavaya (inherence), and
abhava (nonexistence).

1.2.7 Mimamsa School

● Mimamsa is a Sanskrit word that means to thoroughly analyze and comprehend.
● It is one of the six astika (orthodox) schools of Ancient Indian philosophy, whose primary inquiry is into the nature
of dharma. By carrying out dharma, one earns merit, which leads to heaven after death.

1.2.7.1 Features
● Mimamsa literally translates to "the art of thinking, interpretation, and application."
● This school focuses on the interpretation of Vedic writings such as the Samhita and Brahmana.
● They claim that the Vedas are the repository of all knowledge and contain the ultimate truth.
● If one wants to obtain religious merit, paradise, and salvation, one must perform all of the
responsibilities given by the Vedas.
● The Sutras of Jaimini (founder of this school), which were purportedly penned in the 3rd century BC, are
the books that describe Mimamsa philosophy in full.
● Two of their most ardent supporters, Sabar Swami and Kumarila Bhatta, made further inroads into the
doctrine.
● They say that practicing rituals can lead to salvation, but that understanding the explanation and
reasoning behind Vedic rites is also required.
○ It was vital to comprehend this logic if one wished to follow the rituals flawlessly and thereby achieve
redemption.
● The merits and demerits of a person were determined by their activities, and a person would experience the
bliss of paradise as long as their virtuous acts lasted.
○ They would not, however, be exempt from the cycle of life and death. They will be able to break away from
this never-ending cycle after they have found
redemption.
● Purva Mimamsa is a karma-Mimamsa system that examines Vedic teachings through the lens of
karma-kanda
rituals.
● Purva Mimamsa (or simply
Mimamsa) emphasizes the yagya's
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performance in order to gain various spiritual and

worldly benefits. As a result, this philosophy is
based on the Brahmana (and Samhita)
portions of the Vedas.
● The major focus of this ideology was on the
Vedic ceremonial aspect, i.e., performing Vedic
rites to gain salvation.
● Because most people did not comprehend the
ceremonies, they would have to enlist the help of
priests.
● As a result, this theory implicitly legitimized the social
divide between classes.
● The Brahmanas utilized this as a tactic to preserve
their power over people, and they continued to rule the
social structure.
1.2.8 Vedanta School
● Vedanta school is a monistic school of Orthodox
philosophy that holds that the world is unreal and
that Brahman is the only true reality. It is also
known as Uttara Mimamsa. This school focuses on
the philosophical teachings of the Upanishads
(mystic or spiritual contemplations within the
Vedas). The school was divided into six sub-
schools.

1.2.8.1 Features
● Vedanta consists of two words: 'Veda' and 'ant,'
referring to the end of the Vedas.
● This school adheres to the life ideals outlined in the Upanishads.
● The Brahmasutra of Badarayana is the earliest scripture on which this philosophy is based.
● Brahm, according to this philosophy, is the truth of existence, whereas all else is illusory or Maya.
● In addition, the Atma, or self-consciousness, is analogous to the Brahm.
● This argument equates Atma with Brahm, implying that if a person achieves self-knowledge, he will
instantly comprehend Brahm and gain redemption.
● But, because of the philosophical involvement of Shankaracharya, who published comments on the
Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita in the 9th century AD, this philosophy evolved.
○ Advaita Vedanta arose from his transformations.
● Ramanujan, who lived in the 12th century AD, was another important philosopher of this school. His intervention
caused certain changes in the Vedanta school:
Shankaracharya’s View Ramanujan’s View
He believes that Brahm is devoid of all qualities. He believes that Brahm possesses certain qualities.
He believes that knowledge, or jnana/Gyan, is the most The road to salvation, he believes, is to love the religion and
important factor in achieving salvation. practice devotion.

● The Karma Philosophy was also validated by the Vedanta theory.

● They believed in Punarjanam or reincarnation as a theory.
● They also said that in the future birth, a person would have to endure
the burden of their prior acts.
○ This concept would also allow individuals to claim that they
occasionally suffer in their current birth as a result of a prior
misdeed and that the only way to get rid of it’s to identify
one's Brahm.
● The school was divided into six sub-schools, each of which interpreted
the texts differently and produced its own set of sub-commentaries:

○ Advaita (Adi Shankara): It asserts that the individual self

(Atman) and Brahman are the same, and that understanding the
difference leads to liberation.
○ Visishtadvaita (Ramanuja): This school of thought holds that
all diversity is subsumed by a unified whole.
○ Dvaita (Madhvacharya): It regards Brahman and Atman as
distinct entities, with Bhakti serving as the path to eternal
salvation.
○ Dvaitadvaita (Nimbarka): It states that the highest reality, the
 10

controller of all, is Brahman.

○ Shuddhadvaita (Vallabhacharya): It asserts that God and the individual self are indistinguishable.
○ Achintya Bheda Abheda (Chaitanya Mahaprabhu): It emphasizes that the individual self
(Jvatman) is both distinct and indistinguishable from Brahman.
School Author Main Book Core Philosophy

Nyaya Gautama Nyayasutra logical thinking.

Vaisheshika Kanaad Vaisheshik Sutra It is a form of atomism in natural

philosophy.

Samkhya Kapila Sankhya Sutra Purusha (self, soul or mind) and Prakriti
(matter, creative agency, energy).

Yoga Patanjali Yoga Sutra Yogic techniques to control body, mind &
sense organs.

Poorva Jaimini Poorva Mimansa importance on the power of yajnas and

Mimansa Sutra mantras.

Uttar Badrayan or Uttar Mimansa believes world is unreal and the only
Mimansa or Maharishi Sutra reality is Brahman
Vedanta Vyas

1.3 Heterodox School (Nastika)

● They questioned God's existence and did not trust in the Vedas' uniqueness.

● Buddhism, Jainism, and Lokayata are the three major sub-schools.

1.3.1 Lokayata / Charvaka

● Charvaka school, also called Lokayata Philosophy, is a philosophical Indian school of materialists who
rejected the notion of an afterworld, karma, liberation (moksha), the authority of the sacred scriptures,
the Vedas, and the immortality of the self. It is one of the Heterodox schools of Indian philosophy
● Brihaspati laid the groundwork for this school, which was supposed to be one of the first to develop a
philosophical theory.
● The philosophy dates back to the Vedas and the Brihadarankya Upanishad.
● The Charvaka School was a major proponent of the materialistic approach to salvation.
● Because it was aimed at the common people, the philosophy was quickly dubbed Lokayata, or something
derived from the common people.
● Direct perception was accepted as the most reliable technique of proving the truth of anything. Insists on
having a happy life.
● They maintained that any universe outside this one inhabited by a human should be completely ignored.
● They rejected the existence of any supernatural or divine object capable of governing human behavior on this
planet.
● They contended that salvation was unnecessary and rejected the existence of Brahm and God.
● They were believers in anything that could be touched and felt with the human senses.
1.3.1.1 Primary Teachings
The following are some of their primary teachings
● They debated with Gods and their earthly representatives, the priestly elite. ○ They said that Brahmanas
fabricate bogus ceremonies in order to get presents (Dakshina) from his devotees.
● Man is at the center of all activities, and he should have fun for the rest of his life. He should eat all of the
world's products and enjoy sensuous pleasures.
● Because ether cannot be experienced via sense, the Charvakas do not believe it to be one of the five
fundamental components.
○ As a result, they believe that the Universe is made up of only four elements: fire, earth, water, and
air.
● This school contends that because there is no other world after this one, death is the final goal of life, and
 11

pleasure should be the ultimate goal of life.

○ As a result, they advocate the 'eat, drink, and make merry' idea.

1.3.2 Ajivikas

● Makkhali Gosala started the school in the 5th century BC.

● The Niyati (Fate) doctrine of absolute determinism is central to the school.
● It holds that there is no such thing as free will and that everything that has happened, is occurring, or will happen
is fully pre-determined and based on cosmic principles.
● As a result, there was no need for Karma.
● It is based on the atom hypothesis, which states that everything is made up of atoms, and that distinct
traits originate from pre-determined collections of atoms.
● Ajivikas lived a simple austere life without clothing or possessions.
● They were atheists who rejected Buddhism and Jainism.
● Unlike Jainism and Buddhism, they do not believe in the Karma doctrine. They believe that Karma is a
fallacy.
● Like Buddhism and Jainism, they also challenged the authority of the Vedas.
● They believed in the existence of a material soul, whereas Jainism advocates a formless soul.
● Bindusara (fourth century BC) was one of its adherents.
● The centre of Ajivikas is thought to be Savathi (Sravasti) in Uttar Pradesh.
● Ajivikas is mentioned in Ashoka's 7th pillar edicts.
● The texts of the Ajivika sect do not exist at the moment. In the modern era, this sect has also lost its lustre.
1.3.3 Buddhism
● Buddhism is viewed as a new embodiment of the magnificent truth in India.
● The enlightenment of Lord Buddha, and his following teaching for nearly four decades, were in keeping with
India's heritage of intellectual freedom and spiritual pluralism.
● The Concepts and Philosophy under Buddhism are important aspects to be understood from an aspirant's point
of view.

1.3.3.1 Philosophy under Buddhism

● To avoid life's extremes, such as worldly pleasure addiction or a life of harsh asceticism and self-mortification.
● Buddhism is unconcerned with metaphysical disagreements.
● Buddha emphasized the importance of moral advancement, which was independent of any universe creator.
● The idea that life is fleeting is at the heart of Buddhism. Buddha appears to have acknowledged the
concept of reincarnation.
● The four major Noble truths describe the fundamental foundations of Buddhism. They are as follows:
1. Dukkha- The truth of suffering.
2. Samudaya- The truth of the origin of suffering.
3. Nirodha- The truth of the cessation of suffering.
4. Marga- The truth of the path to the cessation of suffering.
● To put it another way, life is full of sorrow (dukkha). The seeds of grief may be found in every facet of life.
● Desires are the source of sorrow. This keeps a person trapped in samsara, the never-ending cycle of
rebirth, dukkha, and death.
● One may be free and at peace, if you let go of your ambitions and demands.
● Following the 'Noble Eightfold Path' or ‘Ashtanga Marga’ can help the person achieve this.

1.3.3.2 Noble Eightfold Path

● The Noble Eightfold Path or Ashtanga Marga is an early exposition of Buddhist practices that lead to
nirvana, or freedom from samsara, the painful cycle of reincarnation.
1. Kind, truthful and Right speech.
2. Honest, peaceful, and Right action.
3. To find the right livelihood which does not harm any being.
4. Right effort and cultivating self-control.
5. Right mindfulness.
6. Right meditation and concentrating on the meaning of life
7. The worth of the sincere and intelligent man is through the right thoughts. 8. Avoid superstition
and cultivate the right understanding.
● Madhyam Marg or Middle Path or Middle Way, according to Buddha, explains the quality of the Noble
Eightfold Path that leads to nirvana.
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● Buddhism denies the Vedas' legitimacy. In contrast to Jainism, it likewise denies the notion of a soul (atman).
● There was a need to consolidate Buddha's teachings when he gained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar in 483 BC,
and four Buddhist Councils were established over the next 500 years to do so.
● As a result, three main pitakas were written: Vinaya, Sutta, and Abhidhamma, which were united to form the
Tripitaka. All of these documents were written in Pali.
1.3.4 Jaina Philosophy
● The Jain system is non-theistic. It denies the existence of God as the creator.
● Another distinguishing feature is that it is a pluralistic system. There are an infinite number of souls.
● Moksha is not absorption into the supreme, but rather the attainment of a perfect, luminous, and blissed
soul that is devoid of body and actions.
● Jainism's religious philosophy teaches that there are nine truths or realities (Nav-tattva), which are as follows:
● Jive (soul)
○ The principle of Jiva is a conscious substance that varies from person to person. There are an
infinite number of Jivas (souls).
○ The soul is not only the reaper of karma's fruits (bhokta) but also the actor, deeply involved in
worldly affairs and responsible for his act (karma), good or bad.
○ It transmigrates, that is, it takes successive births based on the nature of the stock of its deeds.
○ It can achieve emancipation (moksha) from the cycle of birth and death by freeing itself from all
that is non-soul (ajiva), destroying accumulated karmas, and preventing further influx into it.
● Ajiva (non-soul)
○ Ajiva is the polar opposite of jiva, consisting of dharma, adharma, akash, pudgala, and kala substances,
the first three (medium of motion, medium of rest, space, or medium of accommodation)are
formlessand indivisible wholes.
○ The fourth substance is defined as what has the qualities of touch, taste, color, and smell.
○ Time has an atomic dimension, and kala atoms pervade all of cosmic space.
● Punya (merit)
○ Punya is the result of good and religious actions.Thereare nine ways to achieve that which in
a way aredistinct forms of practicingcharity.
● Paap (sin or demerit)
○ It is known as sin or evil, and it is a major factor in jiva's bondage. Injuring or killing living beings is a
heinous sin that carries a terrible penalty.
● Asrava (influx of karma)
○ Asrava represents the soul's inflow of karmic matter. As water flows into a boat through a hole, so
karmic matter flows into the soul through asrava.
○ The nature of the activity is shubha (meritorious) or ashubha
(demeritorious).
○ The principle "like causes produce like results" is accepted as a defining feature of the Jain doctrine of
karma.
● Samvara (stoppage of karmic matter)
○ Samvara refers to the stopping, controlling, or ceasing of the inflow of karmic matter into the soul.
○ Samvara is achieved through self-control (gupti), restrained movement (samiti), virtues (dharma),
contemplation (anupreksha), hardship conquest, and monastic conduct.
● Bandha (bondage)
○ Bandha is the union of jiva and pudgala (matter) or of the soul and non-soul particles.
○ The problem is caused by five factors: incorrect belief, attachment, carelessness, passions, and activity.
● Nirjara (shedding the karmic matter)
○ Nirjara meansto destroy and burn accumulated karma.
○ Consider the case of a tank. We stop the inflow of water into the tank, which stops the tank from
filling up. That's Samvara, but there's already water in the tank.
○ This water may be exposed to the heat of the sun for a period of time in order to dry. This is what
isNirjara.
● Moksha (liberation)
○ Moksha is the highest level of spiritual attainment attained when all causes of bondage have been
removed and the soul has been liberated from karmic matter.
○ It is a stage of perfect faith, perfect knowledge, and having attained siddhi. ○ Moksha can be
attained through right faith, right knowledge, and right action.
● Five Great Vows: Five types of vows are recommended for the perfection of right conduct:
○ Nonviolence (ahinsa)
○ Truthfulness (Satya)
○ Non-stealing (asteya)
○ Celibacy (brahmacharya)
○ Non Attachment (aparigraha)
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● Tri-Ratnas: Nirvana is the ultimate goal of life according to Jain philosophy. Nirvana can be attained by liberating
the soul from the bonds of the physical elements and putting an end to Karma and its consequences. This can
be accomplished through the practice of Triratna, or the three gems.
○ Samyak Darshan (Right View): This does not imply believing what is told or seen, but rather seeing
things clearly by avoiding preconceived notions and superstitions.
○ Samyak Gyan (Proper Knowledge): An effort to gain knowledge by overcoming ignorance. Only by
following the Tirthankaras' teachings can knowledge be gained.
○ Samyak Acharan (Right Conduct): This entails living one's life in accordance with Jains' ethical rules,
abstaining from violence against animals and humans, and freeing oneself from attachment and
negative thoughts.
● Concepts of Sin
○ Jainism not only emphasizes the observance of Vratas but also encourages his followers to avoid sin
because sin is what binds a man.
○ Untruth, theft, sexual relationships, anger, violence, dravya, greed, maya, ego, moh, backbiting,
speaking ill of others,Dosharopan (impute charges),
non-restraint, and False perception are among the 18 sins mentioned in Jain works.
● Karma Theory:
○ Mahavira was a firm believer in Karma and Atma (soul).
○ Man will be punished or rewarded for his actions in the next, present, or previous lives.
○ The soul creates its own present or future by doing good or evil deeds. This philosophy
emphasizes the Soul's immortality.
○ According to Mahavira, a person is born into a higher or lower caste based on sins or virtues
committed in a previous life.
● Concept of Knowledge:
○ Since knowledge is a relative quality, no absolute and final affirmation or denial is possible, according to
Jainism. This is known as the Syadvada theory.
○ Before determining the degree of truthfulness in a particular statement, there may be as many as seven
options.
● Equality:
○ Jains place a high value on equality. Mahavira accepted caste but stated that a person's
goodness or badness could be determined by his actions rather than his birth.
● Existence of God:
○ Jainism recognized the existence of gods but regarded them as inferior, and it did not condemn caste, like
Buddhism.
○ The universe, according to Jain philosophy, is eternal.
○ The universe was not created by God, who does not exist, but by six elements: Jeev (soul), Ajeev
(Physical Matter), Dharma, Adharma, Kal, and Akash.
● Rejected the Vedas:
○ Mahavira rejected the Vedas' and Vedic customs' supremacy.
○ He declared a strict and simple way of life, with the ultimate goal of achieving Kevalaya (Nirvana or Mokha).
○ He went ahead and refused to accept the Vedas' authority.
○ Against Rituals and Sacrifices
○ Jainism was a form of rebellion against Brahmin superiority and their sacrifices and useless rituals.
○ He stopped all sacrifices and rituals and instructed everyone to focus on Karma and soul.

1.4 Philosophical schools of Medieval India:

1.4.1 Vajrayana
● Vajrayana (Sanskrit for "thunderbolt vehicle" or "diamond vehicle"), Mantrayna,
Guhyamantrayna, Tantrayna, Secret Mantra, Tantric Buddhism, and Esoteric
Buddhism are all names for Buddhist traditions associated with Tantra and "Secret
Mantra," which originated in the medieval Indian subcontinent and spread to
Tibet, East Asia, Mongolia, and other Himalayan states.
● It is founded on a complicated intellectual and ceremonial framework that aims to lead to
enlightenment.
● Scholars speculate that the Vajrayana school arose from royal palaces funding both
Buddhism and Shaivism, implying that it was influenced by Hinduism.
● Vajrayana is a Buddhist philosophy based on Mahayana Buddhism.
● Vajrayana approximately translates to "the Diamond Way."
○ The name Vajra relates to Indra, the Hindu deity of thunder and rain, who
wielded a diamond-hard thunderbolt as a weapon.
○ Yana refers to the path to enlightenment, or the spiritual vehicle.
 14

● It entailed merging Brahmanical (Veda-based) rites with Buddhist concepts.

● The major goddess is Tara (a woman).
● This school claims that Tantras, Mantras, and Yantras are superior vehicles to liberation since
they contain numerous sophisticated tantric ritual practices.
● Vajrayana Buddhism claims to be able to give a speedier road to enlightenment, lowering the
number of lives required to achieve illumination. It should be done by everyone, not only
monks.
● In comparison to Mahayana's six perfections or paramitas, the mantra, according to this school, is an easy way to
Buddhahood without the challenges.
● Tibet, Bhutan, Mongolia, Kalmykia of Kyrgyzstan, and other countries have followed this school.
● Vajrayana, or Diamond Vehicle Buddhism, is the Tibetan Buddhist tradition. Sanskrit writings brought in by
missionaries in the 5th century CE were the first to bring Buddhism to Tibet.
● During the reign of King Trisong Detsen in the 8th century CE, Buddhism became the state religion.

1.4.1.1 Vajrasattva
● Vajrasattva is a significant figure in the tantric Buddhism of the Kathmandu Valley's Newar people.
● He is commonly invoked in the guru mala, the basic ceremony for all other Newar Buddhist rites, and the daily
puja for Newar priests since he represents the perfect master.

1.4.2 Theravada
● In contrast to Mahayana and Vajrayana, Theravada is more conservative in terms of doctrine (pariyatti) and
monastic discipline (Vinaya).
● One aspect of this conservatism is Theravda's rejection of the Mahayana sutras' authenticity (which
appeared c. 1st century BCE onwards).
● Theravada is considered to be one of
the sub-sects of Hinayana Buddhism.
● It refers to the school of elder monks, which
has as its doctrinal foundation of Buddha's
teachings preserved in the Pali Canon (the
only complete Buddhist canon).
○ Pali is Theravada Buddhism's
sacred language.

● The ultimate objective of Theravada is the

cessation of the kleshas and the achievement of the sublime state of Nirvana, which may be attained by
following the Noble Eightfold Path and thereby breaking the cycle of suffering and rebirth.
● Anxiety, fear, wrath, jealousy, desire, depression, and other emotions are examples of kleshas.
● According to the Theravada tradition, Samatha and Vipassana are essential components of the
Buddha's Noble Eightfold Path.
● Samatha is concerned with mind-calming, and Vipassana is concerned with insight into the three
marks of existence: impermanence, suffering, and the realization of non-self.
● Vibhajjavada, or "instruction of analysis," is a tenet of Theravada.
● The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga) is a famous treatise on Theravada Buddhism composed by
Buddhaghosa in Sri Lanka during the 5th century AD.
● It covers the seven phases of purification (Satta-visuddhi) that must be completed to achieve salvation in
Theravada Buddhism.
● It is followed by Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Myanmar, and other countries.

1.4.3 Shaktism
● Shaktism considers Shakti/devi as the absolute and ultimate godhead.
● Shakti is regarded as the supreme Brahman, and all other Gods and Goddesses are manifestations of
Goddess Shakti.
● It is prominent in the Indian subcontinent, and also practiced in some neighboring countries.
● It is further divided in tantric and non-tantric forms.
● Two major subschools are
○ Srikula (family of Sri) - found predominantly in south India.
○ Kalikuli (family of Kali) - North and eastern India.
 15

1.4.4 Tantrism
● It is a religious practice which appeared in India around 400 AD.
● It spreaded in Buddhism as well as Hinduism.
● In medieval India, Tantrism was a common element of all the major religions.
● Tantrism focuses upon ritual aspects that involve the use of the physical in sacred and worshipful settings to
access the supernatural.
● Tantrism also can be traced to Jainism and Bön, and elements of Tantric practice are also evident in
Burma, China, Japan, Mongolia, and Tibet.
● Tantrism comprises numerous texts referred to as Tantras.

● The primary philosophy and goal underlying the practice of Tantrism is that it promotes spiritual growth and
leads to personal freedom.
1.4.5 Shankaracharya
● Adi Shankara, also known as Adi Shankaracharya, was an Indian Vedic scholar and teacher (acharya)
whose works focused on liberating knowledge of the self, combining Advaita Vedanta teachings of
the period.
● Adi Shankaracharya was an Indian philosopher and theologian whose works had a significant influence on
Advaita Vedanta theology.
● He established mathas, which are thought to have aided in the historical growth, renewal, and
dissemination of his philosophy.
● The account told today was rebuilt from many Shankara Vijayam (Shankara Conquests) written
over the years.
● He is said to have been born in 788AD in the village of Kaladi on the banks of the Periyar, Kerala's
greatest river.
● He is thought to have attained samadhi at Kedarnath, while Kanchi and Thrissur are also mentioned as places
where Adi Shankara spent his final days.
● One of the mystic Bhakti poet-saint leaders who gave Hinduism a new direction.
● He advanced the Advaita (Monism) philosophy as well as the concept of Nirgunabrahman (god without
attributes).
● The world's actuality is denied in Advaita, and Brahman is regarded as the only reality. Only Brahman, at its
core, gives it its reality.
● Among his most famous lines are 'Brahma Satyam Jagat Mithya Jivo Brahmatra Naparaha,' which
means "The Absolute Spirit is the reality, the world of appearance is Maya," and 'Ekameva
Adviteeyam Brahma,' which means "The absolute is one alone, not two."
● He emphasized knowledge (Gyan) as the only way to salvation.
● Shankaracharya wrote works such as Upadesasahasri, Vivekachudamani, and Bhaja Govindum Stotra.
● He also contributed commentary to the Bhagavad Gita, the Brahma Sutra, and the Upanishads.
● He established mathas in Dwarka, Puri, Sringeri, and Badrinath.
● Advaita impacted and was influenced by a variety of Hindu philosophies and scriptures, including
Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, other Vedanta sub-schools, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, the Puranas, and the
Agamas.

1.4.5.1 Advaita Vedanta

● It articulates a radical nonduality philosophical perspective, a revisionist worldview derived from ancient
Upanishadic scriptures.
● The Upanishads, according to Advaita Vedantins, reveal a fundamental nonduality principle known as
'brahman,' which is the reality of all things.
● Brahman, according to Advaitins, transcends individuality and empirical plurality. They want to prove that
Brahman is the vital core of one's self (atman).
● Advaita Vedanta's central thesis is that the atman is pure non-intentional consciousness.
● They want to prove that Brahman is the vital core of one's self (atman). It's non-intentional consciousness at its
purest.
● It is a singular, nondual, limitless existence that is numerically identical to brahman.
● This effort requires connecting brahman metaphysics to a philosophy of awareness.
● Dashanami Sanyasis belong to the Advaita Vedanta school and are Adi Shankaracharya's disciples.
● "Dash Nam Sanyasi" is another name for them.
 16

1.4.6 Ramanuja
● Ramanuja, who was born in Sriperumbudur, near modern-day Chennai, preached Vishishta Advaita Vada
in the 12th century.
● He believes that God is Saguna Brahman and that the creative process, encompassing all of
creation's things, is genuine and not illusory, as Shankaracharya believed.
● As a result, Ramanuja believes that God, soul, and matter are all real. The inner substance, on the other
hand, is God, and the rest are his qualities.
● As in dualism, the universe and Brahman are considered two equally real entities in Vishishta Advaita Vada, but
the universe is generated out of Brahman rather than being separate from it.
● The Brahman is regarded as a personal god with omniscience who created the universe from himself.
● As a result, the world bears the relation of the portion to the whole or the relation of a 'qualified
consequence' to the base to Brahman.
1.4.7 Vallabha
● Vallabhacharya, also known as Vallabha and Vishnuswami, or Vallabha Acharya Mahaprabhu, is a JagadGuru
Vaishnav Acharya and Indian philosopher who developed the Krishna-centered PushtiMarg sect of Vaishnavism
and the Shuddha Advaita Vedanta philosophy in the Braj region of India.
● Achinto Bhadra' was another name for him.
● On the basis of the Maha Bhagavata Purana, he was the first to promote Krishna Bhakti.
1.4.7.1 Shuddhadvaita
● Vallabhacharya, the founder philosopher and guru of the Vallabha sampradaya or Pushtimarg, a Hindu
Vaishnava tradition focused on Krishna worship, propounded the "purely non-dual" philosophy of
Shuddhadvaita.
● The pure form (non-dualist) philosophy of Vallabhacharya differs from Advaita.
● Brahma Vada is another name for his way of thought.
● The entire universe, according to Vallabha, is real and delicately Brahman. Individual souls are one with
Brahman in essence. Jiva, Kala (time), and Prakriti are all eternal.
● They do not, however, exist as a part of Brahman. Shuddadvaita is a philosophy that is "purely non-
dual."
● The Shrinathji temple in Nathdwara, as well as the works of eight poets (aachap), notably Surdas, are
fundamental to the sect's worship.
● Various Shuddhadvaita proponents, such as Devarshi Ramanath Shastri, have enunciated the tenets of this
philosophy in his books 'Shuddhadvaita Siddhanta Sara' and Shuddhadvaita Darshan.

1.4.7.2 Pushti Marg

● Pushti Marga is the way of life and salvation that Vallabhacharya preached. The weakening of man's
soul necessitates God's grace for its freedom.
● Pushti Bhakti is Bhakti that is generated via unique grace.
● Pravaha Pushti-Bhakti, Maryada Pushti-Bhakti, Pushti-Bhakti, and Suddha Pushti-Bhakti are the
four types of Bhakti.
● Pravaha Pushti Bhakti is the path taken by those who do good deeds while living a worldly existence in
order to achieve God-realization.
● Maryada Bhakti is the way of people who, by God's favor, are capable of gaining knowledge that is useful
for worship.
● The devotees of Pushti Bhakti practise self-control.
● Suddha Pushti-Bhakti is a contemporary form of devotion in which devotees chant songs in the Lord's honor.

1.4.7.3 Prithvi Parikrama

● Vallabhacharya walked barefoot on three Indian pilgrimages. In Pushtimarg Literature, these three
Indian pilgrimages are called Prithvi Parikrama.
● He didn't wear his khadau (footwear) and instead wore a modest white dhoti and an Upparna , a white upper
garment material .
● He delivered Bhagavata talks at 84 locations, explaining the meanings of the Puranic text.
● These 84 locations are now known as Chaurasi Baithak and are used as pilgrimage sites. Each year, he
spent four months in Vraja.

1.4.7.4 Shodash Granthas

● Vallabhacharya authored the Shodasha Granthas, a collection of 16 poem pieces, to aid followers on their road of
devotion.
 17

● These were created in response to devotees' requests. The passages define Pushtimarga's practical
theology.
● For devotees, the Shodash Granthas (doctrines) act as a beacon.
● They talk about growing one's devotion for Shri Krishna through performing Seva (service) and Smarana
(remembering).
● Mahaprabhu's doctrines are his manner of encouraging and inspiring believers on their spiritual path. The
Shodasha Granthas' fundamental message is unconditional surrender to the Lord.

1.4.7.5 Literary works

● During his lifetime, Vallabhacharya wrote a number of intellectual and religious writings, including
● Anubhashya or BrahmSutrnubhashya - 4 cantos of commentary on the Brahma Sutra of Ved Vyas.
● Tattvaarth Dip Nibandh - Essays on spiritual fundamentals.
● Subodhini - Shrimad Bhagavat Mahapuran Commentary.
● He also wrote works such as Patravalamban, Madhurashtakam, Gayatribhashya, Purushottam Sahastranaam,
Girirajdharyashtakam, Nandkumarashtakam, and others in addition to the above important literature.
1.4.8 Chaitanya mahaprabhu
● Chaitanya Mahaprabhu was a 15th-century Indian saint who, according to his disciples and numerous scriptures,
was the conjoined embodiment of Radha and Krishna. ● Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's style of worshiping Krishna via
ecstatic song and dance had a significant impact on Bengali Vaishnavism.

1.4.8.1 Philosophy of Chaitanya

● Despite being admitted into the Madhvacharya tradition, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's ideology differs slightly
from those of other Madhvacharya followers and teachers.
● Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, according to historians and experts, did not write any written document.
● However, one of his disciples recorded his words, which became known as 'Siksastaka' (eight verses).
● The doctrine of Gaudiya Vaishnavism is said to be included in these eight verses.
● Though Chaitanya Mahaprabhu did not write down his teachings or philosophy, he did ask a few of his
devotees (the Six Goswamis of Vrindavan) to explain his teachings in a methodical manner in their own
works.

1.4.8.2 Achintya Bheda-Abheda

● Achintya-Bheda-Abheda is a Vedic school that represents the doctrine of incomprehensible
oneness and diversity.
● In Sanskrit, achintya means 'inconceivable,' bheda means 'different,' and abheda means 'non-difference.'
● Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534 CE), the creator of the Achintya Bheda Abheda school of thought and
Gaudiya Vaishnavism.
● The phrase is used in the Gaudiya Vaishnava religious tradition to refer to the relationship of creation
and creator (Krishna, Svayam Bhagavan), between God and his forces.
● This theory is thought to have been taught by the movement's doctrinal founder Chaitanya Mahaprabhu(1486–
1534) and distinguishes the Gaudiya tradition from the other Vaishnava Sampradayas.
● It may be regarded as a synthesis of Madhvacharya's stringent dualist (dvaita) theology and Ramanuja's qualified
monism (vishishtadvaita).
● It is distinct from Advaita Vedanta's idea of anirvacaniya (inexpressible). There is an obvious distinction between
the two conceptions since they develop for different causes. ● Advaita is concerned with the ontological status of the
world, whereas both Svayam bhagavan and his shaktis (the Lord himself and his capabilities) are empirically
existent, and they are different but also the same.
● But that doesn't change the fact that both are true.
UPSC CSE 2020 Mains:

Q. Indian philosophy and tradition played a significant role in conceiving and shaping the monuments and their art in India.
Discuss. (2020)
 18

Temple Architecture & Rock cut architecture, Regional Architecture &

Indo - Islamic Architecture

2 Architecture 20
2.1 Evolution of Indian Architecture 20
3 Harappan Civilization Architecture 20
3.1 Town planning in Harappan Civilization 20
3.2 Harappan Civilization's Urban Planning Lessons 22
3.3 Harappan Art - Pottery 23
3.4 Harappan Art - Metal Works 23
3.5 Harappan Art - Seals 23
3.6 Sculptures of the Harappan Civilization 23
3.7 Bronze Sculptures of Harappan Civilization 24
3.8 Terracotta Sculptures of Harappan Civilization 24
4 Mauryan Art and Architecture (4th to 2nd Century BC) 25
4.1 Mauryan Pillars (4th and 2nd Century BC) 25
4.2 Lion Capital, Sarnath 27
4.3 Terracotta Sculptures of Mauryan Periods 27
4.4 Mauryan Pottery 27
4.5 Coins 27
4.6 Stupas, Chaityas and Viharas 27
4.7 Mauryan Sculpture 28
5 Post Mauryan Art and Architecture 29
5.1 Bharhut Stupa 29
5.2 Sanchi Stupa 31
5.3 Schools of Art 32
5.4 Early Temples 34
5.5 Cave tradition in Eastern India 35
6 Gupta Architecture 35
6.1 Temple Architecture 36
6.2 Sculpture 38
7 Cave Architecture In India 39
7.1 Ajanta caves 39
7.2 Ellora caves 40
7.3 Elephanta caves 40
7.4 Barabar Caves 41
7.5 Lomas Rishi Cave 41
7.6 Bagh Caves 41
7.7 Junagadh Caves 41
7.8 Nashik Caves 41
7.9 Mandapeshwar Caves 42
7.10 Karle Caves 42
7.11 Kanheri Caves 42
7.12 Udayagiri Caves 42
7.13 Bhaja Caves 42
8 South Indian Art 42
8.1 Dravidian Architecture 42
8.2 Chola Sculpture 45
8.3 Other Schools of Art 45
 19

9 Architecture in Medieval India 48

9.1 Indo-Islamic architecture 48
9.2 Architecture during Medieval times 49
9.3 Provincial Style of Architecture 51
10 Mughal Architecture 52
10.1 Mughal Architecture - Features 53
10.2 Mughal Architecture - Timeline 53
10.3 Other styles of architecture 56
11 Modern Architecture 57
11.1 Portuguese Influence 57
11.2 French Influence 57
11.3 British Influence 58
11.4 Difference Between Iberian and Gothic Architecture 59
12 Architecture in the Post-Independence Era 59
12.1 Laurie Baker 59
 20

2 Architecture
The word 'architecture' comes from the Latin word 'tekton,' which literally means "builder." The study of architecture originated
when early man began to construct his shelter to dwell in.

2.1 Evolution of Indian Architecture

● The evolution of Indian art and architecture is fascinating. The structures and sculptures have their own story to tell, from
the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation through British authority.
● The growth of Indian architecture and art reflects the rise and fall of large empires, the invasion of foreign rulers who
gradually became indigenous, the fusion of many cultures and styles, and so on.

Fig: Classification of Indian Architecture

3 Harappan Civilization Architecture

● The style was entirely unique, with no obvious foreign influences.
● The structures were built only for functional purposes, not for aesthetic reasons.
● The evolution of architecture and sculpture seldom occurs in isolation. The architecture of the Indus Valley, however, is an
exception to this rule.
● Local cultures influenced architectural traditions, which date back thousands of years to the first farming and pastoral
settlements. For example, they built their homes on massive mud-brick platforms.
● The elegance achieved with its urban planning is the crowning pearl of IV architecture. No other modern culture can
match this level of complexity.

3.1 Town planning in Harappan Civilization

● Utilitarian perspective: The Harappans were the first to introduce the concept of worker welfare by creating separate
worker's quarters, which has since become a requirement in a welfare state.
● Harappan city planning: Harappan cities did not all have the same town design. However, most cities followed the same
path. Harappan city designs included the defensive wall, citadel, and lower town, as well as roadways and alleys,
drainage systems, and water management systems.
○ The city plan was created with the use of geometrical tools by the architects.
○ In most Harappan towns, a certain pattern was followed in which the citadel was located to the west of the
lower town, although in some cities it was located to the south.
○ The cardinal directions of streets and lanes were also used to partition certain rural villages into blocks and sub-
blocks. The residences were lined up on both sides of the streets.
● Fortification wall: The fortification wall defended certain Early Harappan towns, as well as numerous Harappan cities.
The fortress wall defended Kot Diji, Rehman Dehri, Tarakai Qila, Kohtras, Buthi, Mehrgarh, Dhalewan, Bhirrana, Balu,
Kalibangan, and others.
● Gateways: Some Harappan cities had only one doorway, such as Lothal and Balu, while others, such as Kalibangan and
Surkotada, had two or more. There were two sorts of gateways: one was a plain entry for vehicle activity, while the
other had some unique significance.
● Bastions: During the Harappan period, defensive walls were used to build bastions. They were used as lookout towers.
● Material Used: Bricks, baked bricks, mud, stones, and other mud-based materials were employed.
● Intercommunication passage: Some Harappan sites have intercommunication routes that were utilised for the kings',
priests', and common people's mobility.
● Citadel and Lower Town: Harappan cities were divided into walled sectors in separate portions of the settlement, which
were known as citadels and lower-towns.
 21

○ The citadel was constructed on a raised plate shape, while the lower town was constructed on a lower level.
○ The citadel was smaller than the lower town. While the citadel included public structures like the Great Bath, the
lower town mainly solely had private buildings.
○ Some cities, such as Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan, Banawali, Rakhigarhi, Lothal, Dholavira, and
others, had citadel and lower town settlements, but most cities did not.

Fig Citadel and Lower Town

● Grid Pattern: By 2600 BC, the principal towns of the Indus Valley Civilization, Mohenjodaro, and Harappa, were built
with blocks split by a grid of straight streets running north-south and east-west.
● Disaster-proof: Harappans built their dwellings on platforms to avoid flooding. Drainage system:
● Reservoirs: The Harappans were hydraulic engineering masters. They devised an effective technique.
○ The drains were built with drips at regular intervals for self-cleaning.
○ Small drains emptied into private drains, and big drains drained into huge drains. The enormous sewers carried
the city's wastewater outdoors, where it was disposed of in open areas or in ponds of various types.
○ Stones or huge bricks were used to conceal certain drains. Soakage jars, man-hole cesspools, and other
drainage system components were vital.
● Granaries: The granary was Mohenjodaro's greatest structure, while Harappa had roughly six granaries or
storehouses. These were grain storage bins.
○ The Great Bath in Mohenjodaro is located to the east of the granary. It is the oldest water tank ever discovered
in the ancient world. The bath's floor was made up of five levels. It was so waterproof that it still holds water
today. There were locker rooms. It was most likely utilised at religious events and festivities.

Fig: The Great Bath, Mohenjodaro

● Houses: The houses were of various sizes. It's possible that some of them had two levels.
○ The dwellings were constructed of smouldering bricks. A central courtyard, a well, a bathing place, and a
kitchen were all included in most of the dwellings.
○ Each home was immediately connected to an effective drainage system, indicating a well-developed municipal
infrastructure.
 22

● No temples: Despite the fact that there is no evidence of temple construction or other religious sites, the people
followed religion. Some religious practices have been related to the Great Bath.
● No monuments to armament or battle: Military troops or weaponry for battle have not been discovered in this
culture's excavations. While other civilizations’ art has numerous depictions of prisoners, monuments to military
triumphs, and other warfare-related activities, the Indus Valley's art does not contain a single such portrayal.
● The early river valley civilization in India was notable for having a cooperative culture without the reign of rulers, according
to archaeological evidence. The focus appears to have been on peaceful trade rather than military power expansion.
3.1.1 Dockyard of Lothal
● A massive facility on the island of Lothal has been recognized as a tidal port for seagoing ships.
● There is a lot of evidence that the towns of the Indus Valley traded extensively with other civilizations throughout that time
period.
● Trade with towns in this region is mentioned in Mesopotamian records, and items from the Indus region have been
discovered in West Asian cities.

Fig: Dockyard at Lothal

● When the surrounding Kutch desert was a part of the Arabian Sea, Lothal's dock—the world's oldest known—connected
the city to an ancient stream of the Sabarmati river on the trade route between Harappan settlements in Sindh and the
peninsula of Saurashtra.
● In ancient times, it was a significant and bustling trading center, with its commerce of beads, diamonds, and expensive
decorations stretching far into West Asia and Africa.

3.2 Harappan Civilization's Urban Planning Lessons

● The Indus Valley Civilization had an exceptional urban design, particularly in the areas of sanitation and drainage.
● It can, to a large extent, give input to current urbanisation. Dealing with the haphazard construction of structures has
been one of the key issues of urban planning in India.
● The streets of the Harappan Civilization were laid out in grid-like layouts, allowing for deliberate and planned expansion.
● In contemporary times, Le Corbusier's ideas for Chandigarh included a rectangular form with a gridiron pattern, allowing
for faster traffic flow and a smaller footprint.
● The town was likewise firmly divided into residential and common/public sectors in the Civilization.
● The Harappan Civilization granaries, with their strategically positioned air ducts and platforms separated into sections,
are likewise an example of clever design.
● The houses were built in such a way that they didn't interfere with the road layout in any way. Instead of opening out onto
the roadways, the residences had doors that opened into the lanes.
● The warehouse at Lothal is an excellent example of precise design.
● The civilization’s drains connected each and every home, allowing residents to deposit their trash immediately.
● The drains were covered and linked to the bigger sewage outputs immediately. For maintenance purposes, there were
inspection holes in the sewers and manholes in the streets.
● As a result, the Harappan Civilization's urban planning has greatly aided us in learning from it.
 23

3.3 Harappan Art - Pottery

● Harappan clay pots and ornamental pieces were one of its main attractions,
even back then, all over the world.
● The craftsmanship of the Harappan pottery is evident in trays of various sizes,
cups, cooking pots, and other ceramics.

3.4 Harappan Art - Metal Works

● Harappan civilization achieved remarkable heights in metalwork as well.
● They knew how to produce copper and bronze pots, flower vases, and
pictures of people, animals, and birds.
● The polish and delicacy of their metal works are shown by a bronze figure of
a female dancer discovered at Mohenjo-Daro.

3.5 Harappan Art - Seals

● The seals and sealing method also hint at their creative abilities. Images of
cows, deer, rhino, and other animals have been discovered on seals
unearthed in Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Lothal, and other sites.
● These exhibits not only an aesthetic sensibility but also an understanding of the
animal kingdom.
● The Harappan civilization mirrored every aspect of urban life in its art and
architecture. Every artist demonstrated credit, expertise, and innovation in his work.
● They continue to inspire amazement and reverence in the minds.

3.6 Sculptures of the Harappan Civilization

● During the second millennium, the arts of the Indus Valley civilization, one of the
world's first civilizations, arose. Sculptures, seals, ceramics, gold jewellery,
terracotta figurines, and other types of art have been discovered at many civilization
sites.
● Their renderings of human and animal forms were extremely lifelike and the
modelling of figures was done with utmost caution.
● The major materials used for sculptors were: Stone, Bronze, Terracotta, Clay, etc.
3.6.1 Stone Sculptures of Harappan Civilization
● The handling of the 3-Dimensional volume may be seen in stone figures found in Indus valley sites.
● There are two major stone statues:
3.6.2 Bearded Priest
● In Mohenjo-Daro, a Bearded Man (Priest Man, Priest-King) was discovered.
The main features of the figure were:
● Steatite figurine of a bearded guy.
● The figure is covered in a shawl that comes under the right arm and covers
the left shoulder, indicating that it is a priest. The shawl has a trefoil design
on it.
● As in contemplative concentration, the eyes are extended and partially
closed.
● The nose is well-formed and of average size.
● Short beard and whiskers, as well as a short moustache.
● A basic woven fillet is carried around the head once the hair is separated in
the center.
● A right-hand armlet and holes around the neck imply a necklace.
● Overall, there is a hint of the Greek style in the statues.
3.6.3 Male Torso
● Red sandstone was used to create it.
● The head and arms are attached to the neck and shoulders through socket
openings. Legs have been broken.
● The shoulders are nicely browned, and the belly is a little protruding.
● It is one of the more expertly cut and polished pieces.
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3.7 Bronze Sculptures of Harappan Civilization

● Bronze casting was conducted on a large scale in practically all of the civilization's main sites.
● Bronze casting was done using the Lost Wax Technique.
3.7.1 Dancing Girl
● Founded in Mohenjo-Daro, it is one of the best-known artefacts from the Indus valley.
● It depicts a girl whose long hair is tied in a bun and bangles cover her left arm.
● Cowry shell necklace is seen around her neck with her right hand on her hip and her left hand clasped in a traditional
Indian dance gesture.

3.7.2 Lost Wax Technique

● At first, the required figure is formed of wax and coated with clay. After allowing the clay to dry, the entire assembly is
heated to melt the wax within the clay. The melted wax was then drained out of the clay section through a small hole.
● The molten metal was then poured into the hollow clay mold. The clay coating was fully removed once it had cooled.
● The Bronze casting includes both human and animal representations.
● The buffalo, with its raised head, back, and sweeping horns, and the goat, among animal representations, are aesthetic
assets.
● Bronze casting was popular at all locations of Indus valley culture, as evidenced by the copper dog and bird of Lothal
and the Bronze figure of a bull from Kalibangan.
● Metal casting persisted until the late Harappan, Chalcolithic, and other peoples following the Indus valley civilization.

3.7.3 Bull from Mohenjo-Daro

● Mohenjo-Daro has a bronze statue of a bull.
● The bull's massiveness and the charge's wrath are vividly depicted.
● The animal is seen standing to the right with his head cocked.
● A cord is wrapped around the neck.

3.8 Terracotta Sculptures of Harappan Civilization

● In Gujarat and Kalibangan, terracotta statues are more lifelike.
● A few figures of bearded males with coiled hairs are found in terracotta, their stance firmly erect, legs slightly apart, and
arms parallel to the sides of the torso. The fact that this figure appears in the same posture over and over again suggests
that he was a divinity.
● There was also a clay mask of a horned god discovered.
● Terracotta was also used to create toy carts with wheels, whistles, rattles, birds and animals, gamesmen, and discs.
 25

● Mother Goddess figurines are the most important clay figures.

3.8.1 Mother Goddess

● Mohenjo-Daro is where it was found.
● These are mainly crude standing figurines.
● Wearing a loin robe and a grid, she is adorned with jewellery dangling from her large breast.
● The mother goddess's distinctive ornamental element is her fan-shaped headpiece with a
cup-like protrusion on either side.
● The figure's pellet eyes and beaked snout are exceedingly primitive (constructed in a
rudimentary way).
● A tiny hole indicates the mouth.

4 Mauryan Art and Architecture (4th to 2nd Century BC)

● Around the 6th century BCE, religions of the Shramana tradition, such as Jainism and
Buddhism, arose.
● In the 4th century BCE, the Mauryas had established themselves as a powerful force, and by
the 3rd century, they had vast swaths of India under their authority.
● There were various religious activities at the period, including the worship of Yakshas and mother-goddesses. Despite
this, Buddhism became the most popular religion.
● Only during the Mauryan period, after the Harappan civilization, did colossal stone sculpture and building development.
● Pillars, sculptures, rock-cut architecture, and structures like stupas, viharas, and chaityas served a variety of purposes.
They are superb in terms of aesthetic quality as well as design and execution.

Fig: Mauryan Art and Architecture

4.1 Mauryan Pillars (4th and 2nd Century BC)

● Despite the fact that creating pillars is an ancient practice,
Mauryan pillars vary from pillars in other regions of the globe
(such as Achaemenid pillars) in that they are rock-cut pillars,
demonstrating the carver's talent.
● Two kinds of stone were used to chisel these pillars. Some are
made of white sandstone from the Mathura region, while others
are made of buff-colored fine-grained hard sandstone mined in
Chunar near Varanasi.
● The pillar capitals' similarity in style implies that they were carved
by workers from the same location.
● Capital is the topmost element of a pillar or column. Figures such
as a bull, lion, elephant, and others were carved onto the upper
half of the pillar. The capital figures (typically animals) are all
carved standing on a square or circular abacus and are all
forceful.
● Abacuses have stylized lotuses on them.
● The Lion Capital, a Mauryan pillar capital unearthed at Sarnath,
is the best specimen of Mauryan sculpting tradition.
● King Ashoka erected many pillars across his territory.
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4.1.1 Pillar Edicts and Inscriptions

● The seven pillar edicts of Ashoka have been discovered in Topra (Delhi), Meerut, Kaushambi, Rampurva, Champaran,
and Mehrauli:
● Asoka's idea of people protection is enshrined in Pillar Edict I.
● Pillar Edict II: Defines Dhamma as having the least sins, the greatest number of virtues, compassion, liberality,
honesty, and purity.
● Pillar Edict III: Removes sins such as harshness, cruelty, rage, and pride, among others.
● Pillar Edict IV: Addresses the responsibilities of Rajukas.
● Pillar Edict V: A list of animals and birds that should not be slaughtered on certain days, as well as a separate list of
species that should not be killed at all.
● Dhamma policy is the sixth pillar edict.
● Asoka's work towards Dhamma policy is documented in Pillar Edict VII.

4.1.1.1 Message in Edicts

● Major Rock Edict I forbids the slaughter of animals. prohibits animal cruelty and gatherings for celebrations. In Asoka's
kitchen, only two peacocks and one deer were killed. Two peacocks and one deer were also killed, a practise he wanted
to stop.
● Major Rock Edict II describes the Chola, Pandya, Satyapura, and Keralputra Kingdoms of South India and provides for
the care of people and animals.
● Major Rock Edict III was issued twelve years after Asoka's coronation. It states that every five years, the Yuktas
(subordinate officers), Pradesikas (district Heads), and Rajukas (rural officers) are to travel throughout the kingdom and
spread the Asoka Dhamma Policy.
● Fourth Major Rock Edict provides that Dhammaghosa, not Bherighosa, is the ideal for humanity. Dhamma's effects on
society
● Major Rock Edict V is concerned with the treatment of slaves. In this rock edict, he says, "Every Human is my Child." In
this edict, the appointment of Dhamma Mahamatras is mentioned.
● King's desire to constantly stay informed about the circumstances of the people is described in Major Rock Edict VI.
discusses welfare policies.
● Major Rock Edict VII calls for respect for all faiths
● Describes Asoka's first Dhamma Yatra to Bodhgaya and the Bodhi Tree in Major Rock Edict VIII.
● Major Rock Edict IX condemns well-known rituals. Dhamma ceremonies are stressful.
● Major Rock Edict X Condemns the desire for fame and glory. Stresses on popularity of Dhamma.
● Major Rock Edict XI Explicitly Defining Dhamma
● Major Rock Edict XII focused and determined appeal for tolerance
between various religious groups.
● Major Rock Edict XIII provides information on Asoka’s victory over
Kalinga . Victory of Asoka’s Dhamma over Greek Kings, Antiochus,
Ptolemy, Antigonus, Magas, Alexander and Cholas, Pandyas etc. This
is the Largest Edict. It mentions Kamboj, Nabhaks, Bhoja, Andhra etc.
● The engraving of inscriptions in various parts of the country is
described in Major Rock Edict XIV.

4.1.2 Minor Pillar Inscriptions

● Inscription on the Rummindei Pillar: Asoka’s visit to Lumbini and
the exemption of Lumbini from taxation.
● Inscription on the Nigalisagar Pillar in Nepal: Asoka extended the
height of Buddha Konakamana's stupa to twice its original size.
4.1.3 Major Pillar Inscriptions
● Sarnath Lion Capital was erected by Ashoka in Varanasi to
commemorate Dhammachakrapravartana or Buddha's first discourse.
● Single lion on Vaishali Pillar in Bihar, with no inscription.
● Uttar Pradesh's Sankisa Pillar
● Champaran, Bihar: Lauriya-Nandangarh.
● Champaran, Bihar: Lauriya-Araraj
● Uttar Pradesh's Allahabad pillar.
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4.2 Lion Capital, Sarnath

● Sarnath Lion Capital is the name given to the lion capital unearthed more than a
century ago at Sarnath, near Varanasi.
● It was created by Ashoka in memory of 'Dharmachakrapravartana,' or Buddha's first
discourse, and is one of the best specimens of Mauryan sculpture.
It was originally made up of five parts:
1. The shaft of the pillar.
2. The lotus bell, also known as the base.
3. A clockwise rotation of four animals on a drum on the bell base (abacus).
4. Four magnificent addorsed (back to back) lions.
5. Dharmachakra/Dharmachakra, is the highest crowning element.
● Four Asiatic lions are placed back to back in the capital, with very powerful facial
muscularity, symbolising strength, courage, pride, and confidence.
● The sculpture's surface is highly polished, as is typical of the Mauryan era.
● A chakra (wheel) is shown in all four directions on the abacus (drum on the bell base),
with a bull, a horse, an elephant, and a lion between each chakra. There are 24
spokes in each chakra. The Indian National Flag has this 24-spoke chakra.
● An inverted lotus capital supports the circular abacus. The National Emblem of
Independent India is the capital without the shaft, the lotus bell, and the crowning
wheel.
● Only three Lions are visible in Madhav Sawhey's insignia, with the fourth obscured from view.
● The abacus is likewise arranged such that just one chakra is visible in the centre, with the bull on the right and the
horse on the left

4.3 Terracotta Sculptures of Mauryan Periods

● Popular terracotta pieces of all sizes have been discovered at Mauryan sites and abroad, and are the most abundant
Mauryan works of art.
● They are more abundant between Patliputra and Taxila.
● Many have stylized shapes and are technically more proficient, with a well-defined outline and distinct decoration.
Although some look to be cast from moulds, there is minimal repetition.
● Deity figurines, votive reliefs with deities, toys, dice, decorations, and beads are among the terracotta from Taxila. Round
medallions, comparable to the bullae worn by Roman youths, were among the jewellery.
● The earthy beauty of terracotta representations of folk gods and goddesses is common (some of them are perhaps
dolls). Many of the animal figures are most likely children's toys.

4.4 Mauryan Pottery

● There are numerous different types of ceramics linked with the Mauryan period.
However, the most advanced technique may be observed in a form of pottery
called Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW), which was popular during the
previous and early Mauryan eras.
● It features a highly polished glaze coating that ranges in colour from jet black to
deep grey or metallic steel blue.
● On occasion, there are little red-brown areas visible on the surface. It has a
unique sheen and brightness that sets it apart from other polished or graphite-
coated red products.

4.5 Coins
● The Mauryans minted largely silver and a few copper coins in a variety
of forms, sizes, and weights, each with one or more symbols punched
on them.
● The elephant, the tree in the fence sign, and the mountain are the
most popular emblems.
● The metal was cut first, then the device was punched, which was the
standard method of making such coins.

4.6 Stupas, Chaityas and Viharas

● Chaityas were meeting places for the purpose of debate, whereas
Viharas were for living. Early Chaityas and Viharas were made of
wood, but later stone-cut Chaityas and Viharas were built.
● A stupa is a Buddhist memorial structure that generally houses precious relics linked with the Buddha or other saints.
 28

● We have various inscriptional evidence from the second century B.C. onwards naming benefactors for building the Stupas,
Chaityas and Viharas and, in some cases, their profession.
● Sponsorship had followed a largely communal structure, with relatively few examples of royal patronage.
● Gahapatis (householders, regular farmers, etc.) and monarchs are among the patrons. The guild's contributions are also
acknowledged in various places.
● The names of artists such as Kanha at Pitalkhora and his student Balaka at Kondane caves are only mentioned in a few
inscriptions.
● Stone carvers, goldsmiths, carpenters, and other types of artisans are listed in the inscriptions. Traders kept track of their
donations and where they came from.
● Stupas were extensively created in the next century (mostly the 2nd century B.C.) with
various improvements such as the enclosure of the circulatory route with railings and
sculptural ornamentation.
● A cylindrical drum and a circular and with a harmika and chhatra on top made up the stupa,
which remained stable throughout with minimal alterations in shape and size. Later times
saw the addition of gateways.

4.7 Mauryan Sculpture

● Local sculptors' work exemplifies the Mauryan Period's popular art.
● This included sculpture that was most likely not commissioned by the Emperor.
● The local governors were supporters of popular art.
● Mauryan sculptures fall into two categories: Court art and Popular art.
● The pillars and their capitals are considered Court art, while the works of sculptors such as
the Yakshas and Yakshinis are considered popular art.
● Popular art includes the Yaksha picture from Parkam and the Yakshi figure from Besnagar.
4.7.1 Mauryan Court Art
● Excellent stone sculpture emerged in its entirety during the Maurya dynasty. The stone was now utilised for sculpture and
building throughout the country.
● During the Maurya dynasty, the stone surface was also given a dazzling polish. Mauryan art is known for its dazzling
mirror-like gloss and wide range of compositions.
● Stone pillars, railings, parasols, capitals, animal and human sculptures, and a variety of other themes are all
examples of this art.
● Throughout the Mauryan Empire, stone pillars were built with inscriptions carved on them.
● The pillar's top was carved with capital figures such as a bull, a lion, an elephant, and so on. A square or circular abacus
supports each capital figure. The abacuses are embellished with stylized lotuses.
● Basarah-Bakhira, Lauriya- Nandangarh, Rampurva, Sankisa, and Sarnath are some of the notable sites where the
pillars have been discovered.
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4.7.2 Yakshini of Didarganj

● The Yakshi figure from Didarganj, Patna, is one of the greatest specimens of popular Maurya art.
● This free-standing sculpture in sandstone with a polished surface is tall, well-built, and balanced, displaying the
complexity in the treatment of form and medium.
● Yakshini's right hand is holding a chauri (flywhisk), while her left hand is shattered. The sculptor's sensitivity to the
round strong female human form may be seen in this photograph. Muscle folds are represented correctly.
● The illusion of a protruding belly is created by tightening the fabric around the belly. The bottom garment has been
meticulously crafted.
● Protruding lines adhere to the legs, creating a slightly translucent impression, exposing every fold of the garment on the
legs. The large breasts and impressive back indicate thoracic heaviness.

4.7.3 Mauryan Popular Art

● Yakshas and Yakshinis are depicted in popular art throughout the Maurya period. Yaksha refers to friendly nature spirits,
commonly known as fertility spirits.
● The female Yakshini is the male Yaksha's equivalent. Yaksha is also the name of one of Ancient India's Exotic Tribes.
● Natural riches are cared for by Yakshas and Yakshinis. They occupy a major role in Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist literature,
as well as being depicted in Buddhist and Jain sacred monuments.
● Large sculptures of Yakshas and Yakhinis have been discovered in India, primarily in standing positions, in areas like
Patna, Vidisha, and Mathura.
● The smooth surface and clear physiognomic characteristics are the most prevalent elements in these photographs.

Sudama Caves
● The sudama cave represents the earliest example of rock cut architecture in India.
● The caves belong to the Maurya period.
● The cave we dedicated by Ashoka in 261 BC
● It consists of a rectangular chamber connected to the circular chambar.

4.7.4 Elephant sculpture at Dhauli

● The Elephant Rock Cut Sculpture at Dhauli, Odisha, shows the fore-part of an elephant carved over the Edicts of Asoka,
including the two expressly intended for Kalinga.
● A tone and sentiment distinct from those expressed in the animal forms surmounting the pillar capitals may be detected in
the modelling and execution of this elephant sculpture.
● It depicts a good delineation of bulky volume and live flesh, as is innate to that animal, as well as a dignified movement
and linear rhythm that is only matched by the elephant image in relief on the Sarnath capital's abacus.

5 Post Mauryan Art and Architecture

● India after the Mauryas was not a particularly remarkable time in terms of political unity, but it did see a significant
development of Indian art and culture. After Ashoka's successors failed to maintain the empire, several tiny kingdoms
arose across the Indian subcontinent. The Sunga dynasty quickly supplanted the Mauryan Dynasty. Brahmanical sects
such as the Shaivas and the Vaishnavas arose during this time.
● In India, there are various sites that date back to the second century BCE.
● Vidisha, Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh), Bodhgaya (Bihar), Jaggayyapeta (Andhra Pradesh), Mathura (Uttar Pradesh),
Khandagiri-Udayagiri (Odisha), Bhaja near Pune, and Pavaninear Nagpur are some of the most renowned examples of
the greatest sculpture.

5.1 Bharhut Stupa

● Bharhut stupas are towering, like the Mauryan depictions of Yaksha and Yakshini. The sculptural volume is modelled in
low relief to ensure linearity.
● Narratives depict relief panels, and selecting major events improves the clarity of the narratives.
● Narrative panels begin with fewer characters, but as time goes on, others, in addition to the main character in the story,
have begun to appear in the picture space.
● At Bharhut, narrative reliefs demonstrate how artists effectively communicated stories using pictorial language.
● One such story is Queen Mahamaya (Siddhartha Mayadevi's Gautama's mother) dream.
● The queen is reclining on the bed, with an elephant on the top of the bed moving towards Mayadevi's womb.
● The portrayal of a Jataka story, on the other hand, is quite basic - it is recounted by grouping events according to the
geographical area of the story, such as the Ruru Jataka picture, which shows a Bodhisattva deer rescuing a man on his
back.
 30

● Such Jataka stories were used to decorate stupas.

● As the number of stupas built in different sections of the country increased, regional artistic differences emerged.

Stupa
● A stupa is a relic-filled mound-like or hemispheric structure used for meditation.
● From the Vedic time onwards, stupas were used as burial mounds in India.
● It's a traditional depiction of a burial cumulus, where the dead's relics and ashes are maintained.
● The art of stupas reached its pinnacle during the era of Ashoka. During his reign, around 84000 stupas were built.
● Before the period of Ashoka, the stupa was common throughout India. The stupas became objects of cult worship from
the moment Ashoka broke up the Buddha's existing body relics and created monuments to enshrine them.
● According to Buddhist tradition, the nine stupas were originally built following Buddha's death, eight over the relics and
one over the vessel in which the relics were first put.
● At Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilvastu, Allakapa, Ramagrama, Vethadipa, Pava, Kushinagar, and Pippalvina, stupas were
built over Buddha relics.
● The stupa is made up of a cylindrical drum and a circular anda with a harmika and chhatra on top, which are mostly the
same with minor variations in shape and size.
Stupa - Features
● The stupa's core was composed of unburnt brick, with a burnt brick outer face covered in a thick coating of plaster.
● The stupa was capped by a wooden railing that encircled a pradakshina walkway (circumambulatory path).
● It is a magnificent stupa with a circumambulatory route and a circular mound. During the time of Ashoka, the big stupa
at Sanchi was erected with bricks, then covered with stone and many further additions were made.
● Gateways were added in addition to the circumambulatory circuit. With the elaborations in stupa design, architects and
sculptors had plenty of room to plan elaborations and carve out images.
● Wooden sculptures were used to embellish the medhi and toran. As a form of worship, devotees walk around the
pradakshina patha, or open ambulatory pathway.
● Sculptures were largely utilized to decorate stupas, the torana, and the medhi, as well as a form of religious
expression.
● The three chhatra on the stupas symbolize the Buddhist triratnas: Buddha (the enlightened), Dhamma (doctrine),
and Sangh (community).
● Gateways were added in addition to the circumambulatory circuit. With the elaborations in stupa design, architects and
sculptors had plenty of room to plan elaborations and carve out images.
● Bairat in Rajasthan has one of the outstanding examples of a stupa building from the third century BCE.
● Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh, for example, is the most well-known Ashokan stupa. The oldest is the Piprahwa
stupa in Uttar Pradesh.
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5.2 Sanchi Stupa

● In terms of stylistic advancement, the next phase of cultural growth at Sanchi stupa-1, Mathura, and Vengi in Andhra
Pradesh is remarkable.
● Sanchi's Stupa-1 contains both an upper and lower pradakshina patha or circumambulatory walk.
● The sculptures on the entrances of Stupa-1 make it the best example of stupa building (torans).
● It began as a tiny brick structure that grew over time and was eventually covered in stone, vedika (fence), and torans.
● It includes four ornately decorated Torans (Gateways) portraying scenes from Buddha's life and Jataka stories.
● Figure compositions have a lot of relief and take up a lot of room.
● The stance is depicted in a naturalistic manner, with no stiffness in the body.
● The story becomes more detailed, and the carving methods appear to be more sophisticated than Barhut's.
● Symbols continued to depict Buddhas or Buddhas from the past (according to the textual tradition there are 24 Buddhas,
but only the first one, Dipankar, and the last six are pictorially represented).
● Despite the fact that the narrative becomes more complex, the portrayal of the dream episodes stays simple (the dream of
queen Mayadevi).
● Stupa-2 houses the relics of ten lesser-known Arhats from three generations. (An Arhat is a perfected person who has
gained Nirvana in Theravada Buddhism.)
● In some Buddhist traditions, the phrase refers to persons who have made significant progress on the path to
Enlightenment but have not yet attained full Buddhishood.
● The relics of Sariputta and Mahamoggallana/Mahamouglayan can be found in Stupa-3 (disciples of Gautama Buddha).
● The top pradakshina patha is likewise peculiar to this location (i.e., totally two pradakshina patha).
● The four doorways are adorned with statues in abundance.
● An empty throne, feet, chhatra, stupas, and other symbols are used to represent Buddha.
● Torans can be built in any of the four directions.
● Despite the fact that stupa-1 is the earliest stupa, the carvings on stupa-2's vedika are older than those on stupa-1.
● The Jataka stories became an important component of the stories as well.
● Sanchi's figures, despite their small size, are extremely realistic.
● On sculptors, there are guardian images, and salabhanjika sculptures are notable for their quantity (salabhanjika
sculptures are sculptures of ladies holding a branch of a tree/plate, etc.).
● The representations of salabhanjika support the elongation of the lowermost horizontal bar from below.
 32

Fig: Sanchi stupa

5.2.1 Amaravati stupa

● Many stupas can be found in Vengi, Andhra Pradesh, including Jagayyapetta, Amaravati, Bhattiprolu,
Nagarjunakonda, and others.
● There is a Mahachaitya in Amaravati, as well as several
statues.
● Amaravati stupa, like Sanchi stupa, has a pradakshina
patha encased within a vedika depicting several narrative
sculptures.
● The relief stupa sculpture slab that covers the domical
stupa structure is a distinctive feature.
● The Amaravati stupa's torana has vanished over time.
● The early phase, like Sanchi, is devoid of Buddha images,
but in the later phase (2nd and 3rd CE), Buddha images are
carved on the drum slabs and in a variety of other
places.
● In this area, the sculptural form is marked by strong
emotions.
● The sculpture composition is more intricate than
Sanchi, and the bodies are represented with three bends
(Tribanga).
● Queen Mayadevi's Dream is also represented here.
● Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, and Guntapalle all have their own Buddha images.
● Guntapalle is a rock-cut cave in Andhra Pradesh near Eluru.
Sannati is the largest stupa ever dug in Karnataka.
● Other Buddhist pictures of Bodhisattvas, such as Avalokiteswara, Padmapani, Vajrapani, Amitabha, and Maitreya
Buddha, began to be sculpted alongside Buddha statues.

5.3 Schools of Art

Buddhism flourished significantly throughout the early Christian era (1st and 2nd centuries)
and sparked a revitalised artistic fervour to represent Buddha's message, resulting in the
formation of three primary schools of sculpture in India, each with its styles and
characteristics. The Gandhara, Mathura, and Amaravati schools of art were named for the
cities where they flourished.
5.3.1 Mathura School of Art
● Initially, a complicated kind of symbolism was prevalent in the Gandhara style, but
Mathura style broke from it by developing the custom of translating Buddhist
symbols into human form in accordance with Kanishka's rule.
● An indigenous form of sculpture evolved in Mathura, which mostly used red
sandstone.
 33

● The representations of Vaishnava and Shaiva faiths, as well as Buddhist images, are prevalent in the Mathura style,
which is known for its assimilative quality.
● The pictures of Siva and Vishnu, as well as their consorts Parvathi and Lakshmi, were carved out in the Mathura school,
and the female forms of yakshinis and apsaras were also carved out magnificently.
● It's worth noting that the images of Shiva and Vishnu were created by their respective ayudhas (weapons).
● The Jain Tirthankaras' records can also be found in Mathura Style.
● Sarnath and Kausambi arose as key centres of art creation in the Mathura School of art, which is known for its vibrancy
and assimilationist nature, although Mathura remained the principal art production location.
● The Mathura Buddha images continue to depict folds in the drapery and the halo around the head is lavishly adorned.
● More emphasis was placed on internal beauty and face sentiments in Mathura style than on bodily gestures.
● The big pictures were carved with audacity since the earliest Mathura image-makers never intended to construct an
anatomically realistic human Buddha.
5.3.2 Gandhara School of art
● During the rule of Indo-Greek monarchs in Northwest India, the Gandhara School of art
flourished near Peshawar (now Pakistan), although the Sakas and Kushanas, particularly
Kanishka, were the true supporters of the Gandhara school of art.
● Following the Greek invasions, many painters from West Asia settled in the north-west of
India, and they were heavily affected by Graeco-Roman art throughout the Kushana
period.
● The Kushana kings, particularly Kanishka, encouraged Gandhara artisans to carve
themes from Buddha's life and the jatakas, resulting in a huge number of Buddha and
Bodhisattva representations.
● The Gandhara School of Art is also known as the Graeco-Buddhist School of Art because
it applied Greek art techniques to Buddhist subjects (beautiful pictures of the Buddha and
Bodhisattvas).
● Gandhara style acquired almost all foreign influences, including Greek, Roman, Persian,
Saka, and Kushan.
● The reliefs of the Gandhara Sculpture show Buddha's birth, renunciation, and preaching,
with the best examples dating from the first and second centuries A.D.
● The drapery was thick, with broad and bold fold lines, and the human form was cast in a
realistic manner, with physical details like a moustache, muscles, and curly hair given
minute attention.
● The main sites where artworks of the Gandhara School have been found are Jalalabad, Begram, Hadda, Bamaran, and
Taxila, with the Bamiyan Buddha of Afghanistan considered an example of the Gandhara School.

5.3.3 Amaravati school of art

● The Amaravati School evolved on the banks of the Krishna River in
southern India, under the patronage of the Satavahana monarchs.
● The Amaravati School of Art thrived in the Andhra Pradesh region between
the lower basins of the rivers Krishna and Godavari.
● The 'narrative art' is a prominent feature of the Amaravati school.
● The medallions were carved in such a way that they depict a natural
incidence.
● One medallion, for example, depicts the entire account of the Buddha's
taming of an elephant.
● The Amravati stupas are made of striking white marble.
● In human, animal, and floral forms, Amaravati sculptures have a sense of
movement and vitality, as well as profound and serene naturalism.
● Amravati, Nagarjunikonda, Goli, Ghantasala, and Vengi are notable
locales where this style evolved.
● There is a symbolic picture of Buddha's life, but he is also personified in two
or three places.
● The Amaravati Stupa, like the Sanchi Stupa, contains pradakshina patha
encased within a vedika on which various narrative stories from the life of
Buddha and bodhisattva prevail, but its structural anatomy is more intricate.
● This style included both religious and secular images.
● This style was later influenced by Pallava and Chola architecture.

Mathura Gandhara Amaravati

 34

● The Mathura School flourished ● Between 50 B.C. and 500 A.D., ● From 200-100 BCE, a different
on the banks of the river the Gandhara School type of art style arose and
Yamuna in the period between flourished in two periods. flourished at Amaravati for
1st and 3rd centuries B.C. about six centuries.

● Patronised by Kushana rulers. ● Patronised by Kushana rulers. ● Patronised by Satavahana

rulers.

● Developed in the North West
Frontier, in the modern-day
Kandahar region.
● Developed in and around
Mathura, Sonkh, and
Kankalitala.
● Kankalitila was well-known for
its Jain sculptures.
● Developed in the lower Krishna-
Godavari valley, in and around
Amaravati and
Nagarjunakonda

● It was created by indigenous ● It is also known as Indo- Greek ● It was created by indigenous
peoples without the influence of art because of the heavy peoples and was not affected
outside cultures. influence of Greek or by outside cultures.
● The narrative and imagery of all Hellenistic sculpture.
three religions of the time,
Buddhism, Hinduism, and
Jainism

● Spotted red sandstone was ● Early Gandhara School ● White marbles were used to
utilised in the construction of buildings used bluish-grey create the sculptures at
this school. sandstone, whereas later used Amaravati School.
mud and stucco.

● The Mathura Buddha images
continue to depict folds in the
drapery and the halo around the
head is lavishly adorned.
● More emphasis was placed on
internal beauty and face
sentiments in Mathura style
than on bodily gestures.
● The reliefs of the Gandhara
Sculpture show Buddha's birth,
renunciation, and preaching,
with the best examples dating
from the first and second
centuries A.D.
● The drapery was thick, with
broad and bold fold lines, and
the human form was cast in a
realistic manner, with physical
details like a moustache,
muscles, and curly hair given
minute attention.
● Since the sculptures are often
part of narrative art, there is
less attention on Buddha's
particular traits.
● The sculptures often depict
Buddha's life stories and the
Jataka tales, i.e., former lives of
Buddha in both human and
animal form.

● At Mathura, pictures of the
Vaishnava and Shaiva faiths
can also be seen, but Buddhist
ones predominate.
● The main sites where artworks
of the Gandhara School have
been found are Jalalabad,
Begram, Hadda, Bamaran, and
Taxila
● Amravati, Nagarjunikonda, Goli,
Ghantasala, and Vengi are
notable locales where this style
evolved.
● There is a symbolic picture of
Buddha's life, but he is also
personified in two or three
places.

5.4 Early Temples

● While stupa construction continued, Brahmanical temples and images of gods began to be built.
● Myths mentioned in the Puranas were incorporated into narrative expression.
● Each temple housed a primary picture of a god.
● The temple's shrines were divided into three types:
● Sandhara type: with pradakshina patha
● Nirandara type: does not have pradakshina patha.
● Sarvatobhadra type: accessible from all sides.
● Some major temple sites from this time period include Deogarh (UP), Eran, Nacha-kuthara, and Udayagiri near Vidisha
in MP, among others.
● These temples are basic structures that include a veranda, a hall, and a shrine in the back.
5.4.1 Deogarh temple
● Deogarh is a notable example ,dating from the early sixth century CE.
 35

● The main shrine is erected on a rectangular pedestal, with four smaller subsidiary shrines at the four corners, in the
panchayatana style of architecture (making it a total number of five shrines, hence the name, panchayatana).
● This curving latina or rekha-prasada kind of shikhara further indicates that this is an early example of a traditional nagara
temple style.
● The temple displays Vishnu in many forms, it was assumed that the four ancillary shrines must have likewise held Vishnu's
avatars, and the temple was identified as a dashavatara temple.

5.5 Cave tradition in Eastern India

● Buddhist caves have been discovered in eastern India, primarily in the coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh and Odisha,
similar to those found in western India.
● Guntapalle in the Eluru district is one of the most important places in Andhra Pradesh.
● Guntapalle is one of the few locations where structural stupas, viharas, and caverns have all been unearthed in one
location.
● Rampa Yerrampalem, in addition to Guntapalle, is an important location.
● A massive rock-cut stupa was carved out of the hillock in Anakapalli, near Visakhapatnam, during the 4th-5th century CE.
● It is a remarkable location since it contains the country's largest rock-cut stupas.
● The Udayagiri-Khandagiri caves in Odisha are another notable cave location.
● These caverns are distributed around the area and contain inscriptions from the Kaharvela Kings.
● The caves were intended for Jain monks, according to the inscription.
● Numerous single-cell excavations can be seen here.
● The upper half of the cell is embellished with a succession of Chaitya arches and legends that are still told in the region's
folklore.

6 Gupta Architecture
● Gupta architecture is a representation of the people's strong religious convictions during the time. The "Golden Period
of Indian Architecture" is typically referred to as the beginning of the Gupta Empire in the 4th century A.D.
● While the older Gupta monarchs were Buddhists who preserved Buddhist architectural traditions, temple building rose
to prominence under the patronage of the later Gupta rulers who were Hindus. Similarly, during the Gupta period,
Buddhist and Jain art achieved their pinnacle.
● The beginning of the Gupta Empire in the 4th century A.D. is considered the "Golden Period of Indian Architecture."
● Temple construction gained prominence under the sponsorship of the later Gupta rulers, who were Hindus.
 36

● While the early Gupta kings were Buddhists who conserved Buddhist architectural traditions, temple building rose to
prominence under the patronage of the later Gupta rulers, who were Hindus.
● The Gupta kings were Brahmanical rulers, especially in the later phases. They, on the other hand, displayed exceptional
tolerance for all other religions.
● Vishnu was worshipped in the northern and central parts of India, Shiva in the southern section, and Shakti in the eastern
part of India, as well as on the Malabar coast or in the south-west.

6.1 Temple Architecture

During the Gupta period, temple architecture evolved, with the construction of a square sanctuary and a pillared porch. From the
flat-roofed, monolithic temples of the beginning to the sculptured 'shikhara' of the later years, there was a steady evolution.
6.1.1 Evolution of Temple Architecture
The progression of temple architecture can be distinguished into five stages:

6.1.1.1 First Stage

During this stage, the temples evolved the following characteristics:
● The temples had flat roofs and were square in design.
● The portico was constructed with shallow pillars and was placed on a low platform.
● The structure was built entirely on low platforms.
● It is exemplified by Temple No. 17 in Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh.

6.1.1.2 Second Stage

● Most of the elements of the older temples were carried over into this period.
● The platforms, on the other hand, were taller or upraised.
● There have also been several two-story temples discovered.
● A covered ambulatory path surrounding the sanctum sanctorum or garbhagriha was also added during this era.
● This path was employed as a pradakshina route.
● In Madhya Pradesh, for example, there is a Parvati temple in Nachna Kuthara.

6.1.1.3 Third Stage

● Instead of a flat roof, shikhara appeared at this point. They were, however, still extremely low and curved, almost square.
● The Panchayatan temple-building style was introduced.
● Along with the main deity's temple, the Panchayatan form of temple construction included four minor shrines. The main
temple was square, but it had a rectangular shape because of an extended mandap in front of it.
● The secondary shrines were situated on either side of the mandap, creating a crucified form in the ground layout.
● Examples include the Dashavatara temple in Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh, and the Durga temple in Aihole, Karnataka.

6.1.1.4 Fourth Stage

● This stage's temples were nearly the same, with the exception that the main shrine became more rectangular.
● Ter temple at Solapur (Maharashtra) is an example.

6.1.1.5 Fifth Stage

● Circular temples with shallow rectangular projections were established at this time. The rest of the preceding phase's
characteristics were maintained.
● Maniyar Math in Rajgir is an example.
6.1.2 Styles of temple Architecture
Different temple architecture styles emerged in different parts of India under different religions such as Buddhism, Hinduism, and
Jainism.

6.1.2.1 Nagara Style

The Nagara Architecture or North Indian Temple Style a distinct style of temple architecture that emerged in northern India from
the fifth century A.D. onwards. There is only one peak, or Shikhara, in this temple type. Even within the Nagara school, different
sub-schools arose in the country's western, central, and eastern regions.
 37

6.1.2.1.1 Nagara Architecture - Features

The following are some of the characteristics of the Nagara style:
● The temples were mostly built in the Panchayatan architecture, which consisted of minor shrines arranged in a crucified
ground plan in relation to the main shrine.
● In front of the main shrine, there are meeting halls called mandapas.
● Images of the river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna were put outside the garbhagriha.
● There were no water tanks or reservoirs in the temple grounds in general and most temples were constructed on high
platforms.
● There was a pillared approach to the porticos. Shikharas were divided into three categories:
○ Latina or Rekha-prasad: They were square at the base, with inward-curving walls that came to a point at the
top.
○ Phamsana: They were wider at the base and lower in height than Latinas. They have a straight rising slope.
○ Valabhi: They had a rectangular foundation with vaulted rooms rising from the ceiling.
● The vertical end of the shikhara terminated in a horizontal fluted disc known as the Amalak, which was also known as
wagon-vaulted roofs. On top of that, the Kalash, a spherical form, was placed.
● The temple's interior wall was split by three rathas, or vertical planes. Triratha temples were the name for these
structures. Temples like pancharatha, saptaratha, and even navaratha arose later.
● The ambulatory corridor or pradakshina path surrounding the sanctum sanctorum was covered, and the vertical planes
were utilised as separate panels to create storey sculptures.
● The temple grounds did not have ornate boundary walls or entrances in general.

Subdivisions of Nagara Style - Based on Style

Rekha-Prasada/Latina
● Simple shikhara with a square foundation and inward-sloping walls that lead to a point at the top.
● Later eras saw the Latina form evolve into a more complicated structure with many towers
grouped together.
● The garbhagriha was just beneath the highest structure in the centre.

Phamsana
● Roofs were made up of several slabs that slowly ascend to a single point over the center of the
structure.
● Roofs do not bend inwards like Latina roofs do, but instead slope upwards in a straight line.
● Phamsana structures are wider and shorter than Latina structures.
 38

● In many temples, the garbhagriha is built in the Latina style, while the mandapa is built
in the Phamsana style.

Valabhi
● They had a rectangular base with a vaulted roof that rose into chambers.
● Wagon-vaulted roofs were another name for them.
6.1.2.1.2 Sub-Schools Under Nagara Temple Architecture

6.1.2.1.2.1 Odisha School

● This particular style of temple building originated in several sections of the Kalinga
empire.
● It had the following features:
○ The external walls were richly ornamented with exquisite carvings, while the
internal walls were simple.
○ In the porch, there were no pillars and the roof was supported by iron girders
instead.
○ The shikhara at the Odisha school was called Rekha deul.
○ They had nearly vertical roofs that abruptly bent inwards.
○ Examples: Sun Temple at Konark (also known as Black Pagoda), Jagannath
Temple at Puri, Lingaraj Temple at Bhubaneswar, etc.

6.1.2.1.2.2 Khajuraho School

● In the central portion of India, the Chandela rulers established their own unique style of temple building, known as the
Khajuraho School or Chandela School.
● The temples featured the following features:
○ Both the interior and exterior walls of these temples were richly embellished with carvings.
○ The sculptures were often erotic in the subject and took influence from Vatsyayana's Kamasutra.
○ The temples were composed of sandstone.

6.1.2.1.2.3 Solanki School (also known as Maru-Gurjara style)

● This school grew under the patronage of Solanki kings in North-Western India, particularly Gujarat and Rajasthan.
● The following were some of the characteristics of this school:
○ There were no sculptures on the temple walls.
○ The garbhagriha was connected to the mandapa both inside and externally.
○ The porticos featured ornate arched entrances known as torans.
○ A distinctive characteristic of this school is the presence of a step-tank known as Surya Kund beside the
temple.

6.2 Sculpture
● One new school was added i.e. Sarnath school of sculpture
● Noteworthy example is Sultanganj Buddha (7.5 ft in height) – (Near Bhagalpur in Bihar)
● Buddha images in Sarnath have plain transparent drapery covering both shoulders
● Halo around the head has very little ornamentation.
 39

Sarnath school of Art

● The Sarnath School of Sculpture arose around Sarnath.
● It was distinguished by its use of cream-colored sandstone and metal. This school's
sculptures were meticulously dressed and devoid of any type of nakedness.
● Many Buddha pictures in Sarnath have plain translucent drapery covering both shoulders
and a sparsely ornamented halo around the head, whereas the Mathura Buddha images
retain the folds of the drapery and the halo around the head is lavishly embellished.
● Sultanganj Buddha is a notable example (7.5ft in height).

7 Cave Architecture In India

7.1 Ajanta caves
● Ajanta is a well-known cave location in western India.
● It is situated in Maharashtra's Aurangabad district.
● There are 29 caverns in total, including four chaitya caves.
● It is home to the enormous Chaitya-Vihara, which is adorned with sculptures and paintings (murals).
● Ajanta is the only surviving example of first-century BCE and fifth-century BCE painting.
● Some of the vihara caverns are still under construction.
● Varahadeva, the Prime Minister of Vakataka king Harisena; Upendragupta, the native king of the region and Harisena's
feudatory; Buddhabadra, and Mathurasena were all prominent patrons of Ajanta.
● Figures in the paintings are hefty, reminiscent of western Indian sculpture.
● The major themes of paintings here are:
○ narrative scenes from Buddha’s life
○ illustrations of Jataka fables
● Cave excavation and painting took place at the same time, and the paintings were dated after the cave excavation.
● The paintings' various skin tones symbolise a multi-colored civilization.
● The paintings depict episodes from Buddha's life, as well as the Jatakas and Avadanas.
● The locations of events in the bush and events in the palace are distinguishable.
● In Ajanta, images of Padmapani and Vajrapani are quite prevalent.

Important Caves In Ajanta Caves

Cave 1: It has one of the finest examples of vihara architecture which emerged towards the end of the fifth century. The facade
is lavishly ornamented, its beauty enhanced by six richly carved columns on the verandah. The most famous painting in this cave
is that of Bodhisattva Padmapani.
Cave 16: Cave 16 of Ajanta has some of the most detailed and finest examples of wall-painting in the entire Ajanta series. An
inscription on the left end wall outside the verandah gives its history – a minister of the royal court had it excavated as a gift for
the “Best of aesthetics”. The masterpiece in this cave is a painting next to the front plaster of the left wall, famed as “The Dying
Princess”.
Cave 26: This cave is almost as crowded as Cave 19, but the chaitya-griha is larger in size. The most important figure here is of
the colossal reclining Buddha representing Parinirvana, in a grouping of kings and queens and monks. The same wall also
contains a relief of “The temptation of the Buddha”.
 40

7.2 Ellora caves

● Ellora is another notable cave site in Aurangabad.
● It is 100 kilometres from Ajanta.
● There are 32 caves in total, including Buddhist, Brahmanical, and Jain caves.
● It is a one-of-a-kind art historic landmark in the country since it contains monasteries
affiliated with all three religions that date from the fifth to eleventh centuries CE.
● There are 12 Buddhist caves with several Vajrayana Buddhist pictures.
● Buddhist caves are large, with single, double, and triple stories.
● Pillar patterns originate in Buddhist caves, and when they reach Jain caves (9th
century CE), they become exceedingly ornate, with strong protrusion of the decorative
elements.
● Shaivism is practised in the majority of Brahmanical caves.
● Vishnu's various avatars are also shown here.
● Kailas Leni/Kailasa Temple is the name given to Cave No.16.
●
● Ravana striving to move Mount Kailash with all his power is a masterpiece of Indian
sculpture.

Kailash Temple
● The Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga oversaw the beginning of the temple's construction (735-757 AD).
● Although construction on the temple continued for more than a century under numerous succeeding kings, the bulk of
the work was completed by King Dantidurga's
successor Krishna I (757–773).
● It is situated in Maharashtra's Ellora.
● Other Facts
○ Ellora has 34 caves, each of which is assigned
a number based on its age.
○ The twelve Buddhist cave temples are
located on the southern side.
○ The 17 Hindu caves are located in temples 13
to 29.
○ The five Jain caves are located in temples 30–
34.
○ One of the 34 cave temples and monasteries
that make up the Ellora Caves is the
Kailasanatha temple (Cave 16).
● Features
○ A pit was later dug around the temple on the
sloping side of the hill after it had initially been
carved from the mountain's peak.
○ In addition to the gopura, the main temple has Dravidian shikharas, a Nandi mandap, a sabha griha (hall),
vestibules, and the garbhagriha (sanctum) with the Shiv linga (towers). The gopuram and Nandi mandap
are connected by a bridge.
● Cultural Link
○ The temple is home to a number of elaborately carved panels that show scenes from the Ramayana, the
Mahabharata, and Krishna's adventures.
○ The temple grounds contain five separate shrines, three of which are devoted to the river goddesses
Saraswati, Yamuna, and Ganga.

7.3 Elephanta caves

● The Elephanta Caves, which are located on Elephanta Island in Mumbai, were once a Buddhist site that was eventually
taken over by the Shaivite faith.
● It's from the same era as Ellora.
● Bagh, near Indore, MP, is another significant cave location.
● The Bagh cave also has murals, including one depicting a group of dancers that resembles the North Indian Garba
Dance (originated in Gujarat).
 41

● The tradition of rock-cut caves continued in the Deccan, with examples finding not
only in Maharashtra but also in Karnataka, primarily at Badami and Aihole, and in
Andhra Pradesh in the Vijayawada area, and in Tamil Nadu, primarily at
Mahabalipuram, under the patronage of the Pallavas.
● When the country's early history was based on collective public patronage, the post-
sixth-century CE era was based more on political patronage.
● This is where Maheshmurti's sculpture (Shiva in the centre, Bhairava, and Uma on
either side) may be found.

7.4 Barabar Caves

The Barabar Caves include a cluster of 4 Caves.
● The four caves are Lomash Rishi cave, Sudama caves, Vishwakarma caves and
Karan Chaupar Caves.
● These caves are located around 40 km from Bodhgaya and the state of Bihar.
● Emperor Ashoka built the Barabar Caves for the benefit of Ajivika ascetics, and it is
hence known as the birthplace of the Ajivika sect.
● The cave is linked to all the major religions of the time including Buddhism,
Hinduism and Jainism.

7.5 Lomas Rishi Cave

● The Lomash Rishi Cave represents the earliest example of Rock cut architecture in
India.
● The cave belongs to the Maurya period and was carved out of a solid granite rock.
● They are located in the Nagarjuna Hills
● The caves are arc shaped and copy the contemporary timber architecture.

7.6 Bagh Caves

The Bagh caves date back to the 6 century AD.
● The caves were constructed on the banks of the Bagh river in Madhya Pradesh.
● The Caves are similar to the architecture of the Ajanta Caves.
● They are more earthly and human than those at Ajanta.
● These were executed in tempera style.
● These paintings are materialistic rather than spiritualistic.
● Unfortunately, their condition is now such that they can only be appreciated at the site.

7.7 Junagadh Caves

● Junagarh caves are located in the Junagadh region of Gujarat.
● These are Buddhist Caves.
● That is the presence of a 30-50 ft high fortress called the upper court in front of the
prayer hall.

7.8 Nashik Caves

● The Nashik Caves date back to the first century AD.
● The caves were constructed during the hinayana period however the Maharana
influence can be seen in the later period.
● The caves series of 24 Buddhist Caves.
● The caves are also referred to as Pandav Leni.
● There is a remarkable water management system which is evident from the presence of
a water tank covered out of a solid rock.
 42

7.9 Mandapeshwar Caves

● The Mandapeshwar cave is also referred to as the Mount Perir cave.
● The caves are located in Borivali near Mumbai and were built during the late Gupta
period.
● It was initially a Brahmanical cave which later got transformed into a Christian cave.
● Sculptures of Nataraja, Ardhanariswari can be seen in the ruins of the Caves.

7.10 Karle Caves

● Karle caves were built around the beginning of the Christian era.
● The cave pattern is similar to the art of the Bhaja Caves though they are much larger
and spectacular.
● The Chatiya Karle cave is dug deep into the rock and is located to the North of the
Bombay Pune Highway.
● The Great Chaitya (cave number 8) is India's largest Rock cut chaitya.

7.11 Kanheri Caves

● The Kanheri caves follow the design of the Karle Caves
● The caves are located near Mumbai.
● These are 109 caverns cut out of basalt Rock. The biggest caverns were the Chaityas but the majority of them being the
viharas.
● There is an influence of the Mahayana sect which is visible in the outside walls of the cave (since it depicts Buddha's
images).

7.12 Udayagiri Caves

● Udaygiri Caves are located in the Vidisha district of Madhya Pradesh.
● The caves were built under the patronage of Chandragupta II in the early 5th century A.D.
● One of their renounced sculptures here is the Varaha or the Vishnu's Bore incarnation.

7.13 Bhaja Caves

● The Bhaja Caves are the oldest Deccan Rock cut cave.
● The caves date back to the 2nd century BC.
● The Hinayana sect of Buddhism finds representation in the Bhaja cave.
● The Cave is famous for its decorative frontage.
● The inscriptions and the temple of the cave are preserved as a National monument.
● The cave has many octagonal pillars.

8 South Indian Art

8.1 Dravidian Architecture
● Dravidian architecture, also known as the South Indian temple style, is a Hindu temple architectural idiom that originated
in the southern Indian subcontinent, specifically in South India and Sri Lanka, and reached its pinnacle in the sixteenth
century.
● The bulk of current constructions are found in the southern Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil
Nadu, Telangana, etc, and are mentioned in the ancient book Vastu shastra as one of three forms of temple architecture.
8.1.1 Dravidian Architecture - Features
The following are characteristics of the Dravidian Style of Architecture:
● The temple is surrounded by a high boundary wall that separates it from the rest of the site.
● The high entrance doorway in the centre of the front wall is known as a gopuram.
 43

● The temple grounds were designed in the panchayatan style, with a main temple and four subsidiary shrines.
● Vimana: The main temple tower's form. It's a geometrically rising stepping pyramid (unlike the Nagara style Shikhara that
is curving).
● In Dravidian architecture, there is only one vimana on top of the main temple. In contrast to Nagara architecture, the
subsidiary shrines lack vimanas.
● The word shikhara is used in the Dravida style to describe the temple's crowning aspect (which is shaped like a stupika or
octagonal cupola).
● A vestibular tunnel known as antarala connected the assembly hall to the garbhagriha.
● The garbhagriha's entrance was adorned with sculptures of Dwarpal, Mithun, and Yakshas.
● The presence of a water tank inside the temple enclosure was a distinguishing feature of Dravidian architecture.
● Subsidiary shrines might be found both within and outside of the main tower.
● The garbhagriha is usually found in the lowest tower of a temple.
● With the passing of time and the growth of the temple population, the town's further boundary walls were built. The highest
gopuram would be found in the most recent building.
● There are seven concentric rectangular enclosure walls with gopurams at the Sriranganathar Temple in Srirangam,
Tiruchirappalli. The garbhagriha is located in the central tower.
● Kanchipuram, Thanjavur (Tanjore), Madurai, and Kumbakonam are famous temple towns in Tamil Nadu.
● From the eighth through the twelfth century, temples were not only religious centres, but also governmental centres with
enormous swaths of territory.
8.1.2 Classification of Dravidian Temples
There are basically five different shapes:
● Square, also known as kuta or caturasra;
● Rectangular, also known as shala or ayatasra;
● Elliptical, also known as gaja-prishta or elephant-backed;
● Circular, also known as vritta,
● Octagonal, also known as ashtasra.
8.1.3 Parts of Dravidian Temples
● The compound wall encloses the temple.
● The front wall's central entrance gateway is known as a gopuram.
● The main temple tower's shape is known as a vimana. It is a geometrically rising stepped pyramid (unlike the Nagara style
Shikhara that is curving).
● The crowning feature at the top of the temple in the Dravida style is referred to as a "shikhara" (which is shaped like a
stupika or octagonal cupola).
● There would be statues of ferocious dvarapalas guarding the temple at the garbhagriha's entrance.
● Usually, the complex contains a temple tank.
● It was possible to find subsidiary shrines either inside the main tower or next to it.

● The garbhagriha is usually found in the smallest tower of temples. It's the oldest as well. Additional boundary walls were
added as time went on and the temple-population town's increased. The tallest gopuram would typically be found on the
newest building.
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8.1.4 Famous Dravidian Temples in India

● Rajaraja Chola finished the majestic Shiva temple of Thanjavur, also known as the Rajarajeswara or Brihadeshwara
temple, in the Dravidian style in 1011 A.D. and it is the largest and tallest of all Indian temples.
● Gangaikondacholapuram temple was built by Rajendra I to commemorate his victory in the Gangetic delta.
● Annamalaiyar Temple in Tiruvannamalai, Tamil Nadu, Meenakshi Temple in Tamil Nadu, Airavatesvara Temple in
Tamil Nadu, and so on are some well-known Dravidian temples in the south.
8.1.5 Dravidian Architecture - Contribution of Pallavas
Under the Pallava ruler Mahendravarman, temple architecture in South India began. The temples built under the Pallava dynasty
reflected the various kings' artistic preferences and may be divided into four stages chronologically:

8.1.5.1 Mahendra Group

● The initial stage of the Pallava temple architecture was the Mahendra Group.
● The temples erected under Mahendravarman's reign were mostly rock-cut structures.
● Unlike the Nagara style, where the mandapas primarily referred to the assembly hall, the temples under him were
referred to as mandapas.

8.1.5.2 Narasimha Group

● The Narasimha Group was the second stage in the evolution of South Indian temple architecture.
● Intricate sculptures were carved within the rock-cut temples.
● The mandapas were now separated into different rathas under Narasimhavarman.
● The largest was known as the Dharmaraja ratha, while the smallest was known as the Draupadi ratha.
● A successor of the Dharmaraja ratha is the design of a temple in the Dravidian style of architecture.

8.1.5.3 Rajasimha Group

● Rajasimha was in charge of the temple's third stage of construction.
● Under his leadership, actual structure temples began to take the place of rock-cut temples.
● Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram, Kailashnath Temple in Kanchipuram, and others are examples.

8.1.5.4 Nandivarman Group

● During the Pallava period, the Nandivarman Group was the fourth stage of temple development.
● The temples that were constructed were lesser in size.
● The characteristics were virtually identical to those seen in temples built in the Dravidian style.

Shore Temple – Mahabalipuram

● During the time of Pallava monarch
Narasimhavarman II, also known as Rajasimha
(700–728 AD), the temple was constructed.
● It has three shrines: an east-facing Shiva shrine, a
west-facing Shiva shrine, and a Vishnu in
Anantashayana position in the centre.
● It's unusual to have three primary shrines. It's likely
that the shrines were not all constructed at the same
time and were later added.
● A water reservoir and a gopuram have been
discovered.
● Along the temple's walls are statues of Nandi the bull
(Shiva's mount).
● There are also a number of carvings.

8.1.6 Dravidian Architecture - Contribution of Cholas

● The Cholas mastered the Pallava-inherited Dravidian temple style. Moving away from the Pallavas' early cave
temples, the building style got increasingly ornate throughout this period.
● Stone became the most common material utilised in the construction of temples.
● Gopurams became more prevalent during this time. Carvings of various Puranas were used to embellish them.
● During the Chola dynasty, the Vimanas grew in prominence. The temple tower of Brihadeshwara temple, for example, is
66 metres tall.
● In the construction of the temple, more attention was placed on the usage of sculptures.
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Brihadiswara Temple – Tanjore

● Rajarajeswara Temple is a Shiva temple built around the
year 1011 AD by Rajaraja Chola.
● This Chola temple is larger than any Pallava, Chalukya, or
Pandya construction before it.
● More than 100 Chola temples have been preserved. During
the Chola period, numerous temples were built.
● Its pyramidal multi-story vimana is about 70 metres tall.
● A massive shikhara stands atop the vimana.
● The shikhara is an octagonal stupika with a dome form. It
features two big gopuras with intricate carvings. There are
big Nandi figures on the shikhara.
● The kalasha on the shikhara's summit is 3 metres and 8
centimetres tall.
● The vimana is covered in hundreds of plaster figurines. Many
of these might have been added later in the Maratha era.
● Shiva's principal deity is shown as a massive lingam in a two-story shrine.

8.2 Chola Sculpture

● Stone and metal sculptures abound in Chola temples. They depict Chola period
socio-religious ideas. The Nataraja sculpture is famous not only for its beauty, but also
for its spiritual significance.
● In Vaishnava temples, there is a Vishnu idol. In sculptural representations of Alwars,
a spiritual calmness is depicted. The Cholas used sculptures to decorate the walls,
pillars, and roofs.
● The importance of sculpture is palpable in Chola works. The decorative sculptures are
still in place.
● During the Chola period, realism dominated sculpture. Scenes from the Ramayanam
Mahabharatham, Puranas, and the lives of the 63 Nayanmars are sculpted in
narrative panels on temple walls.

8.3 Other Schools of Art

8.3.1 Vesara school of architecture
Vesara style of architecture combines both Nagara and Dravidian elements resulting in a hybridised style. Vesara is said to be
derived from the Sanskrit word vishra, which means "an area to walk for a long time." It was conceptualised in the mid-seventh
century A.D. by the later Chalukya rulers.

8.3.1.1 Vesara Style of Architecture - Features

● The Chalukyan temple exhibits indigenous qualities in terms of the temple walls and pillar ornamentation.
● The Chalukyan builders altered the Dravida towers by reducing the height of each storey and arranging them in declining
order of height from base to top, with a great deal of embellishment on each floor.
● Nagara Tower Transformation: Instead of an inclined storey, the vertical shape of the tower has been changed.
● Mantapa and Pillars are two unique elements of Chalukya temples:
○ Mantapa: The mantapa features two types of roofs: domical ceilings (which have a dome-like appearance and
are supported by four pillars) and square ceilings (these are vigorously ornamented with mythological pictures).
○ Pillars: the Chalukya temples' small ornamental pillars have their unique aesthetic significance.
● Some famous temples built in this style are:
○ Kalleshwara temple, Kukkanur;
○ Ramalingeswara temple, Gudur;
○ Mahadeva temple, Ittagi;
○ Kasivisvesvara temple, Lakkundi (and several other temples at Lakkundi);
○ Brahmadeva temple, Savadi – notable for being fully stellate;
○ Mallikarjuna temple, Sudi.

8.3.1.2 Vesara Style of Architecture - Influence of Nagara and Dravidian Styles

● The shrine plan, subsidiary shrine, and panchayatan style are akin to those of the Nagara School.
● The layout of the vestibule connecting the sanctum and the mantapa is similar to that of Orissan temples.
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● The majority of temple pillars in the Karnataka area resemble the sekhari and bhumija pillars seen in northern India.
● The stepped diamond plan, which may be seen in Chalukya temples, is a type of design arrangement.
● Nagara articulation projecting stepping diamond or stellate plan is seen in the majority of temples in Kalyani.
● During the early half of the Chalukya period, the Dravida influence is most obvious in the vimana of Chalukya temples.
● In Chalukya temples, miniature ornamental towers and wall ornamentation exhibit a mix of Nagara and Dravida styles.
8.3.2 Architecture of Chalukyas
● Their architecture was a combination of Nagara and Dravidian influences.
● Aihole, Badami, and Pattadakal all have temples erected during this period.
● There is no covered ambulatory walkway in temples erected during their historical period.
● The Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal, designed in the style of the Kailashnath temple, is the crown gem of Chalukyan
architecture.
● The Rameshwaram temple at Ellora, which was established in the seventh century, was also constructed during the
Chalukyan period.
● Other notable structures created during this time period are the Lad Khan temple and the Durga temple at Aihole.

Temples during reign of Chalukyas:

Temple Description

Ravana Phadi Cave, Aihole, ● It is an example of the early Chalukya style, which is distinguished by its
Karnataka distinctive sculptural style.
● Nataraja, one of the most important sculptures at the site, is surrounded by a
large depiction of saptamatrikas: three to Shiva's left and four to his right.

Lad Khan temple, Aihole, ● One of the oldest Hindu temples, it is dedicated to Shiva.
Karnataka
● The Chalukya Dynasty's Kings built it in the 5th century.
● It appears to be inspired by the wooden-roofed temples of the hills, except that it
is made of stone.
● The temple is named after a man named Lad Khan, who used to live in this
temple for a short time.

Durga Temple, Aihole, Karnataka ● The temple was constructed between the seventh and eighth centuries.
● The temple's architecture is predominantly Dravida, with Nagara influences in
some areas.
● The temple is regarded as a one-of-a-kind and magnificent Chalukya temple.

Temples at Pattadakal, Karnataka
● Pattadakkal is a UNESCO World Heritage Site with ten temples, including a Jain
temple.
● It is possible to see a fusion of various architectural styles here.
● Four of the ten temples are built in the Dravida style, four in the Nagara style, and
one in the Jain style, with the Papanatha Temple built in a fusion of the two
styles.
● Rashtrakutas constructed the Jain temple (Jain Narayana temple) in the ninth
century.
● Loka Mahadevi, the Queen of the Chalukya king Vikramaditya II, built the
Virupaksha temple in Pattadakal, also known as Sri-Lokeswar-Maha-Sila-Prasad
(733-44).
● It was most likely constructed around the year 740 CE to commemorate her
husband's victory over the Pallavas of Kanchipuram.
● On plan and elevation, it resembles the Kailashnath temple in Kanchipuram.
● It represents the Dravida architecture at its most developed and perfect stage.
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8.3.3 Architecture of Rashtrakuta

● The Rashtrakutas seized control of the Deccan around 750 CE from the
early western Chalukyas.
● The majority of their temples were built in the Chalukyan style.
● The Kailashnath temple at Ellora, completed during Krishna II's reign, is
the empire's characteristic architectural style.
● Rashtrakutas also built the Jain temple in Pattadakal.
● Another temple erected during this time period is the Navalinga Temples
near Kukkanur.
8.3.4 Hoysalas Art
● It was developed in the period from 1050-1300 AD.
● Multiple shrines are arranged in the shape of an intricately constructed
star around a central pillared chamber in this temple.
● Arrangements like these might be found in temples in Belur, Halebid, Sringeri, Somnathpur, and other places during the
period.
● Another noteworthy temple erected during this time is the Hoysaleswara temple, which is devoted to Lord Shiva.
○ Vishnuvardhan, the Hoyasala king, built it in dark schist stone in 1150.
○ It includes a large hall for the mandapa to accommodate music and dance.
○ No two elephants are in the same position on the temple's bottom frieze, which depicts a continuous
procession of hundreds of elephants with their mahouts.

Hoysaleswara Temple
8.3.5 Vijayanagara School
8.3.5.1 Early Vijayanagara architectural styles
● The monument from the fourteenth century exhibits the first phase of Vijayanagara architecture.
● The Deccani style of architecture, which grew in popularity during the rule of the Chalukyas of Badami/Vatapi, had a
significant influence on monuments during this period. This phase's temples are plain and lack a lot of ornamentation.
● The best example is the Vidyashankar temple and Jaina Shrine in Hampi.

8.3.5.2 Provida Style

● A typical Vijayanagara architectural style known as the Provida style first appeared in the 15th century.
● It was a more advanced or evolved version of Dravidian or Chola architecture.
● The temple's principal Goddess moved into a brand-new building called Amman Shrine.
● In the temple complex, a new building called the "Kalyanam Mandapa" (Marriage Hall) was constructed for the
ceremonial union of the chief God and Goddess.
● At the beginning of the Maha Navami festival images of the chief God & Goddess were carried to Kalyana Mandapa with
great fanfare (Celebration).
○ A 1000 pillared hall known as “Vasanta Mandapa '' was also built in the temple complex. It was used for the
gathering of the devotees.
● This hall's pillars feature an illustration of a charging horse (attacking/running). They are referred to as Yali Stamba.
● The massive entrances to the temple complex grew. They are referred to as Raya Gopuram.
● The Vijayanagar era's greater prosperity led to these changes in architecture and the creation of new temple rituals.
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● For instance, King Devaraya I built the Hazara Rama temple in Hampi (the modern name for Vijayanagar), as well as
the Vitthala temple, Hazara Rama Swami Temple, and Virupaksha Temple in Hampi.

9 Architecture in Medieval India

● The seizure of Delhi by Islamic rulers led to many changes in the Architecture in Medieval India. However, certain flavours
of the local architectural traditions were also retained by the local architects.
● As a result, we see a fusion of Persian and Indian styles in the architecture of the following period.
● As a result, it is referred to as Indo-Islamic architecture or Indo-Saracenic architecture.

9.1 Indo-Islamic architecture

● The end of the 12th century saw the emergence of Muslim rule in India, which brought together two major architectural
traditions, that is Indian architecture together with Muslim architecture which gave rise to Indo-Islamic Architecture. This
eventually resulted in a larger synthesis and integration of the greatest aspects of both traditions, resulting in some of the
most stunning Indo-Islamic structures on the Indian subcontinent.

9.1.1 Indo-Islamic Architecture - Features

● With the introduction of arches and domes, the Arcuate style of architecture replaced the Trabeate style.
● Minars were built around mosques and mausoleums by Islamic monarchs.
● During building, the mortar was used as a cementing agent.
● During the architectural process, no human or animal figures were used.
● In contrast to prior structures, when sculptures were employed, calligraphy grew increasingly popular.
● Indo-Islamic architecture added spaciousness, massiveness, and breadth.
● Geometry was employed as a decorative motif in architecture. The Arabesque style, which employed geometrical vegetal
embellishment, gained popularity.
○ Arabesque was defined by the use of geometrical vegetal ornamentation and was distinguished by a continuous
stem that split regularly, producing a series of counterpoised, leafy, secondary stems. In turn, the secondary
stems split or returned to merge with the main stem, forming a decorative pattern.

Arabesque Design
● Intricate "jaali" art adorned the structures, symbolising the value of light in Islamic traditions.

Jaali Work
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● Water's importance was also evident in the building. It was primarily employed for aesthetic, cooling, and religious
reasons.
● The charbagh method, which divides a garden into four halves, the Pietra dura type of inlay of stones and gems on
stone walls, and the foreshortening process, in which the inscriptions appear to be closer than they really are.

Charbagh Style
9.1.2 Indo-Islamic Architecture - Types of Buildings
9.1.2.1 Mosques
● Mosques are religious gathering places where men congregate to worship. They are also known as "masjids" and are
used for prostration.
● They are vast columned halls known as hypostyle halls, and Madrasas are also part of the same edifice in certain
mosques.
● The "mihrab" was an essential feature of the mosque. It is the wall niche that denotes the direction of Mecca, to which all
Muslims pray.
● The "minaret," a tower adjacent to or related to the mosque from which the call to prayer is broadcast, is the mosque's
most noticeable feature.
● The "dome," also known as "qubba" in Muslim architecture, is the most important (but inessential) aspect of Islamic
architecture and a component of the mosque.
● In mosques, calligraphy is also the most obvious ornamental feature.

9.1.2.2 Forts
● Forts were palaces; a grander and more complete kind of lodging that formed a city inside a city.
● They were constructed for the sake of defence, to keep the kings and their subjects safe from their foes.
● In the building of the forts, we can also observe the effects of distinct regional architecture from Gujarat and Punjab.

9.1.2.3 Tombs
● The most remarkable and beautiful edifice erected under the Islamic reign in India was Mumtaz Mahal's mausoleum, the
Taj Mahal, which is an interconnected complex of several structures.
● A harmonious and balanced design is implied by white domed marble, spacious gardens, ponds with fountains reflecting
the light, scenery, and four towering standing minarets around the edifice.
● This exemplifies the Indo-Islamic architectural style's magnificence. It is a great example of Mughal building art's
architectural achievement.

9.2 Architecture during Medieval times

9.2.1 Imperial Style
● It is also known as the early Indo-Islamic style.
● The Imperial style of architecture flourished under the various dynasties that ruled from 1191 to 1557 A.D.
● Each ruler added his own flavour, but the overall style remained consistent.
● Existing structures were turned into mosques using remains from Hindu temples.
● The palaces were ornately designed, with arches and domes adorning them.
● The usage of floral designs and other Hindu symbols was widespread.
● The Imperial style of Architecture includes architecture from the following dynasties - Mameluke style (slave dynasty),
Khilji dynasty style, Tuglaq Dynasty style, Lodi Dynasty style.
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9.2.2 Slave Dynasty

● The Slave dynasty, also known as the Ilbari dynasty, ruled from 1206 until 1290 AD. The Mameluke style of
architecture became popular during this time period.
● The majority of the structures built during this time period were remodelled of existing Hindu temples.
● They also began the construction of a number of structures, the most famous of which is the Qutub Minar.
○ Only the ground level was built by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, who launched the five-story tower.
○ Iltutmish built the following three stories, while Feroze Shah Tughlaq completed the fifth.
● Other examples are the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, located on the grounds of the Qutub Minar, and the Arhai-din-ka-
Jhopra in Ajmer.

Qutub Minar
9.2.3 Khilji Dynasty
● From 1290 until 1320 AD, the Khilji Dynasty ruled and developed the Seljuk architectural style.
● The usage of red sandstone was prevalent in this period's structures.
● In addition, the dominance of the Arcuate style began at this time.
● Mortar became widely employed as a cementing ingredient in all types of structures.
● Ala-ud-din Khilji's Alai Darwaza, Siri Fort, etc are examples.

Alai Darwaza
9.2.4 Tughlaq Dynasty
● During the Delhi Sultanate, the Tughlaq Dynasty was an era of architectural catastrophe.
● However, certain building projects involving grey sandstone were still carried out.
● During this time, the emphasis was on the structure's strength rather than adornment, hence there was less emphasis on
decoration. The entrances were designed using both arch and lintel methods.
● Examples: Cities of Tughlaqabad, Jahanpanah, and Firozabad
9.2.5 Lodi Dynasty
● Architecture continued to take a back place under the Lodi dynasty.
● During this time, only tombs were commissioned.
● However, the emergence of double domes was a significant aspect of architecture at this time. It was made up of a
hollow dome that was nested inside the upper dome.
● The usage of multiple domes was done for two reasons:
○ to strengthen the structure and
○ to reduce the dome's interior height.
● During this period, graves were harsh and barren, with no costly adornment. They were erected in the shape of an
octagon, with a diameter of around 15 metres.
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● A sloping verandah provided support.

● Examples include - Sikandar Lodi founded the Lodi Gardens and the city of Agra.

Double Dome Style

9.3 Provincial Style of Architecture

● They constructed structures using locally accessible materials, blending regional designs with traditional Muslim elements
like domes, arches, minarets, and mihrabs, in this style of architecture, which lasted for two hundred and fifty years.
● They built on the ruins of Hindu and Jain temples at first, then developed their own architectural style.
9.3.1 Provincial Schools of Architecture
9.3.1.1 Bengal School of Architecture (1203–1573 AD)
● It was distinguished by its use of bricks and black marble.
● During this time, mosques continued to employ sloping 'Bangla roofs,' which had previously been used for temples.
● Mosques such as Qadam Rasul Mosque in Gour and Adina Mosque in Pandua are examples.

Qadam Rasul Mosque, West Bengal

9.3.1.2 Jaunpur School (1394–1479 AD)

● Under the patronage of the Sharqi rulers, Jaunpur grew into a thriving centre of art and culture.
● This form of architecture became known as the Sharqi style, and like the Pathan style, it did not employ minars.
● The employment of strong and forceful lettering painted on gigantic screens in the centre and side bays of the prayer hall
is a distinguishing characteristic of the structures here.
● For instance, the Atala Mosque in Jaunpur is an example.

Atala Mosque in Jaunpur

9.3.1.3 Malwa School (1405-1569 AD)

● The Malwa plateau's towns of Dhar and Mandu were important architectural centres.
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● The usage of various colored stones and marbles was the most conspicuous element of the structures here.
● The structures had big windows, possibly as a consequence of European influence, and were embellished with stylized
arches and pillars.
● Even the staircases were employed to improve the building's appearance.
● Minars, on the other hand, were not employed in this school of construction.
● Because of the following characteristics, the Malwa School of Architecture, also known as the Pathan School of
Architecture, is one of the greatest examples of environmental adaptation of the period.
● The structures and rooms were well aired due to the use of big windows, and the pavilions were softly arched, making
them airy and allowing the buildings to stay cool throughout the summer.
● Man-made reservoirs known as 'baulis' were built.
● Materials that were readily available in the area were utilised.
● The introduction of the batter system by the Tughlaqs improved the situation.
● Example: Rani Roopmati Pavilion, Jahaz Mahal, Ashrafi Mahal, etc.

Hindola Mahal, Mandu

9.3.1.4 Bijapur School (1490-1656 AD)

● The Bijapur Style or Deccan style of architecture developed under the patronage of Adil Shah.
● He built a variety of mosques, tombs, and palaces that were notable for their three-arched facades, bulbous domes, and
practically spherical shapes with a thin neck.
● Cornices were also introduced by him.
● The handling of the Bijapur school's ceilings, which were seemingly unsupported, was a unique aspect.
● The structures were reinforced with iron clamps and a thick plaster of mortar. The walls were adorned with intricate
sculptures.
● For instance, Gol Gumbaj (Adil Shah's tomb) at Bijapur or Vijayapura.

Gol Gumbaj, Bijapur

10 Mughal Architecture
● In northern India, the Mughal period saw a remarkable rebirth of Islamic architecture.
● Persian, Indian, and diverse regional styles were combined under the patronage of the Mughal emperors to produce
works of exceptional beauty and finesse.
● It grew so popular, particularly in north India, that it was reflected in colonial architecture in the Indo-Saracenic style.
 53

10.1 Mughal Architecture - Features

● It was built in a mix of Indian, Persian, and Turkish architectural styles.
● It included various types of structures, including impressive gates (entrances), forts, mausoleums, palaces, mosques,
sarais, and so on.
● The most common building materials were red sandstone and white marble.
● Specialty - Charbagh gardens with noticeable bulbous domes, thin turrets at corners, large entrances, magnificent
calligraphy, arabesque, and geometric patterns on pillars and walls, and royal halls supported on pillars.
● The arches, chhatri, and other forms of domes were extremely popular in Indo-Islamic architecture, which was further
developed by the Mughals.

10.2 Mughal Architecture - Timeline

10.2.1 Babur
Babur built mosques at Panipat and Rohilkhand, both of which were completed in 1526 AD. His rule, however, was much too brief
to inspire any new style or approach.

Kabuli Bagh Mosque, Panipat

10.2.2 Humayun
● Humayun's reign was characterised by a persistent fight for dominance with Sher Shah Suri.
● As a result, he was unable to devote much time to art and architecture. He oversaw the construction of Dinpanah but was
unable to complete it.
● The Persian style gained popularity in the building during this time period.
10.2.3 Sher Shah
● In Delhi, he constructed the Qila-e-Quhunah (Old Fort Mosque).
● To commemorate his rule, he erected the famed Rohtas Fort in Pakistan and the Sher Shah Suri Masjid in Patna, both
in Afghan architecture.
● His reign marks the shift from the Lodi to the Mughal architectural styles.
● He also reconstructed and extended an existing Mauryan roadway, renaming it Sadak-e-Azam, which subsequently
became known as Grand Trunk Road.
● He made certain that there were enough sarais and trees for travellers.
● Sher Shah Suri's tomb was erected at Sasaram, where he was born. It's composed of red sandstone and sits in the
middle of a lake.
● Sher Shah's works carried on the traditions of the Delhi Sultanate period.

Sher Shah Suri Masjid, Patna

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10.2.4 Akbar
● The golden age of Delhi, as well as the Mughal Architecture, began in 1556 when Akbar came to the throne of Delhi.
● The usage of red sandstone was a prominent aspect of the structures throughout Akbar's reign.
● He also popularised the term "Tudor arch" (four centered arch).

The following are some of the most notable construction projects done during Akbar's reign:

10.2.4.1 Agra Fort

● It is a fortification in Agra.
● It was one of the earliest structures to be built during Akbar's rule.
● The majority of the constructions inside the fort, however, were built during Shah Jahan's reign. The following are some of
the notable structures in the area:
○ Moti Masjid by Shah Jahan.
○ Diwan-i-aam (Hall of Public Audience) and Diwan-i-khas (Hall of Private Audience) by Shah Jahan.
○ The Jahangiri Mahal.
○ Sheesh Mahal (Turkish Bath).

Agra Fort

10.2.4.2 Fatehpur Sikri

● The construction of a new capital city by Akbar at Fatehpur Sikri is one of the highlights of Indo-Islamic architecture.
● The structures here exhibit a unique combination of Hindu and Persian architecture, and have been described as a
"frozen moment in history."
● Buland Darwaza, a 40-metre red sandstone edifice erected in 1576 AD to celebrate Akbar's victory over Gujarat, is one of
the city's most notable structures. It is the world's tallest doorway.
● The Tomb of Salim Chishti was erected in 1581 AD. It contains lovely white marble Jali craftsmanship, arabesque
designs on the walls, as well as inscriptions of Quranic texts.
● Buland Darwaza and Jama Masjid are also part of the imperial complex. In 1606 AD, Jahangir decorated it more.

10.2.4.3 Buland Darwaza

● The Panch Mahal is a five-storey edifice built of columns that is based on the Persian badgir idea (wind-catcher).
● The interiors of Jodha Bai's Palace, also known as Mariam-uz-Zamani's Palace (Mary of the Age), are decorated with
Hindu bell and floral themes.
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● Ibadat Khana: This is where Akbar would meet with religious authorities to address issues.
● Pachisi Court, where Akbar is claimed to have played chess in the courtyard.
● The Hiran Minar was named after Akbar's favourite elephant, Hiran. It also acted as a traveller's lighthouse. It is a one-of-
a-kind design, with tusk-like spikes on the external wall.
● In Vrindavan, Akbar also constructed a Govind Dev shrine.
10.2.5 Jahangir
● Architecture took a back seat during Jahangir's reign, as he focused more on paintings and other types of art.
● He did, however, supervise the construction of several notable monuments, such as Akbar's Tomb in Sikandra.
● During his rule, he also built a number of gardens, including the Shalimar Bagh in Kashmir and in Lahore; he also
constructed the Moti Masjid.
● During Jahangir's reign, his wife Noor Jahan also conducted some large construction projects, one of which being the
Tomb of Itmad-ud-daulah (Noor Jahan's father).
● During this time, white marble began to replace the previously utilised red sandstone as the primary construction
material.
● Itmad-ud-daulah's tomb was the first Mughal structure composed entirely of white marble.
● It also has some of the best masterpieces in pietra dura.
● Jahangir's tomb was built at Lahore by his son Shah Jahan.
10.2.6 Shah Jahan
● Mughal architecture reached its pinnacle under Shah Jahan. The following are some of his most important works:
● The Taj Mahal is the best example of Mughal architecture, displaying the entire range of wealth and majesty.
● It was built in honour of his wife, Arjumand Banu Begum, also known as Mumtaz Mahal.
● The employment of calligraphy, pietra-dura works, foreshortening method, Charbagh style gardens, and the usage
of water in the premises for ornamentation were all hallmarks of Mughal architecture. Apart from that, the Taj Mahal has
several distinctive features:
○ The jaali work in Taj Mahal is lace-like and incredibly exquisite;
○ The marble carvings were low relief.
● Apart from the Taj Mahal, Shah Jahan built a number of other monuments, gardens, and structures, including the Red Fort
in Delhi, the Jama Masjid in Delhi, and the Shalimar Bagh in Lahore.
● Aside from large-scale structures, one of his outstanding works was the Peacock Throne, which is considered one of the
finest examples of metalwork during this time period.

Taj Mahal
10.2.7 Aurangzeb
● Mughal architecture deteriorated under Aurangazeb's reign. He did not take an active interest in the pursuit of art and
architecture since he was puritanical.
● Aurangzeb, on the other hand, commissioned the construction of Bibi-ka-Maqbara in honour of his wife, Begum Rabia-
ud-Daurani. It is located in Aurangabad and is said to be a poor copy of the Taj Mahal.
 56

Bibi-ka-Maqbara, Aurangabad

10.3 Other styles of architecture

10.3.1 Rajput Style
● The Rajput construction was influenced by Mughal style of the time, but they were distinct in terms of scale and breadth.
● They were primarily responsible for the construction of grandiose palaces and forts.
● The cornices were made in the shape of an arch so that the shadow took the shape of a bow.

Hawa Mahal, Jaipur

10.3.2 Sikh Style
● The Sikh architectural style arose in the modern-day Punjab area.
● It was highly influenced by Mughal and Rajput architectural styles.
● The following are some of the characteristics of a Sikh style:
○ Using many Chhatris (kiosks) on the roof of the building.
○ The structures featured fluted domes that were typically coated with brass and copper panels for decoration
and support.
○ The arches were ornamented with a variety of foliations.
● Shri Harmandir Sahib, also known as the Golden Temple, was built during the 16th and 17th centuries.
 57

Harminder Sahib, Amritsar

11 Modern Architecture
● Modern Indian architecture was inspired by the Europeans who brought with them a plethora of architectural styles, which
can be observed in the various structures they built.
● The arrival of European colonists coincided with the collapse of the Mughal empire, igniting a power war between the
Portuguese, French, Dutch, Danish, and British that lasted until 1947.

11.1 Portuguese Influence

● The Portuguese carried the Iberian architectural style with them.
● They began by constructing trading terminals and warehouses along the coasts, which were subsequently transformed
into fortified cities.
● They also imported the notion of 'patio homes' and the 'Baroque style,' which were established in Europe in the late 16th
century to symbolise the Church's strength.
● To produce a dramatic impact, it featured an extensive, complex, and theatrical design. It necessitated the employment of
clashing colours.
● Some of the prominent construction of this period includes:
○ The Sé Cathedral in Goa, which was built in 1619 AD, is one of the most prominent structures. It was
constructed in the late-Gothic Portuguese style. It contains a big bell that is known as the "Golden Bell."
● Basilica of Bom Jesus, Goa is a UNESCO World Heritage Site that was finished in 1604 AD in the Baroque style. It
houses the relics of St. Francis Xavier.
● Mumbai's Castella de Aguada.
● St. Paul's Church in Diu was finished in 1610 AD and is built in the Baroque style.
● On the shore of Diu island, Diu Fort was erected in 1535 AD. There is a lighthouse on the fort's walls, as well as canons.
Within the fort complex, there are three churches: St. Thomas Church, St. Paul's Church, and the Church of St.
Francis of Assisi.
● Talaulim's St. Anne's Church (Goa) was created in the Baroque style and completed in 1695 AD.

Sé Cathedral, Goa

11.2 French Influence

● The French brought with them the notion of urban city planning.
 58

● The Cartesian grid layouts and scientific architectural designs were used to build the French colonies of Puducherry
and Chandernagore (now Chandannagar, West Bengal).
● As a display of authority, they constructed massive structures.
● They also established the notion of faceless architecture, which is characterised by a basic facade devoid of
embellishment or design, similar to modern structures.
● The coastal cities of Mahe (Kerala), Karaikal (Tamil Nadu), and Yanam were also established by the French (Andhra
Pradesh).
● Puducherry's Sacred Heart Church and Chandannagar's Sacred Heart Church are two examples.

Sacred Heart Church, Puducherry

11.3 British Influence

● The Gothic style of building was introduced by the British.
● It fused with Indian architecture to create the Indo-Gothic architectural style.
● After 1911, a new architectural style called Neo-Roman architecture evolved.
11.3.1 Indo-Gothic Style
● It is also known as the Victorian style; it was a unique combination of Indian, Persian, and Gothic architectural
elements.
● The following are some of the characteristics of the Indo-Gothic style:
○ The structures were extraordinarily huge and intricately constructed.
○ The arches were pointed, unlike the curved arches of the Indo-Islamic era.
○ One of the distinguishing elements of the Victorian design was the use of wide windows.
○ It followed sophisticated structural engineering requirements in Britain and featured a crucified ground design.
○ Steel, iron, and poured concrete became popular.
● Victoria Memorial in Kolkata, Gateway of India in Mumbai, and so on are some examples.

Victoria Memorial, Kolkata

 59

11.3.2 Neo-Roman Design

● Following World War I, the British Raj built in the Neo-Roman or Neo-Classical styles.
● The best examples of this style were the buildings of New Delhi, designed by Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker.
○ It is commonly referred to as the "Rome of Hindustan."
● This phase contains the following characteristics:
○ The structures were unremarkable and without any distinguishing traits.
○ It was a mash-up of all architectural styles, resulting in a style that was crowded and limited the area for
creative expression.
○ Because of the composite character of the buildings, simplicity, modernism, and usability were severely
harmed.
○ A special emphasis was placed on circular structures.
○ The usage of eastern themes to realise western architectural styles was overdone.
○ During this time, the notion of an upturned dome was developed, as seen on the top of the Supreme Court and
Rashtrapati Bhavan.

Supreme Court

11.4 Difference Between Iberian and Gothic Architecture

Basis Iberian Architecture Gothic Architecture

Material Used The Portuguese employed brick as their The most common materials utilised
primary building material. Roofs and were red sandstone and coarse
stairwells were made of wood. limestone.

Structural The Portuguese maintained their western The Indo-Gothic style of architecture
Variations customs and did not make any structural arose from the British adoption of Indian
changes. elements and forms.

12 Architecture in the Post-Independence Era

● Following 1947, two architectural schools emerged: Revivalist and Modernist.
● Both schools, however, were unable to shake the colonial hangover. As a result, the quality of India's architectural
traditions has deteriorated.
● For example, the Punjab government commissioned a French architect, Le Corbusier, to construct Chandigarh.

12.1 Laurie Baker

● Laurie Baker, sometimes known as the "Architect of the Poor," was the driving force behind Kerala's revolutionary mass
housing design.
 60

● He was nominated for the Pritzker Prize, also known as the Nobel Prize for Architecture, in 2006.
● His architectural style includes the following features:
○ Construction of environmentally friendly buildings using locally available materials.
○ Introduction of the concept of filler slab construction to reduce steel and cement consumption.
○ Emphasis on ventilation and thermal comfort arrangements.
○ He is renowned as "Indian Architecture's Conscience Keeper" and "Gandhi of Indian Architecture."

Laurie Baker and his architecture

UPSC Previous Year Questions

1. How will you explain the medieval Indian temple sculptures that represent the social life of those days? (2022)
2. The rock-cut architecture represents one of the most important sources of our knowledge of early Indian art and history.
Discuss. (2020)
3. Early Buddhist Stupa-art, while depicting folk motifs and narratives successfully expounds Buddhist ideals. Elucidate.
(2016)
4. Chola architecture represents a high watermark in the evolution of temple architecture. Discuss. (2013)
 61

Dance and Music of India

13 Dances of India 62
13.1 Historical Background 62
13.2 Classical dances of India 63
13.3 Folk dances of India 72
14 Music of India 73
14.1 Historical background 73
14.2 Fundamental elements of Indian classical music 73
14.3 Indian Classical Music 74
14.4 Regional Music 77
15 Musical Instruments 80
15.1 Historical background 80
15.2 Instruments 81
 62

13 Dances of India
13.1 Historical Background
● Dance in India has a rich and vital tradition dating back to ancient times.
Excavations, inscriptions, chronicles, genealogies of kings and artists, literary
sources, sculpture and painting of different periods provide extensive evidence
on dance.
● In literature, the first references come from the Vedas where dance and music
have their roots.
○ A more consistent history of dance can be reconstructed from the
epics, the several Puranas and the rich body of dramatic and poetic
literature known as the nataka and the kavya in Sanskrit.
● A related development was the evolution of classical Sanskrit drama which was
an amalgam of the spoken word, gestures and mime, choreography, stylised
movement and music.
○ From the 12th century to the 19th century there were many regional
forms called the musical play or sangeet-nataka. Contemporary
classical dance forms are known to have evolved out of these musical
plays.
● Excavations have brought to light a bronze statue from Mohenjodaro and a
broken torso from Harappa (dating back to 2500-1500 B.C.E.) These are
suggestive of dance poses. The latter has been identified as the precursor of
the Nataraja pose commonly identified with dancing Shiva.

Natyashastra
● The earliest treatise on dance available to us is Bharat Muni's Natyashastra, the source book of the art of drama, dance
and music.
○ It is generally accepted that the date of the work is between the 2nd century B.C.E- 2nd century C.E.
○ The Natyashastra is also known as the fifth veda.
● According to the author, he has evolved this veda by taking words from the Rigveda, music from the Samaveda,
gestures from the Yajurveda and emotions from the Atharvaveda.
○ There is also a legend that Brahma himself wrote the Natyaveda, which has over 36,000 verses.
● In terms of the classical tradition formulated in the Natyashastra, dance and music are an inextricable part of drama.
○ The art of natya carries in it all these constituents and the actor is himself the dancer and the singer, the performer
combined all the three functions.

● With the passage of time the status of an independent and specialised art, marked the beginning of the 'art' dance in India.
● As per the ancient treatises, dance is considered as having three aspects: natya, nritya and nritta.
○ Natya highlights the dramatic element and most dance forms do not give emphasis to this aspect today with the
exception of dance-drama forms like Kathakali.
○ Nritya is essentially expressional, performed specifically to convey the meaning of a theme or idea.
○ Nritta on the other hand, is pure dance where body movements do not express any mood (bhava), nor do they
convey any meaning.
● To present nritya and natya effectively, a dancer should be trained to communicate the navarasas.
○ These are: love (shringaar), mirth (haasya), compassion (karuna), valour (veera), anger (roudra), fear
(bhayanak), disgust (bibhatsa), wonder (adbhuta) and peace (shaant).
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● An ancient classification followed in all styles is of Tandava and Lasya.

○ Tandava, the masculine, is heroic, bold and vigorous.
○ Lasya the feminine is soft, lyrical and graceful.
● Abhinaya, broadly means expression. This is achieved through angika, the body and limbs, vachika song and speech and
aharya, costume and adornment; and satvika, moods and emotions.
● Bharata and Nandikesvara, the main authorities conceive of dance as an art which uses the human body as a vehicle of
expression.
○ The major human units of the body (anga) are identified as the head, torso, the upper and lower limbs and the
minor human parts (upangas), as all parts of the face ranging from the eyebrow to the chin and the minor joints.
● Two further aspects of natya are the modes of presentation and the style.
○ There are two modes of presentation, namely the Natyadharmi, which is the formalised presentation of theatre,
and the Lokadharmi sometimes translated as folk, realistic, naturalistic or regional.
○ The style or vrittis are classified into Kaishiki, the deft lyrical more suited to convey the lasya aspects, the Arbati,
the energetic masculine the Satvati often used while depicting the rasas and the Bharati, the literary content.
● Nurtured for centuries, dance in India has evolved in different parts of the country its own distinct style taking on the culture
of that particular region, each acquiring its own flavour.
● Consequently a number of major styles of 'art' dance are known to us today, like Bharatnatyam, Kathakali, Kuchipudi,
Kathak, Manipuri, Odissi and Sattriya.
● Then, there are regional variations, the dances of rural and tribal areas, which range from simple, joyous celebrations of the
seasons, harvest or birth of a child to dances for the propitiation of demons or for invoking spirits. Today there is also a
whole new body of modern experimental dance.

13.2 Classical dances of India

13.2.1 Bharatnatyam Dance
13.2.1.1 Origin and influences
● Bharatnatyam Dance is considered to be over 2000 years old. Several texts beginning with Bharata Muni's Natya Shastra
(200 B.C.E. to 200 C.E.) provide information on this dance form.
● The Abhinaya Darpana by Nandikesvara is one of the main sources of textual material, for the
study of the technique and grammar of body movement in Bharatnatyam Dance.
● There is also a great deal of visual evidence of this dance form in paintings and stone and metal
sculptures of ancient times.
○ On the gopurams of the Chidambaram temple, one can see a series of
Bharatanatyam poses, frozen in stone as it were, by the sculptor.
○ In many other temples, the charis and karanas of the dance are represented in sculpture
and one can make a study of the dance form.
● Bharatnatyam dance is known to be ekaharya, where one dancer takes on many roles in a
single performance.
● In the early 19th century, the famous Tanjore Quartette, under the patronage of Raja Serfoji, is
said to have been responsible for the repertoire of Bharatanatyam dance as we see it today.
● The style was kept alive by the devadasis, who were young girls 'gifted' by their parents to the
temples and who were married to the gods.
○ The devadasis performed music and dance as offerings to the deities, in the temple
courtyards.
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○ Some of the renowned performers and gurus of the early part of the century belong to the devadasi families, a well-
known name is Bala Saraswati.
Features
● The repertoire of Bharatanatyam is extensive, however, a performance follows a regular pattern.
● At first there is an invocation song. The first dance item is the alarippu, literally meaning - to adorn with flowers.
○ It is an abstract piece combining pure dance with the recitation of sound syllables.
● The next item, the jatiswaram is a short pure dance piece performed to the
accompaniment of musical notes of any raga of Carnatic music.
○ Jatiswaram has no sahitya or words, but is composed of adavus which are pure
dance sequences - nritta. They form the basis of training in Bharatnatyam dance.
● As a solo dance, Bharatnatyam leans heavily on the abhinaya or mime aspect of dance -
the nritya, where the dancer expresses the sahitya through movement and mime.
● Shabdam follows the jathiswaram in a Bharatnatyam dance performance.
○ The accompanying song is generally in adoration of the Supreme Being.
● After the shabdam, the dancer performs the varnam. The varnam which is the most
important composition of the Bharatanatyam repertoire, encompasses both nritta and
nritya and epitomises the essence of this classical dance form.
○ The dancer here performs complicated well graded rhythmic patterns in two
speeds showing the control over rhythm, and then goes on to depict in a variety of
ways, through abhinaya the lines of the sahitya. This portrays the dancer's
excellence in abhinaya and also reflects the endless creativity of the
choreographer.
○ The varnam is by far one of the most beautiful compositions in Indian dance.
● After the strenuous varnam, the dancer performs a number of abhinaya items expressing
a variety of moods.
○ The bhava or rasa is woven into the sahitya and then expressed by the dancer. The common pieces are
keerthanam, kritis, padams and javalis.
■ In the keerthanam, the text is important whereas
kriti is a composition in which the musical aspect
is highlighted.
■ Both are usually devotional in character and
represent episodes from the lives of Rama, Siva,
Vishnu, etc. Padams and javalis, are on the
theme of love, often divine.
● A Bharatanatyam performance ends with a tillana which has its
origin in the tarana of Hindustani music.
● It is a vibrant dance performed to the accompaniment of musical
syllables with a few lines of sahitya. The finale of the piece is a series
of well designed rhythmic lines reaching a climax. The performance
ends with a mangalam invoking the blessings of the Gods.
● The accompanying orchestra consists of a vocalist, a mridangam player, violinist or veena player, a flautist and a cymbal
player.
● The person who conducts the dance recitation is the Nattuvanar.
13.2.2 Kathakali Dance
Origin and influences
● Kerala is the home of several traditional dance and dance-drama forms, the most notable being
Kathakali.
● Kathakali, as a dance form popular today, is considered to be of comparatively recent origin.
○ However, it is an art which has evolved from many social and religious theatrical
forms which existed in the southern region in ancient times.
○ Chakiarkoothu, Koodiyattam, Krishnattam and Ramanattam are few of the ritual
performing arts of Kerala which have had a direct influence on Kathakali in its form
and technique.
○ Legend has it that the refusal of the Zamorin of Calicut to send his Krishnattam troupe
to Travancore, so enraged the Raja of Kottarakkara, that he was inspired to compose
the Ramanattam.
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● In the temple sculptures in Kerala and the frescoes in the Mattancherry temple of
approximately the 16th century, dance scenes depicting the square and rectangular basic
positions so typical to Kathakali are seen.
● For body movements and choreographic patterns, Kathakali is also indebted to the early
martial arts of Kerala.
● Kathakali is a blend of dance, music and acting and dramatises stories, which are mostly
adapted from the Indian epics.
○ It is a stylised art form, the four aspects of abhinaya - angika, aharya,vachika,
satvika and the nritta, nritya and natya aspects are combined perfectly.
○ The dancer expresses himself through codified hasta mudras and facial
expressions, closely following the verses(padams) that are sung. Kathakali derives
its textual sanction from Balarama-Bharatam and Hastalakshana-Deepika.

13.2.2.1 Features
● Kathakali is a visual art where aharya, costume and make-up are suited to the characters,
as per the tenets laid down in the Natya Shastra.
● The characters are grouped under certain clearly defined types like the pacha, kathi, thadi,
kari or minukku.
● The face of the artist is painted over to appear as though a mask is worn.
○ The lips, the eyelashes and the eyebrows are made to look prominent.
○ A mixture of rice paste and lime is applied to make the chutti on the face which
highlights the facial make-up.
● Kathakali dance is chiefly interpretative.
○ The characters in a Kathakali performance are broadly divided into satvika,
rajasika and tamasika types.
○ Satvika characters are noble, heroic, generous and refined.
■ In pacha, green colour dominates and kirita (headgear) is worn by all.
Krishna and Rama wear special crowns decorated with peacock
feathers. The noble characters like Indra, Arjun and the Devas are some
of the pacha characters.
○ The kathi type depicts anti-heroes. Though they are of the rajasika category,
they are sometimes great warriors and scholars such as Ravana, Kamsa and
Sisupala to name a few.
■ The moustache and the small knob called chuttippu fixed on "the tip of
the nose and another in the centre of the forehead, is peculiar to the kathi character.
○ The characters of the thadi (beard) category are the chuvanna thadi, (red beard), vella thadi (white beard) and the
karutha thadi (black beard).
■ Vellathadi or the white bearded character is generally that of Hanuman, the dancer also wears the
costume of a monkey.
○ Kari are characters whose make-up has a black base, they wear black costumes depicting a hunter or forest
dweller.
○ Apart from these, there are minor characters like minukku which are the women and sages.
● Kathakali costumes and make-up are elaborate and designed so as to give a super human effect.
○ The make-up of Kathakali can be classified into the teppu, chuttikuthu and uduthu-kettu.
■ The teppu is done by the actor himself. Each character has a distinct teppu.
■ The second stage is done by experts who specialise in make-up. The wearing of huge billowing skirts is
called uduthu-kettu.
● A simple stage is used. A large oil-fed lamp is placed in front of the stage and two people hold a curtain called Tirasseela
on the stage, the main dancers stand behind it before the performance.
● In no other dance style is the entire body used so completely as in Kathakali.
○ The technical details cover every part of the body from facial muscles to fingers, eyes, hands and wrists.
○ The facial muscles play an important part. The movement of the eyebrows, the eye-balls and the lower eye-lids as
described in the Natya Shastra are not used to such an extent in any other dance style.
○ The weight of the body is on the outer edges of the feet which are slightly bent and curved.
● A Kathakali performance begins with the kelikottu, calling the audience to attention followed by the todayam.
○ It is a devotional number performed where one or two characters invoke the blessings of the gods.
○ Kelikottu is the formal announcement of the performance done in the evening when drums and cymbals are played
for a while in the courtyard.
○ A pure nritta piece known as the purappadu comes as a sequel to this.
○ Then the musicians and drummers hold the stage entertaining the audience with an exhibition of their skills in
melappada.
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○ Tiranokku is the debut on the stage of all characters other than the pacha or minukku.
○ Thereafter, the play or the particular scene of the chosen play begins.
Musicians
● Kathakali music follows the traditional sopana sangeet of Kerala.
○ It is said to be the ritual singing of the Ashtapadis on the flight of steps leading to the sanctum sanctorum.
● Now, Kathakali music also uses Carnatic ragas-the raga and tala conforming to the bhava, rasa and dance patterns (nritta
and natya).
● The orchestra, which is also used in other traditional performing arts of Kerala, normally comprises the Chenda, Maddalam,
Chengila, Ilathalam, Idakka and Shankhu.
● Ilakkanam is that part of the performance when the characters get an opportunity to demonstrate their excellence in
abhinaya.
○ For the most part of the performance the dancers engage themselves in Koodiyattam which means acting in strict
conformity to the words in the padams sung by the accompanying musicians.
● Thanks to the service done by the poet Vallathol, this classical dance form received a new impetus and today many
innovations are also being made to suit the needs of a changing society.
13.2.3 Kuchipudi Dance
Origin
● Kuchipudi is one of the classical styles of Indian dance. Around the third and fourth decade
of the 20th century it emerged from a long rich tradition of dance-drama of the same name.
● In fact, Kuchipudi is the name of a village in the Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh.
○ It is about 35 km from Vijayawada. Andhra has a very long tradition of dance-
drama which was known under the generic name of Yakshagana.
● In the 17th century Kuchipudi style of Yakshagana was conceived by Siddhendra Yogi, a
talented Vaishnava poet and visionary who had the capacity to give concrete shape to
some of his visions.
○ He was steeped in the literary yakshagana tradition being guided by his guru
Teertha narayana Yogi who composed the Krishna-leela-tarangini, a kavya in
Sanskrit.
○ It is said that Siddhendra Yogi had a dream in which Lord Krishna asked him to
compose a dance-drama based on the myth of the bringing of parijata flower for
Sathyabhama, the most beloved queen of Krishna.
○ In compliance with this command Siddhendra Yogi composed the Bhamakalapam
which is till now considered the piece-de-resistance of the Kuchipudi repertoire.
● Siddhendra Yogi initiated young Brahmin boys of Kuchipudi village to practice and perform
his compositions particularly Bhamakalapam.
○ The presentation of Bhamakalapam was a stupendous success.
○ Its aesthetic appeal was so great that the then Nawab of Golconda, Abul Hasan
Tanashah issued a copper plate in 1675 A.D. granting the village Kuchipudi as
an Agrahara to the families of Brahmins who pursued this art.
● The followers of Siddhendra Yogi wrote several plays and the tradition of Kuchipudi dance-
drama continues till today.
○ It was Lakshmi Narayan Shastry (1886–1956) who introduced many new
elements including solo dancing and training of female dancers in this dance style.
● Solo dancing was there earlier, but only as a part of the dance drama at appropriate
sequences.
○ At times, even though the dramatic situation did not demand, solo dancing was
being presented to punctuate the presentation and to enhance the appeal.

13.2.3.1 Features
● By the middle of this century Kuchipudi fully crystallised as a separate classical solo dance
style.
○ Thus there are now two forms of Kuchipudi; the traditional musical dance-drama and the solo dance.
● From the later part of the fourth decade of this century a sequence of the presentation of the solo recital has been widely
accepted.
● A recital of Kuchipudi begins with an invocatory number, as is done in some other classical dance styles.
○ Earlier the invocation was limited to Ganesh-Vandanaa.
○ Now other gods are also invoked. It is followed by nritta, that is, non-narrative and abstract dancing.
● Usually jatiswaram is performed as the nritta number. Next is presented a narrative number called shabdam.
○ One of the favourite traditional shabdam numbers is the Dashaavataara.
○ The Shabdam is followed by a natya number called Kalaapam.
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○ Next in the sequence comes a pure nritya abhinaya number based on literary-cum musical forms like padam,
jaavali, slokam, etc.
○ A Kuchipudi recital is usually concluded with tarangam.
Music
● The music that accompanies the dance is according to the classical school of Carnatic music and is delightfully syncopathic.
● The accompanying musicians, besides the vocalist are: a mridangam player to provide percussion music, a violin or veena
player or both for providing instrumental melodic music, and a cymbal player who usually conducts the orchestra and recites
the sollukattu (mnemonic rhythm syllables).
13.2.4 Manipuri Dance
Origin
● Manipuri, one of the main styles of Indian “Art” or “Classical” dances originated in the picturesque and secluded State of
Manipur in the north-eastern corner of India. Because of its geographical location, the people of Manipur have been
protected from outside influences, and this region has been able to retain its unique traditional culture.
● The origin of Manipuri dance can be traced back to ancient times that go beyond recorded history. The dance in Manipur is
associated with ritual and traditional festivals, there are legendary references to the dances of Shiva and Parvati and other
gods and goddesses who created the universe.
● Lai Haraoba is one of the main festivals still performed in Manipur which has its roots in the pre-Vaishnavite period.
○ Lai Haraoba is the earliest form of dance which forms the basis of all stylised
dances in Manipur.
○ Literally meaning — the merry-making of the gods, it is performed as a
ceremonial offering of song and dance.
○ The principal performers are the maibas and maibis (priests and priestesses)
who re-enact the theme of the creation of the world.
● With the arrival of Vaishnavism in the 15th century A.D, new compositions based on
episodes from the life of Radha and Krishna were gradually introduced.
● It was in the reign of King Bhagyachandra that the popular Ras Leela dances of
Manipur originated.
○ It is said that this 18th century philosopher king conceived this complete dance
form along with its unique costume and music in a dream.
○ Under successive rulers, new leelas, and rhythmic and melodic compositions were introduced.

13.2.4.1 Features
● Manipuri dance has a large repertoire, however, the most popular forms are the Ras, the Sankirtana and the Thang-ta.
● There are five principal Ras dances of which four are linked with specific
seasons, while the fifth can be presented at any time of the year.
● In Manipuri Ras, the main characters are Radha, Krishna and the gopis.
○ The themes often depict the pangs of separation of the gopis and
Radha from Krishna.
● The pure dance sequences performed in the Ras Leela follow the specific
rhythmic patterns and body movements, which are traditionally handed
down.
● The Ras costume consists of a richly embroidered stiff skirt which extends
to the feet.
○ A short fine white muslin skirt is worn over it.
○ A dark coloured velvet blouse covers the upper part of the body and
a traditional white veil is worn over a special hair-do which falls
gracefully over the face.
○ Krishna wears a yellow dhoti, a dark velvet jacket and a crown of peacock feathers. The jewellery is very delicate
and the designs are unique to the region.
● The Kirtan form of congregational singing accompanies the dance which is known as Sankirtana in Manipur.
○ The male dancers play the Pung and Kartal while dancing. The masculine aspect of dance — the Choloms are a
part of the Sankirtana tradition.The Pung and Kartal choloms are performed at all social and religious festivals.
● The martial dancers of Manipur — the Thang-ta, have their origins in the days when man’s survival depended on his ability
to defend himself from wild animals.
○ Today, Manipur has an evolved and sophisticated repertoire of martial dances, the dancers use swords, spears
and shields.
○ Real fight scenes between the dancers show extensive training and control of the body.
● Manipuri dance incorporates both the tandava and lasya and ranges from the most vigorous masculine to the subdued
and graceful feminine.
● Generally known for its lyrical and graceful movements, Manipuri dance has an elusive quality.
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● In keeping with the subtleness of the style, Manipuri abhinaya does not play up the mukhabhinaya very much — the facial
expressions are natural and not exaggerated — sarvang abhinaya, or the use of the whole body to convey a certain rasa,
is its forte.
● The Manipuri classical style of singing is called Nat — very different from both north and south Indian music, this style is
immediately recognizable with its high pitched open throated rendering with particular type of trills and modulations.
○ The main musical instrument is the Pung or the Manipuri classical drum.
○ There are also many other kinds of drums used in Manipuri dance and music. The Pena, a stringed instrument, is
used in Lai Haraoba and Pena singing.
○ Various kinds of cymbals are used in Sankirtana and Ras. The flute is also used to accompany vocal singing.
● The Ashtapadis of Jayadeva’s Geeta Govinda are very popular and are sung and danced in Manipur with great religious
fervour.
● Besides the Ras and other leelas, each stage in one’s life is celebrated with Sankirtana performances — child birth,
upanayanam, wedding and shraddha are all occasions for singing and dancing in Manipur.
● The whole community participates as song and dance form part of daily life expressions.

13.2.5 Odissi Dance

Origin
● Odisha is the home of Odissi, one of the many forms of Indian classical dance.
● Sensuous and lyrical, Odissi is a dance of love and passion touching on the divine and the human, the sublime and the
mundane.
● The Natya Shastra style known as the Odhra Magadha which can be identified as the earliest precursor of present day
Odissi.
● Archaeological evidence of this dance form dating back to the 2nd century B.C.E. is found in the caves of Udayagiri and
Khandagiri, near Bhubaneswar.
● Later, innumerable examples of the Buddhist sculptures, the tantric images of dancing Yoginis, the Nataraja, and other
celestial musicians and dancers of early Shaivite temples bear testimony to a continuing tradition of dance from the 2nd
century B.C.E. to the 10th century C.E.
● These influences found synthesis in a unique philosophy — the dharma or faith of Jagannath.
○ With Hinduism taking roots in Odisha by about the 7th century C.E., many imposing temples were erected.
■ The magnificent Sun Temple at Konark, built in the 13th century, with its Natya mandap or Hall of dance,
marks the culmination of the temple activity in Odisha. These dance movements, frozen in stone, continue
to inspire Odissi dancers even today.
● For centuries maharis were the chief repositories of this dance.
○ The maharis, who were originally temple dancers, came to be employed in royal courts which resulted in the
degeneration of the art form.
○ Around this time, a class of boys called goti puas were trained in the art, they danced in the temples and also for
general entertainment. Many of today's gurus of this style belong to the gotipua tradition.

13.2.5.1 Features
● Odissi is a highly stylised dance and to some extent is based on the classical Natya Shastra
and the Abhinaya Darpana.
○ In fact, it has derived a great deal from the Abhinaya Darpana Prakasha by
Jadunatha Sinha, the Abhinaya Chandrika by Rajmani Patra, and the Abhinaya
Chandrika by Maheshwara Mahapatra.
● As in other parts of India, creative literature inspired the Odissi dancer also and provided
the themes for dance.
○ This is especially true of the 12th century Gita Govinda by Jayadeva. It is a
profound example of the nayaka-nayika bhava and surpasses other poems in its
poetic and stylistic content.
○ The devotion of the poet for Krishna permeates through the work.
● Odissi closely follows the tenets laid down by the Natya Shastra.
○ Facial expressions, hand gestures and body movements are used to suggest a
certain feeling, an emotion or one of the nine rasas.
● The techniques of movement are built around the two basic postures of the Chauk and the Tribhanga.
○ The chauk is a position imitating a square — a very masculine stance with the weight of the body equally
balanced.
○ The tribhanga is a very feminine stance where the body is deflected at the neck, torso and the knees.
● The torso movement is very important and is a unique feature of the Odissi style.
○ With the lower half of the body remaining static, the torso moves from one side to the other along the axis passing
through the centre of the upper half of the body.
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○ Great training is required for this control so as to avoid any shoulder or hip
movement.
○ There are certain foot positions with flat, toe or heel contact. These are used in a
variety of intricate combinations. There are also numerous possibilities of leg
movements. Almost all leg movements are spiral or circular, whether in space or on
the ground.
● Hand gestures play an important role both in nritta where they are used only as decorative
embellishments and in nritya where they are used for communication.
● The formal repertoire of Odissi has a certain order of presentation, where each successive
item is systematically put together to produce the desired rasa.
● Odisha has a continuing tradition of dancing of the Ashtapadis of Jayadeva's Gita Govinda
since the 12th century.
○ The lyricism of this poem is particularly suited to the Odissi style. Apart from the Gita
Govinda, the compositions of other Oriya poets like Upendra Bhanja, Baladeva
Ratha, Banamali and Gopal Krishna are also sung.
Music
● An Odissi orchestra essentially consists of a pakhawaj player (usually the Guru himself), a singer, a flautist, sitar or violin
player and a manjira player.
● The dancer is adorned in elaborate Oriya silver jewellery and a special hair-do. The sari, usually stitched nowadays, is
unique to the style. In each performance, even a modern Odissi dancer still reaffirms the faith of the devadasis or maharis
where they sought liberation or moksha through the medium of dance.
13.2.6 Sattriya Dance
Origin
● The Sattriya dance form was introduced in the 15th century C.E. by the great Vaishnava saint and reformer of Assam,
Shrimanta Shankar Deva (1449-1568 C.E.) as a powerful medium for propagation of the Vaishnava faith.
○ He integrated art and bhakti by creating a whole gamut of dance, drama and music for the upliftment of the
Assamese society then ridden with religious malpractices and
cryptic tantrism.
○ He advocated repudiation of caste privileges which appealed to
the broad tribal base of the state.
○ He composed a serene and peaceful Assamese drama in
Brajabuli language, a mixture of Maithili, Assamese, Hindi and
other elements, easily understood by the masses.
○ He made the audience aware of the bhakti rasa, selfless devotion
for the supreme being and introduced them to the art of
harmonious living.
● He introduced the concept of Sattras i.e.Vaishnava mutts or monasteries.
● Majuli, the world’s largest river island, surrounded by the waters of the
mighty Brahmaputra, houses the largest Sattra.
● This neo-Vaishnava treasure of Assamese dance and drama has been, for
centuries, nurtured and preserved with great commitment by the Sattras.
○ Because of its religious character and association with the Sattras,
this dance style has been aptly named Sattriya.
○ The dance form evolved and expanded as a distinctive style of dance later on.

13.2.6.1 Features
● Sattriya dance has all the elements that make a dance form classical.
● It clearly distinguishes nritta from nritya and also has an element of natya.
● Like other classical dance forms of India, the Sattriya dances follow the authoritative treatises such as Bharatmuni’s ‘Natya
Shastra’, Nandikeshvara’s ‘Abhinaya Darpana’ and Shubhankara’s ‘Hasta Muktavali’.
● Sattriya dance tradition is governed by strictly laid down principles in respect of hasta mudras, footworks, acharyas, music
etc.
○ This tradition, has two distinctly separate streams - the Bhaona-related repertoire starting from the Gayan-
Bhayanar Nach to the Kharmanar Nach, secondly the dance numbers which are independent, such as Chali,
Rajagharia Chali, Jhumura, Nadu Bhangi etc.
○ Among them the Chali is characterised by gracefulness and elegance, while the Jhumura is marked by vigour and
majestic beauty.

Sattra
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● The word ‘Sattra’ is first used in the Satapatha Brahmana in the sense of sacrifice.
○ In the Bhagavata Purana also, there is reference to the word ‘Sattra’.
● The Sattra institution resembles to a certain extent, to the Buddhist monastery system or the Bengal mutt institution of
the mediaeval period.
○ But Sattra is more than a Buddhist vihar or mutt. It is a unique institution covering different aspects of Assamese
social life.
○ Sattra is characterised by a number of structural patterns associated with religious activities to accommodate
the devotees or disciples.
● The first Sattra was set up by Shrimanta Shankaradeva near his ancestral village at Bordowa. Gradually more Sattras
were established by his followers in different places of Assam.
● There are two kinds of Satras in Assam.
○ One is Grahasthya (married) Sattra and another is Udasin (celibate) Sattra. Udasin Sattras are richer in
dance, drama and music than the Grahasthya Sattra. The structural pattern and process of functioning of a
Sattra are its characteristic features.
● Namghar: The central prayer hall in a Sattra is the Namghar or Kirtan Ghar.
● Manikut: It is the sanctum-sanctorum of the whole establishment, literally meaning “the house of jewels or valued
property”. The sacred scripture of Bhagavata Purana or the idol of Lord Krishna is kept here.
● Hati: The Manikut and the Namghar are usually surrounded by four rows of residential huts meant to accommodate the
disciples.
● Batchora: The gateway or entrance leading to the Sattra premises is usually characterised by a small open house with
a roof. This is known as Batchora or Korapat. Distinguished guests are usually welcomed at the Batchora.
● Sattra Administration: The head of the entire administration is popularly known as Satradhikar. With the exception of a
few Sattras, the Sattradhikar usually leads the life of a celibate. He is the religious head, who takes up the responsibility
of supervising the institutional ceremony, Sarana, of the devotees and then trains them in the monastic life of a Sattra.

13.2.7 Mohiniyattam Dance

Origin
● Mohiniyattam literally interpreted as the dance of ‘Mohini’, the celestial enchantress of
the Hindu mythology, is the classical solo dance form of Kerala.
● According to a Puranic story, Lord Vishnu took on the guise of a ‘Mohini’ to seduce the
Asuras, both in connection with churning of the ocean and episode of the slaying of
Bhasmasura.
● This dance form of Kerala was structured into the present day classical format by the
Travancore Kings, Maharaja Kartika Tirunal and his successor Maharaja Swati Tirunal
(18th -19th century C.E.).

13.2.7.1 Features
● Mohiniyattam is characterised by graceful, swaying body movements with no abrupt jerks
or sudden leaps. It belongs to the lasya style which is feminine, tender and graceful.
● The movements are emphasised by the glides and the up and down movement on toes,
like the waves of the sea and the swaying of the coconut, palm trees and the paddy fields.
○ The foot work is not terse and is rendered softly. Importance is given to the
hand gestures and Mukhabhinaya with subtle facial expressions.
● Movements have been borrowed from Nangiar Koothu and female folk dances
Kaikottikali and the Tiruvatirakali.
● Mohiniyattam lays emphasis on acting. The dancer identifies herself with the character and sentiments existing in the
compositions like the Padams and Pada Varnams which give ample opportunity for facial expressions.
○ The hand gestures, 24 in number, are mainly adopted from Hastalakshana Deepika, a text followed by Kathakali.
○ Few are also borrowed from Natyashastra, Abhinayadarpana and Balarambharatam.
● The gestures and facial expressions are closer to the natural (gramya) and the realistic (lokadharmi) than to the dramatic or
rigidly conventional (natyadharmi).
○ The traditional repertoire includes Chollukettu, Jatiswaram, Padavarnam, Padam, Tillana and Slokam.
● Besides these Kondattam and Omanathinkal (lullaby), introduced by Vallatol are also popular and are often included in a
recital.
● Most of the compositions included in the repertoire have been composed by Swati Tirunal which emphasises the Sahitya
Bhava i.e. the literary content.
● These are portrayed through appropriate hand and facial expressions that include the nine sentiments.
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13.2.8 Kathak Dance

Origin
● The word Kathak has been derived from the word Katha which means a story.
○ Kathakars or story-tellers, are people who narrate stories largely based on episodes from the epics, myths and
legends.
○ It probably started as an oral tradition. Mime and gestures were perhaps added
later on to make the recitation more effective.
○ Thus evolved a simple form of expressional dance, providing the origins of what
later developed into Kathak as we see it today.
● The Vaishnavite cult which swept North India in the 15th century. and the resultant bhakti
movement contributed to a whole new range of lyrics and musical forms. The Radha-
Krishna theme proved immensely popular along with the works of Mirabai, Surdas,
Nandadas and Krishnadas.
● The emergence of Raslila , mainly in the Braj region (Mathura in Western U.P.) was an
important development.
○ It combined in itself music, dance and the narrative. Dance in Raslila, however,
was mainly an extension of the basic mime and gestures of the Kathakars or story-
tellers which blended easily with the existing traditional dance.
● With the coming of the Mughals, this dance form received a new impetus.
○ A transition from the temple courtyard to the palace durbar took place which
necessitated changes in presentation.
○ In both Hindu and Muslim courts, Kathak became highly stylised and came to be regarded as a sophisticated form
of entertainment.
○ Under the Muslims there was a greater stress on nritya and bhava, giving the dance graceful, expressive and
sensuous dimensions.
● The nineteenth century saw the golden age of Kathak under the patronage of Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Oudh.
○ He established the Lucknow gharana with its strong accent on bhava, the expression of moods and emotions.
○ The Jaipur gharana known for its layakari or rhythmic virtuosity and the Benaras
gharana are other prominent schools of Kathak dance.

13.2.8.1 Features
● The technique of movement in Kathak is unique to it.
○ The weight of the body is equally distributed along the horizontal and vertical axis.
○ The full foot contact is of prime importance where only the toe or the ball of the foot
are used, their function is limited.
○ There are no deflections and no use of sharp bends or curves of the upper or lower part
of the body.
○ Torso movements emerge from the change of the shoulder line rather than through the
manipulations of the backbone or upper chest and lower waist muscles.
○ In the basic stance, the dancer stands straight, holds one hand at a level higher than
the head and the other is extended out on the level of the shoulder.
● Today, Kathak has emerged as a distinct dance form. Being the only classical dance of India having links with Muslim
culture, it represents a unique synthesis of Hindu and Muslim genius in art.
● Further, Kathak is the only form of classical dance wedded to Hindustani or the North Indian music. Both of them have
had a parallel growth, each feeding and sustaining the other.

13.2.9 Famous Classical dancers of India

Dancer Dance

Rukmini Devi Arundale Bharatnatyam

Pandit Birju Maharaj Kathak

Uday Shankar Fusion

Pandit Birju Maharaj Odissi

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Guru Bipin Singh Manipuri

Guru Vempati Chinna Satyam Kuchipudi

Padma Subrahmanyam Bharatnatyam

Shovana Narayan Kathak

13.3 Folk dances of India

13.3.1 Chhau (Odisha)
● Chhau dance originated in the Kalinga (Odisha) region of India
and is a semi-classical Indian dance with martial and folk
traditions
● It's a type of mask dance that tells mythological stories via
ferocious martial moves.
● Saraikela Chhau in Jharkhand, Mayurbhanj Chhau in Odisha,
and Purulia Chhau in West Bengal are the three main genres
of Chhau dance.
● Chhau was inscribed in the Representative List of Intangible
Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO in 2010.
13.3.2 Garba (Gujarat)
● It is a popular Gujarati folk dance performed during Navratri.
● Garba actually refers to a "Garbha deep", a holed earthenware
pot in which a lamp is lit and ladies dance around it in a circle
with rhythmic clapping.
13.3.3 Dandiya Raas (Gujarat)
● Polished sticks called dandiyas are used in this dynamic, vibrant dance genre.
● It depicts a fictitious battle between Durga and Mahishasura.
13.3.4 Tarangamel (Goa)
● It is a Goan folk dance that celebrates the region's youthfulness.
● It is practised during the Hindu festivals of Dussehra and Holi.
● It's a visual show, with rainbow-like outfits, multi-colored banners, and streamers.
13.3.5 Ghoomar (Rajasthan)
● It is a traditional Rajasthani folk dance performed by ladies of the Bhil tribe.
● It is distinguished by the women's pirouetting moves, which highlight the multicoloured vibrancies of the following
Ghaghra.
13.3.6 Matki (Madhyapradesh)
● Matki is a traditional dance performed by women in the Malwa region on special occasions such as weddings and other
celebrations.
● It's mostly done solo, with a number of earthen pots balanced on the head.
● Aada and Khada Nach are two prominent Matki dance variations.
13.3.7 Alkap (Jharkhand and West Bengal)
● It is done by groups of ten to twelve dancers, with one or two gayens (lead singers).
● The troops recite popular folklore and mythical stories, with comedic sketches known as kap.
● The dance is commonly linked with Shiva's Gajan festival.
13.3.8 Biraha (Bihar)
● It depicts the anguish of women whose partners are gone from home.
● This dance form, on the other hand, is only performed by guys who also play feminine characters.
13.3.9 Jat-Jatin (Bihar)
● Jat-Jatin is prevalent in Bihar's northwestern regions, particularly in Mithila.
● This dance genre is unique in its depiction of a married couple's sensitive love and dispute.
13.3.10 Jhumar (Jharkhand and Odisha)
● Jhumar is a popular harvest dance performed by Jharkhand and Odisha's indigenous people.
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● Janani Jhumar, which is done by women, and Mardana Jhumar, which is performed by males, are the two varieties.
● Many fairs and festivals use it as a main attraction.
13.3.11 Danda-Jatra (Odisha)
● It's a one-of-a-kind combination of dance, drama, and music. While it mostly tells Shiva myths and legends, the overall
message is social harmony and brotherhood.
13.3.12 Bihu (Assam)
● Both men and women participate in a group performance.
● To highlight the pomp and gaiety, the dancers are clothed in colourful traditional costumes.
● Group formations, fast hand movements, and brisk footsteps are all part of the dancing performance.
13.3.13 Thang Ta (Manipur)
● Thang —denotes a sword, while Ta— denotes a spear.
● The dance performance is a one-of-a-kind demonstration of ability, originality, and agility in which the dancers act out a
fake fight sequence, leaping to attack and defend.

13.3.14 Sangeet Natak Akademi

● It is the apex body in the field of performing arts in the country, was set up in 1953 for the preservation and promotion
of the vast intangible heritage of India’s diverse culture expressed in forms of music, dance and drama.
● The management of the Akademi vests in its General Council.
○ The Chairman of the Akademi is appointed by the President of India for a term of five years.
● The Sangeet Natak Akademi Awards are the highest national recognition conferred on practising artists.
● The Akademi also confers Fellowships on eminent artists and scholars of music, dance and drama; and has in 2006
instituted annual awards to young artists – the Ustad Bismillah Khan Yuva Puraskar.
● The Akademi’s archive, comprising audio and video tapes, photographs, and films is one of the largest in the country
and is extensively drawn upon for research in the performing arts.

14 Music of India
14.1 Historical background
● The present Indian music has grown from ancient times. Almost every tribe or
people have lent their own share in this growth. What therefore, we now call a raga
might have started as a tribal or folk tune.
● It is usual to begin the history of Indian music with the melodic patterns of vedic
chanting.
○ The oldest music, which possessed a grammar was the vedic. Of course,
the Rig-Veda is said to be the oldest: nearly 5000 years old. The psalms
of the Rig-Veda were called the richas. TheYajur Veda was also a
religious chant.
○ But actual music in Northern or Southern India, of those bygone days
could not have only been of this kind.
○ There were non-Aryan people with their own art. For instance, Santhal music from the Eastern region of India may
have been passed down from them.
○ While the differences are obvious, there is no doubt that such music of the people contributed to the formation of
what we now call Hindustani Classical Music.
● Natya Shastra of Bharata is another important landmark in the history of Indian music.
○ It is supposed to have been written sometime between the 2nd century B.C. and the 2nd century A.D.
○ The Natya Shastra is a comprehensive work mainly dealing with dramaturgy. But a few chapters of this deal with
music.
○ Therein we get information on scales, melodic forms, tala and musical instruments.

14.2 Fundamental elements of Indian classical music

● Three main pillars of Indian classical music:
1. Swara
2. Tala
3. Raga

14.2.1 Swara
● Term “Swara”- associated with recitation of Vedas.
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○ Term- also used to define ‘note’ or ‘scale degree’ in a composition.

● In Natyasastra, Bharata has divided swaras into 22 notes.
○ Currently, Hindustani music is defined by Saptak or Sargam - Sa, re, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni.
● Swara cutters from Shruti.
○ Shruti or microtones - smallest gradation of pitch & are 22 in number out of which only 12 are audible.
■ These twelve are— seven Suddha Swaras & five Vikrita Swaras.
14.2.2 Tala
● Are rhythmic groupings of beats.
○ Rhythmical cycles range from three to 108 beats.
● As per the concept of tala- musical time is divided into simple and complicated metres.
● Theory of time measurement- not similar in Hindustani and Carnatic music.
○ Tala- unique point- independent of the music that accompanies it and has its own divisions.
○ Laya- tempo of tala, which keeps uniformity of time span.
● Currently only 30 talas are known and only 10 to 12 talas are actually used.
○ Recognized & used talas- dadra, kaharba, rupak, ektal, jhaptal, Teental and Ada chautal.
○ Music composers use teen-tal that uses 16 beats.
● Carnatic music has a more rigid structure unlike Hindustani music. And Tala (thala) are made of three components- laghu,
dhrutam and ami dhrutam.
○ Original 35 thalas & each one can be further split into 5 ‘gratis’. So, there are 175 (35*5) thalas in Carnatic music.
14.2.3 Raga
● It comes from the Sanskrit word ‘ Ranj' which means to delight or to make happy and satisfy a person.
● Ragas are the basis of melody, while tala is the basis of rhythm.
● Basic element for working of a raga is the note on which they are based.
● Raga is not a scale nor a mode but a scientific, precise, subtle and aesthetic melodic form with its own peculiar ascending
and descending movement, which consists of either a full octave, or a series of 5 or 6 or 7 notes.

14.3 Indian Classical Music

● In spite of such a variety of cultural interactions, our music has remained essentially melodic.
○ In melody, one note follows the other, making for a continued unity of effect, whereas in harmony musical sounds
are superimposed on one another.
○ Our classical music has retained its melodic quality.
● Today we recognise two systems of classical music: the Hindustani and the Carnatic.
○ Carnatic music is confined to Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
○ The classical music of the rest of the country goes under the name, Hindustani Classical Music.
○ There are some areas in Karnataka and Andhra where the Hindustani Classical system is also practised. Karnataka
has given us in the recent past some very distinguished musicians of the Hindustani style.
● The course of the evolution of Indian music saw the emergence of two different subsystems as Hindustani and Carnatic
music. In Haripala's "Sangeeta Sudhakara", written in the 14th century A.D.
○ The terms Carnatic and Hindustani are found for the first time.
● The two distinct styles, Hindustani and Carnatic, came into vogue after the advent of the Muslims, particularly during the
reign of the Mughal Emperors of Delhi.
○ Both the systems of music received their nourishment from the same original source.
○ Whereas the Indian music of the Northern part of India assimilated some features of the music of the Persian and
Arabic musicians who adorned the courts of the Mughal rulers of Delhi.
○ The music of the South continued to develop along its own original lines.
○ But the fundamental aspects of both the systems of the North and South have been the same.

14.3.1 Hindustani music

● Historical roots of both schools belong to Bharata’s Natyasastra, but they diverged in the 13th century.
○ This branch focuses more on musical structure and possibilities of improvisation.
● It adopted a scale of Shuddha Swar Saptaka or the ‘Octave of Natural notes’.
● It has ten main styles of singing like- ‘Dhrupad’, ‘Dhamar’, ‘Hori’, ‘Khayat', ‘Tappa’, ‘Chaturang’, ‘Ragasagar’, ‘Tarana’,
‘Sargam’ and ‘Thumri’.

Dhrupad
● Oldest and grandest forms.
● Mentioned in Natyashastra (200 BC-200 AD).
● Owes its roots to older forms like Prabandha & Dhruva Panda.
○ Name derived from ‘dhruva’ and ‘pada,’ means that it denotes both verse forms of poetry & style in which it is
sung.
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● Reached its zenith in Akbar’s court, who patronised musical masters like Baba Gopal Das, Swami Haridas and Tansen
(was one of Navaratna or nine gems).
○ Baiju Bawra sang at the court of Akbar.
○ Singers who mastered Dhrupad were in the court of Raja Man Singh Tomar (Gwalior).
● It is a poetic form that is incorporated into an extended presentation style that is marked by precise and overt elaboration
of a raga.
● Dhruva- means ‘unmoving’ and implies the return of Swara (tonal), Kala (time) and Shabda (textual) trajectories to a fixed
point.

Khyal
● Word ‘Khayal’ is derived from Persian and means “idea or imagination”.
● Origin of this style was attributed to Amir Khusrau.
● It is popular amongst the artists as this provides greater scope for improvisation.
● Based on the repertoire of short songs ranging from two to eight lines. Is also referred to as a ‘Bandish’.
● Khayal is also composed in a particular raga and tala and has a brief text.
● Texts mainly include Praise of kings, Description of seasons, Pranks of Lord Krishna, Divine love & Sorrow of separation
● Major gharanas in khayal: Gwalior, Kirana, Patiala, Agra, and Bhendibazaar Gharana

Gharana System
● A system of social organisation linking musicians or dancers by lineage or apprenticeship, and by adherence to a particular
musical style.
● Word ‘gharana ’ comes from the Urdu/Hindi word ‘ghar’, which means ‘family’ or ‘house’.
○ Refers to the place where the musical ideology originated.
○ Also indicates a comprehensive musicological ideology and differentiates one school from another.
○ Affects the thinking, teaching, performance and appreciation of music.
● Well known gharanas- for Hindustani classical music- Agra, Gwalior, Indore, Jaipur, Kirana.
● The oldest of these is the Gwalior gharana: The father of this school was one Nathan Peer Baksh, who settled down in
Gwalior, and hence the name.
○ He had two grandsons Haddu Khan and Hassu Khan who lived in the 19th century and were regarded as great
masters of this style.
○ The qualities of this gharana are an open voice, clear enunciation of words, and a comprehensive attention to raga,
swara and tala.
○ Some of the prominent musicians of this gharana are Krishna Rao Shankar Pandit, Raja Bhaiya Poonchwale etc.
● The Agra Gharana: is said to have been founded by one Khuda Baksh of Agra.
○ He had studied with Nathan Peerbaksh of Gwalior, but developed his own style.
○ Here again the voice is open and clear, a speciality of this gharana is its bol taan: that is, a fast or medium layakari
passage using the bols or words of the song.
○ The song itself is rendered in medium tempo. Of the most well known musicians of this gharana in recent times are
Vilayat Hussain Khan and Fayyaz Khan.
● The Jaipur Atrauli gharana: is said to take off directly from dhrupad.
○ It is associated with Alladiya Khan of the 19th-20th century. The khyal is always at medium speed.
○ The words are pronounced clearly and in an open and clear voice. The distinguishing characters are the passages
which are primarily based on alankars - that iS repetitive melodic motifs - and an almost metronomic insistence of
tala division.
○ Some of the prominent musicians of recent times are Mallikarjun Mansur, Kishori Amonkar etc.
● Rampur Sahaswan gharana: Since the earlier singers came from Rampur in Uttar Pradesh, this school has come to be
called so.
○ The slow and fast Khayals usually are followed by a Tarana. The style is very lyrical and full of finer tonal
embroidery.
○ Nisar Hussain Khan, Rashid Khan are the two prominent musicians of recent times belonging to this gharana.

Thumri and Tappa

● The thumri is very lyrical in its structure and presentation.
○ These forms are termed as 'semi' or 'light' classical.
○ Thumri is a love song and hence the textual beauty is very important. This is closely coordinated with the musical
rendition.
○ And keeping in mind its mood a thumri is usually set to ragas like Khamaj, Kaphi, Bhairavi and so on and the
musical grammar is not strictly adhered to.
○ There are two styles of thumri singing: the Poorab or Banaras which is fairly slow and staid and the Punjab
style which is more mercurial. Rasoolan Devi, Siddheshwari Devi are prominent musicians of this style.
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● The Tappa consists of the song uttered in fast note patterns. It is a difficult composition and needs much practice.
● Both the Thumri and Tappa require special training as do the Dhrupad and Khyal forms of singing. Ragas in which
Tappa compositions are set remain the same as in Thumri style.

14.3.2 Carnatic Music

Background
● It is said that South Indian Music, as known today, flourished in Deogiri the capital city of the Yadavas in the middle ages.
○ After the invasion and plunder of the city by the Muslims, the entire cultural life of the city took shelter in the Carnatic
Empire of Vijayanagar under the reign of Krishnadevaraya. Thereafter, the music of South India came to be
known as Carnatic Music.
● The advent of Purandaradasa, in the year 1484, marked a very important landmark in the development of Carnatic music.
○ He effected such a thorough systematisation and refinement in the art, that, up to the present day, it has remained
the same.
○ He has been justly termed as "Carnatic Sangeeta Pitamaha ''.
○ He introduced the Malava Gowla scale as the basic scale for music instruction.
○ He also framed graded exercises, forming part of the series of lessons to beginners of music.
○ This system prevails even today in the teaching of music.
● Moving into the 17th century, the history of Carnatic music saw the epoch-making scheme of the 72 Melakartas, introduced
by Venkatamakhi and laid down in his monumental work Chaturdandi Prakasika in the year 1620 A.D.
○ The Melakarta scheme is a highly comprehensive and systematic formula which includes within its fold all the
modes used in ancient as well as modern systems of music of the different parts of the world.
○ The scheme opened out new vistas of raga creation and later composers like Tyagaraja invented many beautiful
raga by following it.
● The birth of the Musical Trinity - Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syama Sastri - at Tiruvarur between the years
1750 to 1850 A.D. ushered in an era of dynamic development in Carnatic music.
○ The Trinity were not only contemporaries among themselves but also contemporaries of great composers of
Western Music, as Beethoven, Mozart, Wagner and Haydn.
○ It was the 'Golden Age' of music throughout the world. Carnatic music reached its pinnacle of artistic excellence
during this period.
● Many of the musicians and composers of the South were closely acquainted with the Hindustani system of music also
and wherever permissible, adopted Hindustani ragas for their compositions.
○ The ragas Yaman Kalyan, Hamir Kalyan, Malkaunsa, Brindavani Sarang, Jaijaivanti, etc. were adopted in their
compositions by the Musical Trinity.
○ Raga Kaphi, Kanada, Khamaj, Paraj, Purvi, Bhairav, etc. bear a very close resemblance to their counterparts in
the Hindustani system of music.
Fundamentals of Carnatic Music
● GITAM
○ Gitam is the simplest type of composition. Taught to beginners of music, the gitam is very simple in construction,
with an easy and melodious flow of music.
○ The music of this form is a simple melodic extension of the raga in which it is composed. The tempo is uniform.
○ It has no sections dividing one part of the song from the other. It is sung without repetition from the beginning to
the end.
● SULADI
○ Very much like the gitam in musical structure and arrangement, the Suladis are of a higher standard than the
gitam.
○ The Suladi is a talamalika, the sections being in different talas. The sahitya syllables are fewer than in the gitas
and there is a profusion of vowel extensions.
○ The theme is devotional. Suladis are composed in different tempos —vilambit, madhya and druta.
Purandaradasa has composed many Suladis.
● SWARAJATHI
○ This is learnt after a course in gitams. More complicated than the gitas, the Svarajati paves the way for the
learning of the Varnams.
○ It consists of three sections, called Pallavi, Anupallavi and Charanam.
○ The theme is either devotional, heroic or amorous.
○ It originated as a dance form with jatis (tala, solfa syllables like taka tari kita naka tatin gina tam) tagged on.
■ But later, Syama Sastri, one among the Musical Trinity, composed svarajatis without jatis, which are
brilliant concert pieces, noted for their musical value.
● JATISWARAM
○ Very similar to the swarajathi in musical structure.
○ The piece is sung with solfa syllables only.
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○ It is noted for its rhythmical excellence and the jati pattern used in it.
○ This is a musical form belonging to the realm of dance music.
● VARNAM
○ The Varnam is a musical form in Carnatic Music. Whereas musical forms like the Kirtana, Kriti, Javali, Tillana, etc.
have their similar counterparts in Hindustani Music, the Varnam does not find a counterpart.
○ The Varnam is a beautiful creation of musical craftsmanship of a high order, combining in itself all the
characteristic features of the raga in which it is composed.
○ This form is aptly called a Varnam, since many of the svara group patterns called 'Varnas' in ancient music, are
dexterously interwoven in its texture.
○ There are two types of varnams, one called the Tana Varnam and the other called the Pada Varnam.
● KIRTANAM
○ The Kirtanam had its birth about the latter half of the 14th century.
○ It is valued for the devotional content of the sahitya.
○ Clothed in simple music, the kirtanam abounds in Bhakti bhava. It is suited for congregational singing as well as
individual presentation.
● KRITI
○ The Kriti is a development from the Kirtana.
○ It is a highly evolved musical form. The highest limit of aesthetic excellence is reached in the Kriti composition.
○ The raga bhava is brought out in all the rich and varied colours in this form.
○ It was only after the emergence of the kriti as a musical form, that a definite style in musical compositions became
a possibility.
● PADA
○ Padas are scholarly compositions in Telugu and Tamil. Though they are composed mainly as dance forms,
they are also sung in concerts, on account of their musical excellence and aesthetic appeal.
○ The theme is madhura bhakti, portrayed as bahir sringara and antar bhakti.
■ The characters nayaka, nayika and sakhi represent respectively the Lord (Paramatma), the Devotees
(jeevatma) and the Guru, who leads the devotee on to the path of mukti (liberation) by his sage counsel.
○ Various rasas are depicted in all their delicate shades, through suitable ragas which reflect such rasas. All the nava
rasas are portrayed in padas, though sringara is the main theme.
● JAVALI
○ A javali is a composition belonging to the sphere of light classical music.
○ Sung both in concert programmes and dance concerts, the javalis are popular because of the attractive melodies
in which they are composed. In contrast to the padas which portray divine love, javalis This form resembles the
Thumris of Hindustani Music.
● TILLANA
○ The Tillana, corresponding to the Tarana of Hindustani music, is a short and crisp form. It is mainly a dance form,
but on account of its brisk and attractive music, it sometimes finds a place in music concerts as a conclusion piece.
○ The name Tillana is composed of the rhythmic syllables, ti—la—na.
○ It is the liveliest of musical forms. This form is said to have had its birth in the 18th century. The sahitya of a tillana
may be in Sanskrit, Telugu or Tamil.
● PALLAVI
○ This is the most important branch of creative music.
○ It is in this branch of manodharma sangeeta, that the musician has ample opportunities of displaying his or her
creative talents, imaginative skill, and musical intelligence.
○ The term Pallavi is coined from the initial syllables of the three words: Padam, meaning words; Layam, meaning
time and Vinyasam, meaning variations.
● TANAM
○ This is a branch of raga alapana. It is raga alapana in Madhyamakala or medium speed.
○ There is a perceptible rhythm in this. The rhythmical flow of music, flowing in fascinating patterns, makes tanam
singing the most captivating part of raga exposition.

14.4 Regional Music

● Cultural traditions from various regions of the country reflect the rich diversity of Regional Music of India. Each region has
its own particular style.
● Tribal and folk music is not taught in the same way that Indian classical music is taught.
○ There is no formal period of apprenticeship where the student is able to devote their entire life to learning the
music, the economics of rural life does not permit this sort of thing.
○ The musical practitioners must still attend to their normal duties of hunting, agriculture or whatever their chosen
profession is.
● Music in the villages is learnt from childhood, the music is heard and imbibed along with numerous public activities that
allow the villagers to practice and hone their skills.
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● The music is an indispensable component of functions such as weddings, engagements, and births. There are a plethora
of songs for such occasions. There are also many songs associated with planting and harvesting. In these activities the
villagers routinely sing of their hopes, fears and aspirations.

14.4.1 Rasiya Geet, Uttar Pradesh

● The rich tradition of singing Rasiya Geet flourished in Braj which is the sacred land of Lord Krishna’s charming leelas from
time immemorial.
● This is not confined to any particular festival, but is closely woven into the very fabric of daily life and day to day chores of
its people. ‘Rasiya’ word is derived from the word rasa (emotion) because rasiya means that which is filled with rasa or
emotion.
● It reflects the personality of the singer as well as the nature of the song.
14.4.2 Pankhida, Rajasthan
● Sung by the peasants of Rajasthan while doing work in the fields, the peasants sing and speak while playing algoza and
manjira. The literal meaning of the word ‘Pankhida’ is lover.
14.4.3 Lotia, Rajasthan
● 'Lotia' is sung in the chaitra month during the festival - ‘Lotia’. Women bring lotas (a vessel to fill water) and kalash (a vessel
considered to be auspicious to fill water during worship) filled with water from ponds and wells. They decorate them with
flowers and come home.
14.4.4 Pandavani, Chhattisgarh
● In Pandavani, tales from Mahabharata are sung as a ballad and one or two episodes are chosen for the night’s
performance.
● The main singer continuously sits throughout the performance and with powerful singing and symbolic gestures he assumes
all the characters of the episode one after another.

14.4.5 Shakuna Kher - Mangalgeet, Kumaon

● Numberless songs are sung on auspicious occasions in the foothills of Himalaya.
● Shakunakhar are sung during religious ceremonies of baby-shower, child-birth, Chhati (a ritual done on the sixth day from
the birth of a child) , Ganesh pooja etc.
● These songs are sung by only ladies, without any instrument.
14.4.6 Barahmasa, Kumaon
● This regional music from Kumaon describes the twelve months of a year, each with its specific qualities.
● In one of the songs the Ghughuti bird symbolises the onset of chaitra month.
○ A girl in law asks this bird not to speak because she is disturbed with the memories of her mother (Ija) and she is
feeling sad.

14.4.7 Mando, Goa

● Goan regional music is a treasury of the traditional music of the Indian subcontinent.
● Mando, the finest creation of Goan song is a slow verse and refrain composition dealing with love, tragedy and both social
injustice and political resistance during Portuguese presence in Goa.
14.4.8 Alha, Uttar Pradesh
● Alha, a typical ballad of Bundelkhand, narrates the heroic deeds of Alha and Udal, the two warrior brothers who served
Raja Parmal of Majoba. This is the most popular regional music of Bundelkhand which is popular elsewhere in the country
as well.
● The Alha is full of tales of feudal chivalry, which appeal to common men. It highlights the high principles of morality, chivalry
and nobility prevalent in those times.

14.4.9 Sohar, Uttar Pradesh

● Social ceremonies have, at times, served as a potent factor for intermingling of different cultures. North India has a strong
tradition of singing ‘Sohar’ songs when a son is born in a family.
● This has influenced the muslim culture and a form of ‘Sohar’ song gained currency in the muslim families living in some
regions of Uttar Pradesh. ‘Sohar’ songs unmistakably point to the mingling of two cultures.

14.4.10 Chhakri, Kashmir

● Chakri is a group song which is the most popular form of Kashmir’s folk music.
● It is sung to the accompaniment of the noot (earthen pot) rababs, sarangi and tumbaknari (an earthen pot with a high neck).
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14.4.11 Laman, Himachal Pradesh

● In Laman a group of girls sing a stanza and a group of boys give a reply in the song. This continues for hours. Interesting is
that the girls singing on one of the peaks of the hill seldom see the faces of the boys singing on another peak.
● In between is the hill which echoes their love song. Most of these songs are sung especially in Kullu Valley.

14.4.12 Kajri, Uttar Pradesh

● Kajri is a folk song sung by women, from Uttar Pradesh and adjacent regions, during the rainy season.
● On the third day in the second half of the bhadra, women sing Kajri songs all through the night, while dancing in a semicircle.

14.4.13 Qawwali
● Originally, Qawwalis were sung in praise of God. In India Qawwali was brought from Persia around the thirteenth century
and Sufis enlisted its services to spread their message.
● Amir Khusro (1254-1325) a Sufi and an innovator, contributed to the evolution of Qawwali. It is a mode of singing rather
than a form of composition.
● In performance Qawwali presents a fascinating, interchanging use of the solo and choral modalities.
14.4.14 Tappa, Punjab
● Tappa is a form of semi classical vocal music inspired by the folk songs of camel riders in the Punjab area.
● Tappa, in Punjabi and Pashto language, is set in ragas generally used for the semi classical forms.
● It is characterised by jumpy and flashy tonal movements with rhythmic and rapid notes.

14.4.15 Powada, Maharashtra

● Powada is the traditional folk art from Maharashtra.
● The word Powada itself means “the narration of a story in glorious terms”. The narratives are always odes in praise of
an individual hero or an incident or place.
● The chief narrator is known as the Shahir who plays the duff to keep the rhythm.
● The tempo is fast and controlled by the main singer who is supported by others in the chorus.

14.4.16 Burrakatha, Andhra Pradesh

● Burrakatha is a highly dramatic form of ballad.
● A bottle shaped drum (tambura) is played by the main performer while reciting a story.
● The ballad singers, like stage actors, wear makeup and a highly stylised costume.
14.4.17 Bhakha, Jammu and Kashmir
● The Bhakha form of folk music is popular in the Jammu region.
● Bhakha is sung by the villagers when harvesting is done. It is considered to be the regional music with most melodic and
harmonious elements.
● It is sung to the accompaniment of instruments like harmonium.

14.4.18 Bhuta song, Kerala

● The basis of Bhuta song is rooted in superstitions.
● Some communities of Kerala do Bhuta rituals to send away the evil ghost and spirits.
● This ritual is accompanied with vigorous dancing and the music has a piercing and eerie character.

14.4.19 Daskathia, Odisha

● Daskathia is a form of ballad singing prevalent in Odisha.
● Daskathia is a name derived from a unique musical instrument called “Kathi” or “Ram Tali”, wooden clappers used during
the presentation.
● The performance is a form of worship and offering on behalf of the “Das”, the devotee.

14.4.20 Bihu songs, Assam

● Bihu songs (bihu geet) are the most distinctive type of folk songs of Assam, both for their literary content and for their musical
mode.
● Bihu songs are blessings for a happy new year and the dance is associated with an ancient fertility cult.
● It is Bihu time when an opportunity is there for marriageable young men and women to exchange their feelings and even to
choose their partners.

14.4.21 Sana Lamok, Manipur

● Manipur’s hills and valley-both are fond of music and dance. Sana Lamok is sung at the time of coronation ceremony by
the Maaiba (priest).
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● It may also be sung to welcome the king. It is sung to evoke the spirit of Pakhangba, the presiding deity. There is a belief
that this song is potent with magical powers.
14.4.22 Songs of Lai Haraoba Festival, Manipur
● The meaning of Lai Haraoba is the festival of gods and goddesses.
● It is performed for the Umang-Lai (forest deity). Ougri Hangen, song of creation and Heijing Hirao a ritualistic song is sung
on the last day of Lai Haraoba festival.

14.4.23 Saikuti Zai (songs of Saikuti), Mizoram

● Mizo are traditionally known as a ‘singing tribe’. The regional folk songs of Mizoram constitute the richest heritage of Mizos.
● Saikuti, a poetess of Mizoram composed songs in praise of warriors, brave hunters, young men aspiring to be great warriors
and hunters etc.

14.4.24 Chai hia (songs of the Chai Dance), Mizoram

● As per Mizo custom during the Chapchar Kut festival not only singing, dance should also continue throughout the festival.
Special occasions for singing and dancing are called ‘chai’ and songs are known as ‘chai hia’ (chai songs).

14.4.25 Basanti/ Basant Geet, Garhwal

● Basant or spring season is welcomed in a unique manner in Garhwal.
● Land is filled with different colourful flowers. On Basant Panchmi floor designs are made with the rice flour and the green
oats bundles are used to put impressions with cow dung.
● Swings are tied on the trees and folk songs are sung.

14.4.26 Ghasiyari Geet, Garhwal

● Young women of the mountains have to go into far off forests to get grass for their cattle.
● They go to the forest dancing and singing in groups. Alongwith entertainment emphasis is laid on the importance of labour
in the Ghasyari Geet.

14.4.27 Sukar ke Biah, Bhojpuri Song

● Bhojpuri songs portray a lively picture of common folk. They give expression to the innermost feelings of simple hearts.
● Village folks have their own interpretations of nature, planets and constellations.
○ The story of Shukra and Brihaspat is sung even today – how Shukra forgets the wedding ornament and comes
back to take it, where he finds his mother drinking rice water, which is poor man’s food.
○ On asking mother about this, his mother answers that she doesn't know whether Shukra's wife will even give her
rice water or not. Shukra decides to remain unmarried.

14.4.28 Villu Pattu, “Bow Song”, Tamil Nadu

● Villu Pattu is a popular folk music of Tamil Nadu.
● The lead singer also plays the role of the main performer. He also handles the dominating instrument which is bow shaped.
● The songs revolve around theological themes and the conquest of good over evil is emphasised.

14.4.29 Ammanaivari, Tamil Nadu

● Ammanaivari are songs sung in praise of the Chola monarch.
● Ammanai is a wooden ball and the women folk sing appropriate songs while playing the ball.

15 Musical Instruments
15.1 Historical background
● India is the inheritor of one of the most ancient and evolved music systems in the world. The continuity of the musical
traditions of India is established through a study of musical texts and numerous visual references one finds of musical
instruments in painting and sculpture from prehistoric times to the present day.
● The earliest evidence of music activity is found on the walls of cave paintings at Bhimbetka and in several parts of Madhya
Pradesh, which were occupied by man approximately 10,000 years ago.
● Much later, in the excavations of the Harappan Civilization also, evidence is available of dance and music activity.
● Musical instruments are the tangible and material representation of music which is an auditory art.
● A study of these helps in tracing the evolution of music and also explains many aspects of the material culture of the
group of people to which these instruments belong.
○ For instance, the hair used for making the bow, the wood or clay used for making the drum, or the hide of
animals used in the instruments, all these tell us about the flora and fauna of a particular region.
● The Tamil word for instrument—Karuvi is found in Sangam literature of the 2nd to 6th century A.D., the literal meaning of
which is "tool". This is extended to mean instrument in the context of music.
● Very ancient instruments may be seen as an extension of the human body and can be found even today, sticks and clappers.
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○ Dried fruit rattles, the Kaniyani Danda of Oraons or the dried berries or shells tied to the waist are used for producing
rhythm, even today.
● The hand was referred to as the Hasta Veena, where the hands and fingers are used to show the notation system of vedic
chanting, coordinating sound with mudra-hand gesture.

15.2 Instruments
● In the Natya Shastra, compiled by Bharat Muni dated 200 B.C.—200 A.D., musical instruments have been divided into four
main categories on the basis of how sound is produced.
1. The Tata Vadya or Chordophones- Stringed instruments
2. The Sushira Vadya or Aerophones- Wind instruments
3. The Avanaddha Vadya or Membranophones- Percussion instruments
4. The Ghana Vadya or Idiophones- Solid instruments which do not require tuning.
15.2.1 Tata Vadya - Stringed Instruments
● The tata vadya is a category of instruments in which sound is produced by the vibration of a string or chord.
○ These vibrations are caused by plucking or by bowing on the string which has been pulled taut.
○ The length of the vibrating string or wire, the degree to which it has been tightened, determines the pitch of the
note and also to some extent the duration of the sound.
● The tata vadya are divided into two broad categories—the plucked and the bowed, and further subdivided into the fretted
and non-fretted variety.
● The oldest evidence of stringed instruments in our land, however, are harps in the shape of the hunters bow.
○ They had a varying number of parallel strings made of fibre or gut. There used to be one string for each note,
plucked either with the fingers or with the plectrum called the kona.
● Veena:
○ was the generic term for stringed instruments referred to in texts: and we have the ekatantri, the shata-tantri veena,
etc. The Chitra had seven strings and the Vipanchi nine; the first was played with the fingers and the second with
a plectrum.
● Kamaicha:
○ The Kamaicha is a bowed lute played by the manganiars of
west Rajasthan.
○ The whole instrument is one piece of wood, the spherical
bowl extending into a neck and fingerboard; the resonator is
covered with leather and the upper portion with wood.
○ There are four main strings and a number of subsidiary ones
passing over a thin bridge.
○ The kamaicha links the sub-continent to Western Asia and
Africa and is considered by some scholars to be the oldest
instrument, with the exception of the Ravana Hatta or
Ravana Hasta Veena.
15.2.2 Sushira Vadya
● In the Sushira Vadya group, sound is produced by blowing air into a hollow column.
○ The pitch of the note is determined by controlling the air passage and the melody is played by using the fingers to
open and close the instrument.
● The simplest of these instruments is the flute. Generally flutes are made of bamboo or wood and the Indian musician
prefers these due to the tonal and musical attributes of these materials.
○ However, there are references to flutes made of red sandalwood, black wood, cane, ivory, bronze, silver and gold
also.
● Excavations of the Indus civilizations have shown bird whistles of clay, and seals which show wind and percussion
instruments.
○ Actual musical instruments are made of bamboo, wood, animal hide, etc. which perish when buried for any length
of time, hence, flutes made of wood or bamboo have not
survived the ravages of time and are not found in excavations
of past civilizations.
● There is reference in the Vedas to an instrument-the Venu which was
used as an accompaniment to chanting and recitation.
○ There is also mention of a kind of a flute called the Nadi.
● The flute has a variety of names like Venu, Vamsi, Bansuri, Murali and
so on in the north, and Pullankuzhal, Pillankarovi and Kolalu in the
south.
● The wind instruments are roughly divided into two categories on the
basis of how sound is produced. They are:
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○ The flutes, and

○ The reed instruments—like the Shehnai, Nadaswaram, etc.,
15.2.3 Avanaddha Vadya
● In the Avanaddha Vadya category of instruments, sound is produced
by striking the animal skin which has been stretched across an
earthen or metal pot or a wooden barrel or frame.
● The earliest references to such instruments have been found in the
Vedas where there is mention of Bhumi Dundhubhi; this was a hollow
pit dug in the ground and covered with the hide of a buffalo or ox which
was stretched across the pit.
○ The tail of the animal was used for striking the animal hide and
thus sound was produced.
● Drums have been divided into different categories on the basis of their shapes and
structure as also the position and placement for playing.
● The main categories are— Oordhwaka, Ankya, Aliya and the wasted or the Damaru
family of drums.
● Oordhwaka
○ The Oordhwaka drums are placed vertically before the musician and sound is
produced by striking them with sticks or the fingers. Prominent among these
are the Tabla pair and Chenda.
● Ankya:
○ The Ankya drums are held horizontally before the musician and usually both
sides are covered with animal hide. Sound is produced by striking both sides
with sticks or fingers.
○ Today, in this variety, the Mridangam, Pakhawaj, Khol, etc. are prominent.
○ The musician may sit on the floor and play the instrument or hang it from the neck while dancing or standing. Seals
which have been excavated of the Indus Civilization show figures of men playing the horizontal drums hung from
the neck.
● Alingya:
○ The third variety are the Alingya drums. These drums have the animal hide fixed to a
wooden round frame and are embraced or held close to the body with one hand while the
other hand is used for playing on the instrument.
○ Under this category, the Duff, Dufflies, etc. are very popular.
● Damaru types:
○ The instruments in this category range from the small Huddaka of Himachal Pradesh to
the larger instrument known as Timila of the southern region. The former is struck with
the hands while the latter is hung from the shoulders and played with sticks and fingers.
These are also known as the hourglass variety of drums as their shape resembles an
hourglass.
15.2.4 3.2.4 Ghana Vadya
● The earliest instruments invented by man are said to be the Ghana Vadya.
● Once constructed, this variety of instrument does not need special tuning prior to playing.
● In early times these instruments were the extension of the human body such as sticks, clappers,
rods, etc. and were also closely related to objects of utility in daily life such as pots and pans,
jhanj, falams, etc.
● They are principally rhythmic in function and are best suited as accompaniment to folk and tribal
music and dance.
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Languages & Literature

16 Languages in India 84
16.1 Indo Aryan Group of Languages 84
17 Classical Languages 85
18 Official Languages 86
19 Ancient Scripts of India 86
19.1 Indus Script 86
19.2 Brahmi Script 87
19.3 Gupta Script 87
19.4 Kharosthi Script 87
19.5 Vatteluttu Script 87
19.6 Kadamba Script 87
19.7 Grantha Script 87
19.8 Sarada Script 87
19.9 Gurmukhi Script 87
19.10 Devanagari Script 87
19.11 Modi Script 87
19.12 Urdu Script 88
20 Ancient Indian Literature 88
20.1 Vedas 88
20.2 Brahmanas 89
20.3 Arayankas 89
20.4 Upanishads 89
20.5 Ramayana 89
20.6 Mahabharata 90
20.7 Puranas 90
21 Sanskrit Drama 90
22 Sanskrit Poetry 91
23 Major Sanskrit texts 91
24 Literature in Pali and Prakrit 91
25 Mediaeval Literature 92
25.1 Persian 92
25.2 Urdu 93
26 Hindi 93
26.1 During Medieval times 93
26.2 During Modern times 94
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16 Languages in India
● Language in its literary meaning is a system of communication through speech, a collection of sounds that a group of
people understand to have the same meaning.
● A language family includes individual languages related through a common ancestor that existed before the
recorded history.
● Dialect is a form of language spoken in a local area. It should be noted that several dialects can be derived from a
particular language.
● The languages spoken around the various corners of India belong to several language families where most of them
belong to the IndoAryan group of languages.

16.1 Indo Aryan Group of Languages

● It is a branch of the larger Indo-European family which came to India with the advent of the Aryans. It is the largest
language group of India and around 74% of the Indians speak those languages which belong to this group.
● This language group is again sub-divided into three groups depending upon the time period of their origin.
16.1.1 Old Indo Aryan Group
● This group had its development around 1500 B.C. and Sanskrit was born out of this group. The ancient form of
Sanskrit is what we find in the Vedas.
● Even Upanishads, Puranas and Dharmasutras were all written in Sanskrit. It can be said that Sanskrit is the mother of
many Indian languages. The understanding of the diversity and richness of our culture has been possible all because of
the development of Sanskrit language during those times.
● It is the most ancient language of our country and is one of the 22 scheduled languages listed in the Constitution.

Development of Sanskrit
➢ The development of Sanskrit grammar began with Panini in 400 B.C. with his book Asthadhyayi being the oldest book
in Sanskrit grammar.
➢ Some of the Buddhist literature belonging to Mahayana and the Hinayana school are even written in Sanskrit
language.
➢ The book Mahavastu of the Hinayana school is a treasure of stories. Lalitavistara, the most sacred Mahayana text
and Ashvagosha’s Buddhacharita were also written in Sanskrit.
➢ Sanskrit is the only language that transcended the barriers of region and boundaries. From north to south and from
east to west, there is no part in India that has not contributed to or been not affected by the Sanskrit language.
➢ The first evidence of the use of Sanskrit can be found in the inscriptions of Rudradamana at Junagarh in the
present Southern Gujarat region. ➢ However it was the Gupta period when the use of Sanskrit in poetries can be
traced. This is totally a period of creation of pure literature which is evident in the works as Mahakavyas (epics) and
Khandakavyas (semi-epics).

16.1.2 Middle Indo Aryan Group

● The period of development of this sub-group is between 600 BC to 1000 AD and started with the development of
Prakrit language.
● Prakrit is understood to mean natural, original, and which explains to us that it did not have strict rules of usage and
was the common tongue. Prakrit is a broader term under which all the Middle Indo-Aryan group languages are generally
clubbed together.
● Many languages such as Ardha-Magadhi, Pali (used by Theravada Buddhists), Apabhramsha, find their origin
from the Prakrit. Prakrit was associated with the common people.
● On the other hand, Sanskrit was orthodox, had fixed rules and was used by learned people or the elites, especially
Brahmins. The writing of texts in Prakrit is relatively a late development, as compared to Sanskrit. Prakrit and Ardha-
Magadhi language were used in the Jain ‘Agamas’.
Prakrit includes:
1. Pali: It was widely spoken in Magadha. It was popular during 5th- 1st century BC. It is closely related to Sanskrit, and
the texts in Pali were written generally in Brahmi script. The Tripitaka of Buddhism were also written in Pali. It serves
as the lingua franca of Theravada Buddhism. It is believed that Buddha himself did not speak in Pali but gave his
preachings in ardha-magadhi language.
2. Magadhi Prakrit or Ardha-Magadhi: It is the most important kind of Prakrit. Its literary use increased after the decline
of Sanskrit and Pali. 1000 AD and started with the development of Prakrit language. Buddha and Mahavira perhaps
spoke in Ardha-Magadhi. It was the court language of few Mahajanapadas and also the Mauryan dynasty. Several
Jain texts and Rock edicts of Ashoka were also written in Ardha-Magadhi. It later evolved into languages of Eastern
India namely Bengali, Assamese, Odia, Maithili, Bhojpuri, etc.
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3. Shauraseni: It was widely used to write dramas in the medieval India. It is a predecessor to Northern Indian languages.
Jain monks wrote mainly in this version of Prakrit. An important text of Digambars, ‘Shatkhandgama’ is written in
Shauraseni.
4. Maharashtri Prakrit: Spoken till 9th century AD, it was a predecessor to Marathi and Konkani. It was used widely in
western and southern India. It was the official language of Satavahana dynasty. Several dramas were written in it like
‘Gaha Kosha’ by King Hala, ‘Gaudavaho’ (slaying of the king of Gauda) by Vakpati.
5. Elu: ancient form of modern Sinhala language of Sri Lanka, it is similar to Pali.
6. Paishachi: It is also called ‘Bhuta-Bhasa’ (dead language) and it is often regarded as Prakrit. Gunadhya’s Brihatkatha
(6th century), an ancient epic is written in Paishachi. It is regarded as an unimportant dialect.
7. Apabhramsa By 6th-7th century, the development of ‘Apabhramsa’ (corrupt or non-grammatical) took place.
Apabhramsa is also an umbrella term which means dialects other than Sanskrit or even Prakrit. It represents a
transition from Middle to Modern Indo-Aryan Group of languages. Apabhramsha gradually became a literary language
and was used to write several texts, legends, etc. By the 7th century, Apabhramsa developed its own identity.
16.1.3 Modern Indo Aryan Group
The languages belonging to this group are Hindi, Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Marathi, Punjabi, Rajasthani, Sindhi, Odia, Urdu
etc. The languages under this sub-group developed gradually after 1000 AD. These languages are mainly spoken in the northern,
western and the eastern parts of India.
● Dravidian Group- This group comprises mainly of the languages spoken in the southern part of India. Around 25% of
the Indian population is covered under this group.
➢ Proto Dravidian gave rise to 21 Dravidian languages. They can be broadly classified into three groups:
Northern group, Central group and Southern group.

➢ Among these 21 languages of the Dravidian Group, the four major languages of the Dravidian group are: Telugu
(numerically the largest of all Dravidian languages) Tamil (oldest and purest form of language) Kannada,
Malayalam (smallest and the youngest of the Dravidian group).
● Sino-Tibetan Group- Languages under this group belong to Mongoloid family and stretch to all over the Himalayas, North
Bihar, North Bengal, Assam and up to the North-Eastern frontiers of the nation. These languages are considered to the older
than the Indo-Aryan languages and are referred to in the oldest Sanskrit literature as Kiratas. 0.6% of the Indian population
speaks languages belonging to this group.
● Austric- Languages under this group belong to Austro-asiatic sub-family which are represented by the languages of
Munda or Kol group and spoken in Central, Eastern and North-Eastern India. Some of them also belong to Mon-
Khmer group, viz Khasi and Nicobarese.
➢ The existence of these languages have been much before the advent of the Aryans and were referred to in
ancient Sanskrit literature as Nisadas.
➢ Santhali is the most important language under this group which is spoken among by Santhal tribals of
Jharkhand, Bihar and Bengal. With the
exceptions of Khasi and Santhali, all Austro-asiatic languages on Indian territory are endangered.

17 Classical Languages
● In 2004, the Government of India declared that languages that meet certain requirements would be accorded the status of a
“Classical Language in India”. These criterion include:
➢ High antiquity of its early texts/recorded history over a period of 1500–2000 years;
➢ A body of ancient literature/texts, which is considered a valuable heritage by generations of speakers;
➢ the literary tradition be original and not borrowed from another speech community;
➢ The classical language and literature being distinct from modern, there may also be a discontinuity between the
classical language and its later forms or its offshoots.
● Languages so far declared to be Classical language are:

● Tamil ● 2004

● Telugu ● 2008

● Malayalam ● 2013
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● Sanskrit ● 2005

● Kannada ● 2008

● Odia ● 2014

● Government of India’s resolution states that the following benefits will accrue to a language declared as a “Classical
Language”:
➢ Two major international awards for scholars of eminence in Classical Indian Languages to be awarded
annually.
➢ A ‘Centre of Excellence for Studies in Classical Languages’ will be set up. ➢ The University Grants
Commission will be requested to create and to start with at least in the Central Universities, a certain number of
Professional Chairs for Classical Languages for scholars of eminence in Classical Indian Languages.

18 Official Languages
● Article 343 (1) of the Constitution of India states that “The Official Language of the Union Government shall be Hindi in
Devanagari script.” “Unless Parliament decided otherwise, the use of English for official purposes was to cease 15
years after the Constitution came into effect”, i.e. on 26 January 1965.
● It means over a period of fifteen years since the commencement of the Indian Constitution, Hindi will replace English as
the official language. However, Parliament can decide whether to use English as the official language or not.
● This led to protests across the nation by the non-Hindi speaking communities against the change in official language from
English to Hindi. The protest resulted in the enactment of the Official Language Act, 1963. This Act declares Hindi in
Devanagari script as the official language of the Union. English has been given the status of “subsidiary official
language” of the union. The Constitution of India made a provision for each of the Indian states to choose their own
official language for communications at the State level.
● There are many languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution which may be used by the States for the
official purpose. The language to be adopted by the States need not be one of those listed in the Eighth Schedule. Initially 14
languages were selected under the Eighth Schedule. They were:
Assamese Hindi Malayalam Telugu Marathi Sanskrit Gujarati

Punjabi Bengali Kannada Urdu Kashmiri Tamil Odia

● Later Sindhi was added as the 15th language through the 21st Amendment Act of 1967.
● Three more languages were added by 71st Amendment Act, 1992. They are Konkani, Manipuri, and Nepali.
● 92nd Amendment Act, 2003 added four more languages to the Eighth Schedule. They are Bodo, Maithili, Dogri and
Santhali. At present there are 22 languages in total listed under the eighth schedule of the Indian Constitution.

Note- There is no national language of India. Hindi is not a national language. Neither does the Constitution nor any Act
defines the national language.

19 Ancient Scripts of India

● A script is also known as writing system or orthography.
● It is a standard for representing the parts of a spoken language by making specific marks on a medium (Paper, rocks,
birch-bark, etc).
● The two ancient scripts in India comprise Brahmi script and Kharosthi script.
19.1 Indus Script
● The Indus script is a corpus of symbols produced by the Indus Valley Civilization. Most inscriptions are extremely
short. It is not clear if these symbols constitute a script used to record a language.
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19.2 Brahmi Script

● Some believe that Brahmi was derived from contemporary Semitic script or may be Indus script. All surviving Indic scripts
in SouthEast asia are descendants of the Brahmi.

● The best-known Brahmi inscriptions are the rock-cut edicts of Ashoka in north-central India, dated to 250–232 BCE.
The script was deciphered in 1837 by James Prinsep.
● Brahmi is usually written from left to right. Brahmi is an abugida, meaning that each letter represents a consonant,
while vowels are written with obligatory diacritics called matras in Sanskrit, except when the vowels commence a word.

19.3 Gupta Script

● It belongs to the Gupta Empire and was used to write Sanskrit. Gupta script descended from Brahmi and gave rise to the
Nagari, Sharada and Siddham scripts.

19.4 Kharosthi Script

● The Kharosthi script (3rd Century BC – 3rd Century AD) is an ancient script used in ancient Gandhara (present Afghanistan
and Pakistan) to write the Gandhari Prakrit and Sanskrit.
● It is a sister script of Brahmi and was deciphered by James Princep again.
19.5 Vatteluttu Script
● The Vatteluttu alphabet is an abugida writing system originating in South India. Developed from Tamil-Brahmi,
Vatteluttu is one of the three main alphabet systems developed by Tamil people to write the Granthi or Pallava alphabet
and the Tamil script.

19.6 Kadamba Script

● The Kadamba script marks the birth of a dedicated script for writing Kannada. It is also a descendant of the Brahmi
script and developed during the reign of the Kadamba dynasty in the 4th-6th centuries.
● This script later became Kannada-Telugu script.
19.7 Grantha Script
● The Grantha script was widely-used between the sixth century and the 20th centuries by Tamil speakers in South India,
particularly in Tamil Nadu and Kerala, to write Sanskrit and the classical language Manipravalam, and is still in restricted
use in traditional Vedic schools.

● It is a Brahmic script, having evolved from the Brahmi script in Tamil Nadu.

● The Malayalam script is a direct descendant of Grantha as are the Tigalari and Sinhala alphabets.

19.8 Sarada Script

● The Sarada or Sharada script is an abugida writing system of the Brahmic family of scripts, developed around the 8th
century.
● It was used for writing Sanskrit and Kashmiri.
● Originally more widespread, its use became later restricted to Kashmir, and it is now rarely used except by the Kashmiri
Pandit community for ceremonial purposes.

19.9 Gurmukhi Script

● Gurmukhi is developed from the Sarada script and was standardised during the 16th century by Guru Angad. The
whole of the Guru Granth Sahib is written in this script, and it is the script most commonly used by Sikhs and Hindus
for writing the Punjabi language.

19.10 Devanagari Script

● Devanagari is an abugida alphabet of India and Nepal. It is written from left to right. The Devanagari script is used for
over 120 languages, including Hindi, Marathi, Nepali, Pali, Konkani, Bodo, Sindhi and Maithili among other
languages and dialects, making it one of the most used and adopted writing systems in the world. The Devanagari
script is also used for classical Sanskrit texts.

19.11 Modi Script

● Modi is a script used to write the Marathi language. Modi was an official script used to write Marathi until the 20th century
when the Balbodh style of the Devanagari script was promoted as the standard writing system for Marathi. Although
Modi was primarily used to write Marathi, other languages such as Urdu, Kannada, Gujarati, Hindi and Tamil are also
 88

known to have been written in Modi.

19.12 Urdu Script

● The Urdu alphabet is the right-to-left alphabet used for the Urdu language. It is a modification of the Persian
alphabet, which is itself a derivative of the Arabic alphabet and has its origins in the 13th century.
● It is closely related to the development of the Nastaliq style of Perso-Arabic script. Urdu script in its extended form is
known as Shahmukhi script and is used for writing other Indo-Aryan languages of the North Indian subcontinent like
Punjabi and Saraiki as well.

20 Ancient Indian Literature

● The most popular set of works from the ancient period are the Vedas that are sacred texts used in religious rituals as well
as in daily situations.
● However, there is a lot of literature in Prakrit, which is full of realism and moral values without religious connotations being
attached to it.

20.1 Vedas
● The word ‘Veda’ signifies knowledge and the texts are actually about providing humans about knowledge to conduct their
entire life on earth and beyond. ● It is written in highly stylised poetic style and the language is full of symbols and
myths. The Vedas were initially handed down orally by generations of Brahmin families but it is estimated by historians that
they were compiled around 1500 BC-1000 BC.
● In the Hindu tradition, they are considered sacred because they are the divine revelations, which were determined by gods
to guide humans eternally. They also have larger implications on our lives as they treat the universe and its inhabitants
as one big family and preach Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam.
● There are four major Vedas: Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda. These were mostly written by vedic
seers and poets called the rishis who envisioned the cosmic mysteries and wrote them in the form of Sanskrit poetry. All
the Vedas give prominence to yagna (sacrifice). The Brahmanas, the Upanishads and the Aranyakas accompany each
Veda.
20.1.1 Rig Veda

● The Rig Veda is the oldest existing Veda amongst the other four. It consists of 1028 individual Sanskrit hymns. It is said to
be one of the first extensive compositions in any Indo-European language that has survived for our perusal.
● Historians argue that it was compiled around 1200-900 BC. The focus of this Veda is on worldly prosperity and natural beauty.
The text is organised in 10 books, known as Mandalas, of varying age and length.
● Furthermore, each mandala comprises several Suktas or hymns, which are usually for sacrificial purposes. Most of the
hymns concentrate on the themes of life, death, creation, sacrifice and for seeking godly pleasure or soma.
● The entire Rig vedic hymns are dedicated to several deities, in particular to their chief deity, Indra. The other prominent
Gods mentioned in the Rig Veda are Agni (God of fire), Varuna (God of water), Rudra (God of wind/storm), Aditya (a
form of Sun God), Vayu (God of air) and the Ashwini twins.
● There are several hymns dedicated to female Goddesses too; like Usha (Goddess of dawn), Prithvi (Goddess of earth)
and Vak (the Goddess of speech).
20.1.2 Atharva Veda
● This Veda is also known as Brahma Veda and has been attributed to two rishis called Atharvah and Angira, respectively.
Because of its association with the two rishis, in the olden times it was also called Atharvangirasa.
● While it is mostly concerned with peace and prosperity of the human society and covers all aspects of a man’s daily
life, it specifically focuses on treatment of several ailments.
● The book is known to prescribe treatment for almost 99 diseases. There are two major recensions (sakhas) of the text
called the Paippalada and Saunakiya.
● Most of the text deals with healing and black and white magic; speculation on the changes in the universe; and even
touches upon issues of the everyday problems in a householder’s life.
20.1.3 Yajur Veda
● The name ‘Yajus’ signifies ‘sacrifice’ and this Veda concentrates on rites and mantras of different types of sacrifices that
were prevalent in the Vedic times.
● There are two major recensions (samhita) of the Yajur Veda: Shukla (white/pure) and Krishna (black/dark).
● These samhita’s are also called: Vajasaneyi Samhita and Taittiriya Samhita. The Yajur Veda is predominantly a ritual
Veda as it acts like a guide book for the rishis/priests who conduct sacrificial rituals.
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20.1.4 Sama Veda

● Sama Veda has been named after ‘Saman’ (melody) and it concentrates on melody or songs. While the entire text has
1875 hymns, historians argue that 75 are original and the rest have been taken from the Sakala branch of the Rig
Veda.
● It consists of hymns, detached verses and 16,000 raga (musical notes) and raginis. It is because of the lyrical nature of
the text that it has also been called the ‘book of chants’. It also shows us how Indian music has developed in the
Vedic period.

20.2 Brahmanas
● The Brahmanas are part of the Hindu sruti (revealed knowledge) literature. Each Veda has a Brahmana attached to it,
which is essentially a collection of texts with commentaries on the particular Veda.
● They are usually a mixture of legends, facts, philosophy and detailed explanations of Vedic rituals. They also consist of
instructions as to how to properly conduct rituals and enunciate the science of sacrifice.
● They also explain the symbolic significance of the sacred words used in the rituals. Although historians disagree on
the dating of the Brahmanas, it is usually pegged to be composed and compiled between 900-700 BC. As mentioned
above, each Veda has its accompanying Brahmana.

20.3 Arayankas
● The Arayankas are also texts attached to the Vedas and they describe the rituals and sacrifices involved in the Vedas
from various perspectives.
● They are said to be compilations of ritualistic information on the birth and death cycles as well as the complexity of
the soul.
● It is argued that holy and learned men, called Munis, who preferred to dwell within the limits of the forests, taught them.

20.4 Upanishads

● The term Upanishad or u (at), pa (foot), ni (down) and s(h)ad (to sit), i.e. to sit down near (the teacher), describes the text
completely. We have more than 200 known Upanishads and the teacher usually passed them down verbally to his
students in the forest while they sat in front of him. This tradition was part of the guru-shishya parampara.
● These are treatises written in Sanskrit and give an account of the Vedas in predominantly monastic and mystical terms. As
they are generally the last part of the Vedas, they are also known as Vedanta or ‘end (anta) of the Veda’.
● The Upanishads are said to have the ‘truth’ about human life and show the way towards human salvation or moksha.
● They continue to talk about the abstract and philosophical problems faced by mankind, especially about the origin of this
universe, supposed origin of mankind, life and death cycle and the material and spiritual quests of man.
● Out of the above-mentioned 200 Upanishads, a set of 108 Upanishads has been called the Muktika Canon. This is
supposed to be an important canon as the number 108 is equivalent to the number of beads on a Hindu rosary or mala.
● The teachings propounded in the Upanishads have been part of the founding rituals of Hinduism.
● Some of the important Upnishads are:
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad Maitri Upanishad

Mandukya Upanishad Prashna Upanishad

Mundaka Upanishad Svetasvatara Upanishad

Isha Upanishad Katha Upanishad

Kena Upanishad Kausitaki Upanishad

Aitareya Upanishad Taittiriya Upanishad

Chandogya Upanishad

20.5 Ramayana
● The most famous and revered recension of the Ramayana is by the sage Valmiki who is also called as Adikavi or the
first amongst the poets. By the same logic Ramayana is called Adikavya or the first amongst the poetry.
● Although there is a great debate on the dating of Ramayana, most historians argue that it was first compiled around 1500
BC. In this epic, through the story of Rama who is projected as the ideal man, we are instructed on how to achieve the four-
fold objectives (Purushartha) of mankind:
➢ Dharma- Religion or righteousness
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➢ Artha- Achievements in the worldly sphere

➢ Kama- Fulfilling worldly desires
➢ Moksha- Liberation from these desire
● The Ramayana consists of 24,000 verses and is divided into seven books, called Khandas. It is considered as an epic as it
presents the details of the war between Lord Rama and demon king Ravana over the kidnapping of Rama’s wife, Sita.
There are several major characters like Hanuman, Lakshmana, Vibhishana, etc who were instrumental in the fight that
was fought in Lanka (modern Sri Lanka), where Rama triumphed over Ravana and brought back his wife. This success
has been considered to be the victory of good over evil.

20.6 Mahabharata
● The Mahabharata has several versions, but the most popular one is penned by Ved Vyas. It was written in Sanskrit and
initially had 8,800 verses. This version was called ‘Jaya’ or the story of ‘victory’.
● After that several stories were compiled and added to this collection. The number of verses increased to 24,000 and it was
renamed as ‘Bharata’ after the earliest Vedic tribes. The current form consists of 1,00,000 verses and is divided
into 10 parvas (chapters) with insets in the texts which are called Itihas Purana (mythical history).
● The story is based on the conflict between the Kauravas and the Pandavas over the right to claim the throne of
Hastinapur.
● The sutradhar of the story is Lord Krishna. The Mahabharata also consists of an important didactical text of Hindus, i.e., the
Bhagwata Gita. This text is like a concise guide to Hindu religions’ philosophical dilemmas and even acts like a guide to
mankind on how to live a righteous life.
● Most of the text is a dialogue between Lord Krishna and the Pandava prince Arjuna about the duties of a man,
warrior and prince. He also elaborates on the problem of violence versus non-violence; action versus non-action and
in the end about the Dharma.
● He even makes distinction between various kinds of Dharma and prefers that Arjuna and mankind should follow
Nishkama Karma, i.e. to perform one’s duty to the family and the world in a selfless way.
● Both the above-mentioned epics have been retold in several Indian and foreign languages. It has been dramatised by
theatres as well as by television. It is not only because both the stories have a universal appeal, but because they show
the right way of human existence and of the necessity of positiveness of human actions.

20.7 Puranas
● As the word ‘Purana’ suggests, these texts talk about ‘that which renews the old’. These are ancient Indian
mythological texts, which consist of the narrative stories about the creation of the universe and illustrate its history till
the supposed destruction of the universe.
● It contains the stories of the kings, heroes, sages, and demiGods, but it focuses on the divine Hindu trimurti or
trinity/ three Gods: Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh.
● There are 18 major Puranas (Mahapuranas) and each gives prominence to a particular deity and expound on the
philosophical and religious concepts related to them.
● Some of the more prominent and well-known Puranas are Bhagvata, Brahma, Vayu, Agni, Garuda, Padma,
Vishnu and Matsya.
● These contain anecdotes about the social, cultural and religious life of post-Vedic India and provide the historians with
critical information about the geography, history and the dynastic genealogies.
● These Puranas are written in the form of stories, which combine myths, legends and sermons about the deities and this
easy form of story-writing made it very popular amongst the masses who did not always understand the complex Vedas.
● Panchtantra written by Vishnu Sharma is didactic fable comprises of several stories with morals and knowledge about the
world through animals.
● Another well-known work from the same genre is Hitopadesha, written by Narayan Pandit. This also has several non-
human and animal elements imparting the wisdom to humans.

21 Sanskrit Drama
The rules regarding the performance, acting, gestures, stage direction and acting have been illustrated in the Natyasastra by
Bharata (1 BC–1 AD). Major dramas written in this period are:

Kalidasa ● Malavikagnimitra (The love story of Malavika a maiden of Queen

and Agnimitra the son of Pushyamitra Shunga)
● Vikramorvasiya (Love story of Vikram and Urvasi)
● Abhigyana Shakuntala (the recognition of Shakuntala)

Sudraka ● Mricchakatika (The Little Clay Cart) Love affair of young brahmin
Charudatta with a wealthy courtesan
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Vishakhdutta ● Mudra Rakshasa (is a political drama and narrates ascent of king
Chandragupta Maurya to power in India)
● DeviChandraguptam

Bhavabhuti ● Uttara Ramacharitam (the later life of Rama). It was written in

700 AD.

Bhasa ● Swapnavasavadatta (Vasavadatta in dream), Pancharatra, Urubhanga

(story of Duryodhana during and after his fight with Bhima.

Harshavardhana ● Ratnavali (about the love story of princess Ratnavali, daughter of the
king of Ceylon and king Udayana. We find here, the mention of
celebration of Holi for the first time).
● Nagananda (story of how prince Jimutavahana gives up his own
body to stop a sacrifice of serpents to the divine Garuda. One unique
character in this drama is invocation to lord Buddha in the Nandi verse)
● Priyadarsika (union of Udayana and Priyadarshika, daughter of
King Dridhavarman)

22 Sanskrit Poetry
● This genre is also called Kavya or poetry. Unlike the drama section where the story is the main focus of the text, poetry
concentrates more on the form, style, figure of speech, etc.
● One of the greatest Sanskrit poets is Kalidasa who wrote Kumara Sambhava (the birth of Kumar), and Raghuvamsa (the
dynasty of the Raghus). He also wrote two smaller epics called Meghaduta (the cloud messenger) and Ritusamhara
(medley of seasons).
● One should not forget to mention the contribution of poets like Harisena who wrote during the Gupta period. He wrote
several poems in praise of valour of Samudra Gupta and it was so well appreciated that it was inscribed on the Allahabad
pillar.
● Another extremely popular Sanskrit poet was Jayadeva who wrote Gita Govinda in the 12th century. It concentrates on
the life and escapades of Lord Krishna. The text combines elements of devotion to Lord Krishna, his love for Radha and
the beauty of nature.

23 Major Sanskrit texts

● Charak Charak Samhita (Book on Medicine)

● Sushruta Sushruta Samhita (Book on surgery)

● Madhava Madhava Nidana (Book on pathology)

● Varamihira Pancha-Siddhantika (Book on astrology)

Brihat Samhita (book on wide ranging subjects like planetary
movements, geology, architecture, etc.

● Aryabhatta Aryabhatiya (Book on astronomy and mathematics)

● Lagdhacharya Book on astrology

24 Literature in Pali and Prakrit

● During the post-Vedic period, apart from Sanskrit, literature was also composed in Prakrit and Pali. Prakrit is a term which
is loosely attached to any language from the standard one, i.e. Sanskrit.
● Pali is usually used to indicate the archaic or old form of Prakrit and it combines several existing dialects.
● These languages gained prominence when religious literature of the Buddhists and Jains were composed in this
language.
● It is said that Lord Buddha used Pali to give his sermons and it is in the same language that they have been
recorded.
Buddhist Canonical Texts
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● The Buddhist literature can be divided into Canonical and Noncanonical works. The Canonical literature consists of
‘Triptikas’ or baskets (of knowledge). ● The three Tripitakas are: Vinaya Pitaka, which covers the rules and
regulations, which should be followed by the Buddhist monks.
● The Sutta Pitaka contains dialogues and speeches of the Buddha that deal with morality and righteous dharma.
● Lastly, the Abhidhamma Pitaka that concentrates on the philosophy and metaphysics. It also contains discussions
on various topics like ethics, theory of knowledge and psychology.

● The Jatakas are the best example of Buddhist non-canonical literature. These are compilation of the stories from the previous
births of Buddha. The stories of the Bodhisattva or the (future) would-be Buddha are also discussed in these Jatakas. Buddhist
literary texts:
● Dipavamsa: It was probably written in 3rd-4th centuries BCE in Anuradhapur (Sri Lanka), during the reign of King
Dhatusena. It literally means “Chronicle of the Island”. It mentions about the visit of Buddha to Sri Lanka and the relics of
Buddha.
● Milinda Panha: It contains a dialogue between King Meander (or Milinda) and Buddhist monk Nagasena. It means
“Questions of Milinda”. These are one of the highest philosophical enquiries.
● Mahavamsa: It is an epic poem written in Pali language. It dates back to 3rd-4th centuries BCE during the reign of King
Vijaya. It is a historical account of various kingdoms of South Asia.
● Mahavastu: It contains Jakata and Avadana tales. It is written in mixed Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit. It is said to compiled
between 2nd century BC-4th century AD. ● Lalitavistara Sutra: meaning “The play in full”, it is an important Mahayana text.
It contains various stories associated with the life of Buddha till his first sermon at Sarnath.
● Udana: It is one of the oldest Theravada (Old School) Buddhist text. It contains the famous story of “Blind Men and the
Elephant”.
● Bodhi Vamsa: It was prose-poem, written in 10th century in Sri Lanka. It was translated from a Sinhalese version. It was
written by Upatissa and is written in Pali. ● Udanavarga: It is a compilation which contains utterances of Buddha and his
disciples. It is written in Sanskrit.
● Mahavibhasa Shastra: It is said to be written around 150CE. It contains discussions about other non-Buddhist
philosophies also. It is essentially a Mahayan text. ● Abhidharmamoksha: It is written by Vasubandhu and is a widely
respected text. It is written in Sanskrit. It contains discussion on Abhidharma.
● Visuddhimagga: It is written by Buddhagosha in 5th century. It is a text of Theravada doctrine. It contains
discussions on various teachings of Buddha.
Jaina Literature:
● Another major religion, Jainism, produced texts in Prakrit.
● They form the basis of the Jain canonical literature. Some of the Jain texts were also written in Sanskrit like the
Upamitibhava Prapancha Katha of Siddharasi (906 A.D.).
● The most important Jain texts written in Prakrit are the Angas, the Upangas and the Parikramas.
● Apart from these the Chhedab Sutra and the Malasutra are also considered to be sacred by the Jains.

25 Mediaeval Literature
25.1 Persian
● Although the roots of Persian language are as old as Sanskrit, it came to India with the coming of Turks and Mongols in
the twelfth century.
● It is during their rule that Persian became the mode of communication of the court. One of the finest Persian poets is Amir
Khusrau Dehlavi (Amir Khusrau of Delhi). Apart from his Diwan (collection of poetry in Persian), he also wrote Nuh
Sipihr and the Masnavi Duwal Rani Khizr Khan, that is a tragic love poem.
● In the Delhi Sultanate, multiple texts were written in Persian. Most of them were concerned with creating histories for the
rulers. Zia-ud din Barani is amongst the top historians of that period and he wrote Tarikh-e-Firuz Shahi.
● Another famous historian was MinhajusSiraj. There are several travel accounts written by famous travellers like Ibn
Batuta (Moroccan traveller) that explain the socio-political scenario of the period.
● The production and dissemination of literature in Persian shot up in the Mughal period. Mughal emperor Babar wrote
Tuzuk-I-Babari in Turkish, which is his autobiography and gives us important information about the Mughal
conquest of India.
● One of the greatest sources about the period of Jahangir was Tuzuk-I-Jahangiri. Another important work is Humayun-
nama which gives an account of his life and struggles to get the throne, written by half-sister of Humayun, Gulbadan
Begum.
● The greatest emperor of this period was Akbar and Ain-e Akbari and Akbarnama written by his court historian Abul
Fazl, are the best examples of literature of this period.
● The Akbar Nama is divided into three books of which the first two are chronicles. The third book is the Ain-i Akbari.
● The Akbar Nama was written to provide a detailed description of Akbar’s reign in the traditional diachronic sense of
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recording politically significant events across time, as well as in the more novel sense of giving a synchronic picture of all
aspects of Akbar’s empire – geographic, social, administrative and cultural – without reference to chronology.
● In the Ain-i Akbari the Mughal Empire is presented as having a diverse population consisting of Hindus, Jainas,
Buddhists and Muslims and a composite culture.
● A pupil of Abu’l Fazl, Abdul Hamid Lahori is known as the author of the Badshah Nama. Emperor Shah Jahan,
hearing of his talents, commissioned him to write a history of his reign modelled on the Akbar Nama. The Badshah
Nama is this official history in three volumes (daftars) of ten lunar years each.
● Lahori wrote the first and second daftars comprising the first two decades of the emperor’s rule (1627-47); these volumes
were later revised by Sadullah Khan, Shah Jahan’s wazir. Infirmities of old age prevented Lahori from proceeding with
the third decade which was then chronicled by the historian Waris.
● Edited versions of the Akbar Nama and Badshah Nama were first published by the Asiatic Society in the
nineteenth century. In the early twentieth century the Akbar Nama was translated into English by Henry Beveridge
after years of hard labour. Only excerpts of the Badshah Nama have been translated into English to date; the text in its
entirety still awaits translation.
Manuscripts
● All books in Mughal India were manuscripts, that is, they were handwritten. The centre of manuscript production
was the imperial kitabkhana.
● Although kitabkhana can be translated as library, it was a scriptorium, that is, a place where the emperor’s
collection of manuscripts was kept and new manuscripts were produced.
● The creation of a manuscript involved a number of people performing a variety of tasks. Paper makers were needed
to prepare the folios of the manuscript, scribes or calligraphers to copy the text, gilders to illuminate the
pages, painters to illustrate scenes from the text, bookbinders to gather the individual folios and set them
within ornamental covers.
● The finished manuscript was seen as a precious object, a work of intellectual wealth and beauty. It exemplified the
power of its patron, the Mughal emperor, to bring such beauty into being.
● At the same time some of the people involved in the actual production of the manuscript also got recognition in the
form of titles and awards. Of these, calligraphers and painters held a high social standing while others, such as
paper makers or bookbinders, have remained anonymous artisans.
● Calligraphy, the art of handwriting, was considered a skill of great importance. It was practised using different styles.
Akbar’s favourite was the nastaliq, a fluid style with long horizontal strokes. It is written using a piece of
trimmed reed with a tip of five to 10 mm called qalam, dipped in carbon ink (siyahi). The nib of the qalam is usually
split in the middle to facilitate the absorption of ink.

● He ordered several translations of Sanskrit texts like Ramayana, Bhagwata Gita and several Upanishads into Persian. Two
major examples are the Mahabharata which when translated into Persian was called Razmnama. One of the highly
illustrated works from this period is called Hamzanama, which depicts the story of the mythical Persian hero, Amir
Hamza. Malik Muhammad Jayasi also composed his Padmavat in this period.
● Other major writers of this period include Badauni, who wrote on ethics of political rule and Faizi who was considered a
master of Persian poetry. Several texts were produced in the period of Shah Jahan, especially about the emperor like
the Shah Jahan-nama of Inayat Khan.
● In Aurangzeb’s period, several satirists like Mir Jafar Zatalli wrote their Kulliyat (collection of verses). Texts like Tabqat-
i-Alamgiri give us a good idea about the period of eighteenth century. Padshahnama was written by Abdul Hamid
Lahori. It is about Shah Jahan.

25.2 Urdu
● The linguists have debated that Urdu developed through the interaction of Persian and Hindi, especially in the barracks
of the Turkish army.
● Amir Khusrau also wrote several texts in Urdu, which was in its nascent stage in this period. The language mostly follows
the grammar of Hindi and the form and script of Persian.
● As it was used by the Bahamani state of Ahmedabad, Golconda, Bijapur and Berar, it was initially also called Dakkani
(southern). One of the greatest Urdu poets is Mirza Ghalib who composed Diwan (collection of poetry) in Urdu.
● Several other Urdu poets were Sauda, Dard and Mir Taqi Mir. In the twentieth century, a major figure in Urdu literary
writing was Iqbal who wrote Bang-i-Dara. ● He is famous for writing ‘Saare jahan se achcha’, which has become a
celebrated nationalistic song. Apart from the last emperors of the Mughal empire like Bahadur Shah Zafar, who also wrote
in Urdu; the Nawabs of Awadh patronised several scholars who composed in Urdu.
● In the twentieth century, it was given uplift by the moderniser Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan who wrote several didactic and
nationalist texts in Urdu and English.

26 Hindi
26.1 During Medieval times
● Hindi as we know it today, evolved between 7th and 14th century from Apabhramsa, which was evolved from Prakrit.
● The language got its biggest boost with the Bhakti movement, which shunned the use of Sanskrit as it was the language
of the Brahmins and common people did not use it.
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● Hence, they started writing in the language of the people and the twelfth century onwards we see a sharp rise in regional
languages like Bengali, Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati, etc.
● For a long time, Hindi literature was in the shadow of its Sanskrit antecedents, but Prithviraj Raso was the first Hindi
book and it documents the life and challenges faced by Prithviraj Chauhan.
● The bulk of the work is poetry by Bhakti writers like Kabir who is famous for his dohas (couplets) that are used by the
common people of India even today. Tulsidas produced couplets in Braj and was peppered by Persian.He became
immortal by writing Ramcharitmanas, one the most revered Hindu texts.
● Lord Krishna’s life also became the subject of various medieval poets like Surdas who wrote Sur Sagar about Krishna’s
infancy and adolescent affairs with the gopis. Rahim, Bhushan and Raskhan also wrote about the devotion to Lord
Krishna. Mirabai is also famous as the woman who renounced the world for Lord Krishna and wrote Bhakti poetry for
him. Bihari’s Satsai is also famous in this regard.

26.2 During Modern times

● With the coming of the British, the focus of literature changed. This change occurred phenomenally in Hindi prose writing
where there was a zest to go back to the classics and be inspired by Sanskrit.
● This zest was combined with the nationalistic fervour. Bharatendu Harishchandra wrote his most famous drama Andher
Nagari (City of Darkness) in the 1850s and this became a major play, which has been reproduced several times.
● Another very famous nationalist work is Bharat Durdasha. Another major writer from this period is Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi
after whom an entire phase of Hindi writing has been named.
● Other notable writers in Hindi include Sumitranandan Pant, Ramdhari Singh ‘Dinkar’ and Harivansha Rai Bachchan
who wrote Madhushala. One of the most famous female writers of Hindi in the twentieth century was Mahadevi Verma.
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Indian Paintings, Sculptures, Indian Theatre and Puppetry & Festivals,

Craft and Martial Arts

27 Indian Paintings 97
27.1 Principles of painting 97
27.2 Prehistoric Paintings 97
27.3 Classification of Indian Paintings 99
27.4 Folk Painting 113
28 Indian Sculptures 116
28.1 Sculptures of the Harappan Civilization 116
28.2 Pre-Mauryan Sculpture 118
28.3 Mauryan Period Sculpture 118
28.4 Post Mauryan Sculpture 119
28.5 Gupta Sculptures 121
28.6 Other Pre - Medieval Age Sculptures 121
28.7 Medieval Age Sculptures 121
28.8 British Colonial period Sculptures 121
28.9 Post-Independence Period Sculptures 122
29 Indian Theatre 122
29.1 Classical Sanskrit Theatre 122
29.2 Folk Theatre 123
29.3 Modern Indian Theatre 126
30 Indian Puppetry 127
30.1 String Puppets 127
30.2 Shadow Puppets 128
30.3 Glove Puppets 129
30.4 Rod Puppets 129
31 Martial Arts in India 130
31.1 Kalaripayattu 130
31.2 Silambam 131
31.3 Thang-ta and Sarit Sarak 131
31.4 Cheibi Gad-ga 131
31.5 Pari-khanda 131
31.6 Thoda 132
31.7 Gatka 132
31.8 Mardani Khel 132
31.9 Lathi 132
31.10 Inbuan Wrestling 132
31.11 Kuttu Varisai 133
31.12 Musti Yuddha 133
32 Indian Handicrafts 133
32.1 Glassware 133
32.2 Cloth Handicrafts 134
32.3 Ivory Carving 137
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32.4 Terracotta Crafts 138

32.5 Silver Crafts 138
32.6 Clay and Pottery Works 138
32.7 Bronze Crafts 139
32.8 Metal Crafts 140
32.9 Leather Products 141
32.10 Wooden Work 141
32.11 Toy Making 142
32.12 Stoneware 142
32.13 Floor Designs 142
33 Indian Festivals 143
33.1 Indian Festivals - Historical Background 143
33.2 Religious Festivals 143
33.3 Secular Festivals 147
33.4 National Festivals 149
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27 Indian Paintings
Indian Paintings have been there since prehistoric times. Paintings, in India, have a long history that began with cave paintings
and has progressed via ceramics, textiles, miniature paintings, and eventually modern paintings. The range of painting styles in
different sections of the country reflects the country's cultural diversity, with culture and livelihood serving as themes for paintings,
which were later dominated by religion.

27.1 Principles of painting

● Vatsyayana mentioned six main principles/limbs or shadanga of painting in his book Kamasutra in the third century
AD. They are as follows
Principle of painting Meaning

Rupabheda Variety of form

Sadrisyan The portrayal of likeliness of the subject

Bhava Creation of lustre and gleam with colours

Varnika Bhanga Mixing of colours to resemble effects of

modelling

Pramanam The proportion of the object or subject

Lavanya Yojanam Immersions of emotion

● There are numerous references to the art of painting in the Brahmanical and Buddhist literature, for example, the
representation of the myths and lore on textiles is known as Lepya Chitra.
● The play, Mudrarakshasa by Vishakhadutta, also mentioned the name of various paintings or patas, which are important
to understand the different styles of paintings and to observe all the principles of paintings.
● Some of the styles were:

Styles of Paintings Major features

Cauka Pitaka Isolated framed drawings

Dighala Pitaka Long scrolls of paintings

Yama Pitaka Isolated paintings

27.2 Prehistoric Paintings

● The excavations of prehistoric sites brought to light old tools, pottery, habitats, bones of ancient human beings and
animals, and cave drawings.
● Painting and drawing were the oldest art forms practised by human beings to express themselves, using the cave walls
as their canvas.
● Subjects of their drawings were human figures, human activities, geometric designs, symbols, animals- grazing,
group hunting, riding scenes (like rhinoceros, elephant, cattle, deer, snake etc.), and other elements in nature, like plants.
In Bhimbetka, we have drawings and paintings of animals.
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● Paintings of Narsinghgarh (Maharashtra) show skins of spotted deer left drying. Use of minerals for pigments e.g.,
Ochre or Geru. They also used minerals in various colours.
● In India, the earliest paintings have been reported from the Upper Paleolithic times.

27.2.1 Upper Paleolithic period (40,000-10,000 years ago)

● Paintings of this time have three main subjects:
○ Human activities like Hand-linked dancing human figures.
○ Animals scene - Hunting, Riding animals, Running away from them.
○ Geometric patterns in white, black, and red ochre. Wavy lines, rectangle-filled geometric designs, and groups of
dots can also be seen here, (Trishul and swastika).
○ Human beings are represented in a stick-like form.
● A long-snouted animal, a multi-legged lizard, and a fox are major important animal motifs in the early paintings.
● Since the walls of the rock shelter caves were formed of quartzite, minerals were employed as paints.
● Ochre or geru, when mixed with lime and water, was one of the most frequent minerals.
● They broadened their palette by using other minerals to create colours like red, white, yellow, and green.
● Large animals such as bison, elephants, rhinos, tigers, and others were shown in white, dark red, and green.
● Red was utilised for hunters and green was used largely for dancers in human sculptures.
● Two important sites of early paintings are
○ Bhimbetka Caves (Vindhya, MP)
○ Jogimara caves (Amarnath, Chhattisgarh).

27.2.1.1 Mangar Bani Cave Paintings

● The cave paintings found in a maze of quartzite rocks in the holy grove of Mangar Bani in the Aravalli Mountain ranges
of Haryana are believed to be of the Upper Palaeolithic age.
● The Aravallis are known for prehistoric remains starting from the
Lower Palaeolithic period. Unlike Central India and other places that
are rich in rock paintings, no rock paintings have been found in
Aravallis to date.
● Archaeologists view the paintings as a continuation of the Soanian
culture which has been found in Shivalik hills, Narmada, and
Aravallis.
Features
● It comprises images of human figurines, animals, foliage, and
geometric figures.
● They are reminiscent of Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh.
● While some paintings could be spotted in the open air, a majority of them are on the ceilings of the rock shelters.
● The colour of most of the paintings is ochre with some having white.
27.2.2 Mesolithic Period (10,000-4000 BC)
● Multiple themes but paintings are small in size.
● Group hunting scene with pointed sticks, arrows, and bows.
Community life and family lives are also shown. Ex-Man, women
with children
● Hunting events predominate in the paintings.
● People belonging to the Mesolithic age loved to paint animals.
Different animals are chasing men and in others, animals are
being chased by hunter men. Even though animals were portrayed
in a naturalistic style, humans were painted only in a stylistic way.
● The colour red was heavily used throughout this time period.
● The scale of the paintings shrank throughout this period in
comparison to the Upper Paleolithic epoch.
27.2.3 Chalcolithic Paintings
● This period saw an increase in the number of paintings using
green and yellow colours.
● Most of the paintings depict battle scenes. There are many paintings of men riding horses and elephants. Some of them
even carry bow and arrow which might indicate preparedness for skirmishes
● Many Chalcolithic ceramics and rock paintings hold common themes, e.g., cross-hatched squares, and lattices.
● Paintings show the exchange of requirements of the cave dwellers of this area with settled agricultural communities of
the Malwa Plains.
● Ex- Jogimara caves in the Ramgarh hills in the Surguja district of Chhattisgarh.
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○ These are dated to be painted around 1000 BC. Chhattisgarh is also home to a variety of caves in the district of
Kanker like the shelter of Udkuda, Garagodi, Khairkheda, Gotitola, Kulgaon, etc.
○ These shelters depict human figurines, animals, palm prints, bullock carts, etc. which show a higher and
sedentary type of living.
○ Similar paintings can be found in Ghodsar and Kohabaur rock art sites in the district of Korea.
● Another interesting site is in Chitwa Dongri (Durg district) where a Chinese figure riding a donkey, pictures of dragons,
and agricultural scenery can be found.
● Several interesting rock paintings have also been found in Limdariha in Bastar district and Oogdi, Sitalekhni in
Surguja district.
● In Odisha, Gudahandi Rock Shelter and Yogimatha Rock Shelter are also prominent examples of early cave paintings

Bhimbetka Rock Paintings

● It is located South of Bhopal in the Vindhya ranges of Madhya Pradesh.
● It has more than 500 rock paintings.
● It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003.
● The oldest paintings are estimated to be 30,000 years old and have survived due to their location deep inside the
caves.
● There is a continuity in the occupancy of caves from 100,000 BC to 1000 AD with many paintings being painted on top
of one another.
● The paintings at Bhimbetka belong to the Upper Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Chalcolithic, early historic, and even
medieval periods.
● However, most of the paintings belong to the Mesolithic age.
● The paintings generally portray the everyday life of prehistoric men often in stick-like human figures. ‘
● Various animals like elephants, bison, deer, peacock, and snake are depicted.
● The paintings also show hunting scenes and war scenes with men carrying weapons like bows, arrows, spears,
shields, and swords.
● Some paintings also have simple geometric designs and symbols. The other themes of the paintings are dancing,
playing music, animal fighting, honey collection, etc.
● Social life is well-depicted with the presence of children playing, women making food, community dancing, etc.
● Various colours like red ochre, purple, brown, white, yellow and green are used.
● Colours were obtained from natural resources, for example, Haematite ores were used for the red color.

27.3 Classification of Indian Paintings

● Indian paintings can be divided into two categories:
○ Mural paintings
○ Miniature paintings
27.3.1 Mural Paintings in India
● Murals are works that are painted on the walls or a solid structure.
● These have been found in India since ancient times, dating from the 10th century BC to the 10th century AD.
● The most common locations for wall murals are natural caves and rock-cut chambers.
● Due to their sheer enormity, the Mural paintings are one-of-a-kind. They are too enormous to fit on paper and must be
painted on the walls of large structures, such as caverns and temples.
● Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism are the major themes.
● The beauty of mural paintings can be seen in places like Ajanta, Armamalai Cave, Ravan Chhaya Rock Shelter, Bagh
Caves, Sittanavasal Caves, and Kailasha Temple in Ellora.
● Apart from this, mural paintings were also made to adorn any mundane premise. An example of such a work can be
seen in the ancient theatre room in Jogimara Caves.

Mural Paintings Location Significance

Ajanta Caves Maharashtra ● The Ajanta caves were sculpted out of volcanic rocks in the 4th
century AD.
● It is made up of 29 caves carved in the shape of a horseshoe.
● These caves are well known for their stunning fresco paintings,
which were created during the rule of the Mauryan Empire and
took four to five centuries to finish.
● The Sunga period is represented by the murals in caves 9 and 10,
while the Gupta period is represented by the rest.
● The cave paintings in caverns 1 and 2 are the most recent of
Ajanta's caves.
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● The paintings depict human values and social fabric, as well as

period styles, clothes, and accessories.
● The paintings are distinguished by the fact that each female figure
has a distinct hairstyle.
● Themes in these paintings span from Jataka stories to Buddha's
life to complex flora and fauna decorative patterns.
● Vegetable and mineral dyes were used as the painting medium.
● Some important paintings:
○ Scenes from the Jataka stories of the Buddha's previous
lives as a bodhisattva, the Gautama Buddha's life, and so
on.
○ Cave No. 16 - The Dying Princess
○ King Shibi gave his flesh to save the pigeon in the Shibi
Jataka.

Ellora Caves Maharashtra ● From 7th century AD

● The mural paintings in the Ellora caves may be seen in five
caverns, with Kailasa temple being the most famous.
● All three religions (Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism) are
represented in the artworks.
● Images of Goddess Lakshmi and Lord Vishnu are two of the most
famous Ellora cave paintings.
● Images of Lord Shiva surrounded by his devotees and Apsaras are
other examples of Ellora cave paintings.

Bagh Caves Madhya ● In terms of design, execution, and ornamentation, they are an
Pradesh extension of the Ajanta school.
● The figures are more neatly modelled, have a sharper contour, and
are more terrestrial and human in appearance.
● Rang Mahal, Cave No. 4, features exquisite murals on the walls
illustrating Buddhist and Jataka tales, similar to those found in
Ajanta.

Armamalai Cave Paintings Tamil Nadu ● In the eighth century, natural caves were turned into a Jain temple.
● The tales of Astathik Palakas (deities defending eight corners) and
Jainism are shown in stunning colourful murals on the walls and
roof.

Sittanavasal Cave (Arivar Koil)
Paintings
Tamil Nadu ● These murals have a striking resemblance to paintings from Bagh
and Ajanta.
● Not only are there artwork on the walls, but also on the ceiling and
pillars.
● The paintings are based on the Jain Samavasarana subject.
● Vegetable and mineral colours are utilised as the painting medium,
which is applied on a thin layer of wet lime plaster. Yellow, green,
orange, blue, black, and white are prevalent colours.
● A pond with lotuses is the focal point of the paintings at
Sittanavasal.
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Ravan Chhaya Rock Shelter Odisha ● These ancient fresco paintings on a rock shelter in the Keonjhar
district of Odisha are in the shape of a half-opened umbrella.
● This shelter is thought to have served as a royal hunting lodge.
● The painting depicting a royal procession, which dates from the 7th
century, is the most remarkable.
● The relics of Chola era paintings from the eleventh century are
also significant.

Lepakshi Paintings Andhra ● In the 16th century, mural paintings were painted on the walls of
Pradesh Veerabhadra temple in Lepakshi.
● They were created during the Vijayanagara period and have a
religious theme centered on the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and
Vishnu's incarnations, however they were secular paintings.
● Primary colours, particularly blue, are conspicuously absent from
the paintings.

Jogimara Cave Paintings Chattisgarh ● It is an artificially created cave in Chattisgarh's Surguja district. It
dates from roughly 1000-300 BC and contains a few paintings and
inscriptions in Brahmi script depicting a love story.
● It dates from roughly 1000-300 BC and contains a few paintings
and inscriptions in Brahmi script.
● The cave is said to be an addition to the amphitheatre, and it was
decorated with paintings.
● Paintings include dancing couples as well as creatures such as
elephants and fish.
● A strong red outline can be seen on the paintings. White, yellow,
and black are among the other colours used

Badami Murals Karnataka ● The paintings are a continuation of the mural painting tradition in
south India, which stretches from Ajanta to Badami.
● The king and queen's faces are reminiscent of the Ajanta
modelling, with wide eye sockets, half-closed eyes, and protruding
lips.
● By contouring different regions of the face to create projecting
structures of the face itself, these artists of the 6th century CE
were able to generate volume.
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27.3.1.1 Murals under Pallavas

● In Tamil Nadu, the Pallavas succeeded the Chalukyas further south.
● They were generous arts patrons.
● Rajasimha, the Pallava ruler, was a patron of the paintings at Kanchipuram's temple.
● Only fragments of a painting of Somaskanda survive – a huge, round face.
● In comparison to the previous phase, this one has more decoration. However, the torso is depicted similarly but slightly
enlarged.

27.3.1.2 Murals under Pandyas

● The Pandyas were also patrons of the arts.
● Thirumalapuram caverns and Sittanavasal Jaina caves are two examples.
● Paintings can be found on the shrine's ceilings, verandas, and brackets.
● There are dancing celestial nymphs to be seen.
● The bodies are colored yellow and the contours are vermillion red.
● Dancers have expressive faces and limbs that are supple. Their eyes are elongated and protrude from their faces at
times.
● This is a distinguishing element in many later Deccan and South Indian paintings.

27.3.1.3 Murals under Cholas

● The tradition of painting extended further down south in Tamil Nadu with regional variations during the regime of the
Chola dynasty.
● In the 11th century CE, the Cholas were at the height of their dominance, and this is when their masterpieces appeared.
● Narthamalai is home to Chola paintings. The Brihadeswara Temple houses the most important paintings.
● There were two layers of paint visible. During the Nayaka period, the upper layer was completed (16th century).
● Narratives and many manifestations of Lord Shiva are depicted in the Chola paintings (original layer), including Shiva
in Kailash, Shiva as Nataraja, and Shiva as Tripurantaka.
● There is also a painting of Rajaraja, his tutor Kuruvar, and other items.

27.3.1.4 Vijayanagara Murals

● Following the Chola fall, the Vijayanagara Dynasty conquered the region from Hampi to Trichy.
● The capital was Hampi.
● The paintings at Thiruparankundram, near Trichy, are from the 14th century and depict the Vijayanagara style in its
early stages.
● The Mandapa's ceilings are covered in paintings.
● Events from dynastic history as well as the Mahabharata and Ramayana are depicted.
● Paintings depicting Vidyaranya, Bukkaraya Harsha's spiritual teacher, being carried in a palanquin in a parade; Vishnu
incarnations.
● Profiles of people and objects are shown. Frontal eyes are large, and waists are slender.
● Vijayanagara paintings have lines that are still but flexible.
● Faces are viewed from the side.
● Eg: Paintings on the walls of the Shiva Temple in Lepakshi, Andhra Pradesh.

27.3.1.5 Nayaka Murals

● This was an extended style of the Vijayanagara style.
● Thiruparankundram, Srirangam, and Tiruvarur are among the places where one can see them.
● Episodes from the Mahabharata, Ramayana, and Krishna Leela are shown in Nayaka paintings.
● Paintings between the 14th and 17th centuries can be found in Thiruparankundram.
● Scenes from Mahavira's life are depicted in 14th-century paintings.
● There is a panel in Tiruvarur that tells the story of Muchukunda.
● The Ramayana is told in 60 panels in Sri Krishna Temple at Chengam, Arcot.
● Male figures are depicted as having thin waists and lighter abdomens.
● Nataraja's painting at Thiruvalanjuli is an excellent example of Nayaka art.

27.3.1.6 Kerala Murals

● In this style, many aspects of the Nayaka and Vijayanagara styles were included.
● The artists drew inspiration from current Kathakali and Kalam Ezhuthu traditions.
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● Human beings have been rendered in three dimensions using vibrant and
vivid colours.
● Paintings on the walls of shrines, temple cloister walls, and palace walls.
● The paintings' subject matter ranges from common Hindu mythology to
localised interpretations of the Mahabharata and Ramayana, as well as
oral tales.
● Three palaces where these mural paintings are present are - the Dutch
Palace in Kochi, the Krishnapuram Palace in Kayamkulam, and the
Padmanabhapuram Palace in Padmanabhapuram (Travancore, now in
Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu).
● Panayannarkavu (temple) in Pundareekapuram, Thrikodithanam Sri Rama
temple in Thrikodithanam, Vadakkunnathan temple in Thrissur are other
examples.

27.3.2 Medieval / Miniature paintings

● The word ‘miniature’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Minimum’, which means red lead paint.
● This paint was used in illuminated manuscripts during the Renaissance period. It is generally confused with the word
minimum, which would mean that they were small in size.

● The Indian subcontinent has long traditions of these miniature paintings and many schools have developed that have
differences in composition and perspective.
● Miniature means mini or small in size but paintings of this style were with minute details. The different objects can be
easily delineated in miniature paintings.
● These paintings are handmade, small-sized, and very colourful.
● The primary characteristic of these Miniature paintings is that they incorporate complex and gentle brushwork, which
gives them a unique character.
● Human figures are generally seen inside profiles, bulging eyes, slim waist, pointed nose, etc. Diverse colours were
used for different characters and a variety of bases was used. Regularly painted on paper, clothes, and palm leaves.
● The tradition of Indian miniature painting can be traced from the 9th- 10th Century in the Buddhist Pala period palm-
leaf manuscript of eastern India and in western India in the Jaina palm leaf manuscript.
● The entrance of Muslims changed the characteristics of miniature paintings to a great extent.
● The key changes have been earthy tones, the absence of primary colors, detached appearances etc.
● The characteristics of miniature painting were varied in different regions of the country.
● During the Lodi period, (1451- 1526 AD) a Sultanate bourgeois school of manuscript emerged.
● The Sultanate illustrated manuscript represented the court style.
● The Mughal era, (1526- 1757 AD) witnessed the evolution of miniature paintings when studios were established at the
Imperial court.

27.3.2.1 Miniature Paintings in India - Features

● Miniatures are handcrafted paintings with a nice appearance. These paintings are vibrant, although they are little.
● The complicated and delicate brushwork that gives these paintings their individual identity is the best feature of them.
● Miniatures are painted using hand-mixed colours. Pure gold, silver, minerals, plants, valuable stones, indigo, and conch
shells are the most common sources.
● There are various prerequisites that must be met in order to create miniature paintings.
○ The painting should be no more than 25 square inches in size.
○ The painting's subject should be portrayed at a scale of no more than 1/6th of its actual size.
● The human figurine is depicted with a side profile in the majority of Indian miniature paintings.
● Bulging eyes, a sharp nose, and a thin waist are common features.
● The skin colour of the characters in Rajasthani miniatures is dark, but they are often paler in Mughal paintings.
● Furthermore, celestial entities such as Lord Krishna are blue in colour.
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● The female figurines have long hair, and their eyes and hair are almost always black.
● Men typically dress in traditional attire and wear a turban on their heads.

27.3.2.2 Early Miniature

● They were frequently painted on perishable materials like paper, palm leaves, and fabric for books or albums.
● The art of miniature painting emerged between the 8th and 12th centuries, virtually as a reaction to the massive wall
paintings.
● This style of painting can be seen in both the eastern and western parts of the country.
● There are two well-known schools.
○ Pala School of Art
○ Apabhramsa School of Art

Pala School of Art

● During the years 750-1150 AD, this school was thriving.
● These paintings were usually done on palm leaf or vellum paper and were found as part of manuscripts.
● They were largely utilised by Buddhist monks, and because their
faith preaches nonviolence toward all living beings, only banana or
coconut tree leaves were allowed.
● The background imagery is characterised by sinuous lines and
subtle tones in these paintings.
● There are a lot of lonely single characters in the paintings, and
group paintings are uncommon.
● They were patronised by several kings who encouraged Buddhism
because of their simple compositions.
● These paintings were also used and patronised by followers of the
Vajrayana school of Buddhism.
Apabhramsa School of Art
● This school can be traced back to Gujarat and the Mewar region of Rajasthan.
● During the 11th to 15th centuries, it was the most popular painting style in western
India.
● The Jain religion was the most prominent motif in these paintings, and the
Vaishnava School adopted it afterward.
● They included the concept of Gita Govinda and secular love in these artworks,
which had previously been dominated by Jain imagery.
● The paintings were done on a palm leaf in the early Jain period, but on paper in
the later time.
● Despite the fact that the paintings were created as book illustrations, they did not
have a distinct style; rather, they were mural paintings on a smaller scale.
● The colours employed in the paintings were mainly red, yellow, and ochre and
they had symbolic value. They employed bright and gold colours in the final
stages.

27.3.2.3 Miniature Paintings - Deccan

● The colours were applied flat, with the garment and human figures being
delineated in black.
● The faces are viewed from a three-quarter angle, giving them a detached look.
● The landscapes are filled with trees, rocks, and other designs that do not attempt to mimic the subject's natural aspect.

27.3.2.4 Miniature Paintings - Delhi sultanate

● These paintings attempted to combine Persian motifs from their
ancestors with Indian traditional components.
● They preferred pictorial manuscripts, and the Nimatnama (a book)
written under the reign of Nasir Shah, who ruled over Mandu, is one
of the best examples from this period. This book exemplifies the
blending of indigenous and Persian styles.
● Apart from that, a style known as the Lodi Khuladar was popular at
this time and was practised in many of the Sultanate-controlled
districts between Delhi and Jaunpur.
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27.3.2.5 Miniature Paintings - Mughal Era

● Since they were influenced by Persian antecedents, Mughal paintings have a distinctive
style.
● The colour palette, motifs, and forms all changed. The emphasis changed away from
representing the god and toward glorifying and showing the ruler's life.
● They concentrated on paintings depicting hunting scenes, historical events, and other
court-related subjects.
● The Mughal paintings combined the realistic style of Persia with the grandeur of a vast
empire to produce some stunningly illustrated folios.
● Due to the obvious bright colours used in these paintings, they have been deemed one-
of-a-kind.
● The painters were meant to focus on making sure the line drawings were accurate.
● The Mughals were noted for their wide topics, which included religious art.
● Despite the fact that they only created miniature paintings, the illustrations in paintings are
thought to be among the most distinctive in the world.

Early Mughal Painters

● After a series of wars, Babur established the Mughal dynasty.
● He didn't have much time to commission paintings, but he is said to have commissioned some illustrations of the Mughal
family tree from a Persian artist named Bihzad.
● Humayun, a great patron of the arts, ascended to the throne at a young age. He enjoyed painting and constructing
beautiful monuments, but his atelier was disrupted when he lost the throne to Sher Shah Suri and was exiled to Persia.
● While at Shah Abbas' court in Persia, he hired two major painters, Abdus Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali, who stayed with
him after he reclaimed his throne and established the Mughal dynasty in India.
● These artists were responsible for introducing Persian influences into Mughal paintings and produced a number of
successful illustrated albums.
● They created an illustrated manuscript called Tutinama during Akbar's reign.

Akbar
● Akbar was in charge of creating an entire department dedicated to painting and
scribbling his paperwork.
● He founded Tasvir Khana, a professional artistic studio where artists were engaged
on pay and developed their own styles.
● Akbar regarded painting as a means of both study and recreation. He believed
that a painting could convey a subject's demeanor and regularly awarded painters
who created lifelike images.
● The use of three-dimensional figures and the continued use of foreshortening are
distinguishing features of Akbar's paintings.
● The artists also encouraged the use of calligraphy in their paintings.
● One of the distinguishing features of this period was the transformation of popular
art to court art, in which the artist was more concerned with depicting scenes of
court life rather than scenes of popular life.
● Daswant, Basawan, and Kesu are some of the most well-known painters of this era.
● During Akbar's reign, notably illustrated manuscripts include Tutinama,
Hamzanama, Anvar-i-Suhaili, and Gulistan of Sadi.

Jahangir
● During the reign of Jahangir, Mughal paintings achieved their pinnacle.
● By nature, he was a naturalist who loved paintings of flora and fauna, such as birds, animals, trees, and flowers. He
emphasised the importance of incorporating naturalism into portrait
painting.
● One of the distinctive trends that emerged during this time period was the
use of decorated margins around paintings that were sometimes as
elaborate as the paintings themselves.
● Jahangir was regarded as a talented artist, and he maintained his own
private workshop, though no major works by him have survived.
● His atelier primarily produced miniature paintings, the most famous of
which were naturalistic paintings of the zebra, turkey, and cock.
● Ustad Mansoor, a master of drawing the features of the most complex
faces, was one of his era's most famous artists.
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● During his reign, an animal fable called Ayar-i-Danish (Touchstone of Knowledge) was illustrated.

Shah Jahan
● During Shah Jahan's reign, the tone of Mughal art shifted dramatically.
● In contrast to his father and grandfather, who preferred naturalistic images, Shah Jahan preferred to use artificial
elements in his paintings.
● According to legend, he attempted to diminish the vitality of the paintings and introduce unnatural stillness as a result
of European influence.
● He changed the drawing and painting techniques from the previous period. He discouraged the use of charcoal in
drawing and instead encouraged the artists to draw and sketch with a pencil.
● He also directed that more gold and silver be used in the paintings.
● In addition, he preferred brighter colour palettes than his predecessors.
● As a result, we can say that the Mughal atelier expanded during his reign but changed significantly in style and technique.

27.3.2.6 Regional school of Painting

Even though the medieval period was dominated by the Mughal style of Regional school of
painting, the sub-imperial Schools developed a space for them by developing
their own styles. They remembered their Indian roots and a penchant for Painting
colourful paintings as opposed to the more naturalistic Mughal style. The
different schools and styles that developed in this period were:
27.3.2.6.1 Rajasthani Pahari
27.3.2.6.2 Rajasthani Schools of Painting school of school of
● Since the Rajputs were the main ruling class at the time and
patronised most of the artists, the Rajasthani School of Painting is
Painting Painting
more or less synonymous with the Rajput School of Painting.
● Rajput courts began to patronise painting in imitation of Mughal court practices. Furthermore, the presence of painters
from the Mughal atelier in Bikaner, Jodhpur, or Kishangarh sowed the roots of local Rajput schools.
● Others claim that the Deccan sultanates' flood of artists and artworks played a major impact. Others argue that local
and indigenous artistic traditions existed before Mughal influence arrived in certain cities.
● Rajasthani paintings are divided into various sub-genres, each of which is named for the princely state in which they
were created.
○ Mewar school
○ Kishangarh school
○ Bundi school
○ Amber-Jaipur School
○ Marwar School

Rajasthani School of Painting - Features

● This painting technique has profound roots in Indian culture.
● The cults of Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shakti had a significant impact on this school's pictorial art.
● The various Krishna cults provided a highly rich canvas for the painter, who made a great contribution to the development
of Indian painting with his creative skill and commitment.
● Bold lines and powerful, contrasting colours are hallmarks of the Rajasthani School of painting.
● Figures are shown flat, with little attempt to depict perspective in a naturalistic fashion.
● To distinguish one scene from another, the painting's surface is sometimes divided into many compartments of different
colours.
● The influence of the Mughals can be observed in the refinement of drawing and the introduction of some naturalism
in figures and trees.
● Aside from displaying episodes from the Ramayana and the regal lifestyle of kings and
queens, they also highlighted societal values and the improvements that monarchs made
for the good of society. The Rajasthani School's paintings were distinguished by their
backgrounds.
● This school of painting used paper, ivory, and silk as its canvas.

Mewar school of painting

● Mewar monarchs appear to have patronised art, while the years of relative peace and
prosperity saw an unprecedented efflorescence.
● The remarkable figure of Sahibdin dominates early Mewar paintings.
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● The Rasikapriya, the Ramayana, and the Bhagavata Purana are all shown by Sahibdin during this period of Mewari art.
● The style of Mewar paintings shifted after Sahibdin's death. The majority of the paintings showed
life in Mewar's courts.
● The remarkable 'tamasha' paintings, which depict court rituals and city views in unprecedented
detail, are a highlight of this period.

Kishangarh school of painting

● The most romantic legends - Sawant Singh and his lover Bani Thani – and the merging of life
and mythology, romance and bhakti are all shown in Kishangarh's paintings.
● They also painted a lot about Radha and Krishna's spiritual and romantic relationships.

Bundi school of painting

● Hadoti is the name given to the twin kingdoms of Bundi and Kota. The sister republics, which
were founded by splitting the elder Bundi kingdom between two brothers, have histories and
artistic traditions that are inextricably linked.
● The monarchs of Bundi and Kota have devoted Krishna believers, and in the 18th century, they
declared themselves to be mere regents, ruling on behalf of the god who was the genuine king
(similar worship patterns can also be seen in Udaipur and Jaipur).
● Paintings of natural vegetation were detailed in the Bundi school. In the artwork, human faces
were spherical with a pointy snout.
● The sky is painted in various colours, with a red ribbon visible most of the time.

Amber-Jaipur School of painting

● The Amber school is also known as the 'Dhundar' school, and its oldest evidence can be
seen in Rajasthan's Bairat wall paintings.
● The palace walls and mausoleum of Amer palace in Rajasthan also have some paintings.
Despite the fact that some of the guys are depicted in Mughal-style attire and headdress, the
paintings have a folk-style finish.
● In the 18th century, during the reign of Sawai Pratap Singh, this school attained its pinnacle.
● Suratkhana, or painting department, produced miniatures to accompany the Bhagavata
Purana, Ramayana, Ragamala, and a variety of portraits.

Marwar School of painting

● Jodhpur and Bikaner, both controlled by the Rathods, and Jaisalmer, ruled by the Bhati's,
make up one of the vastest schools of painting. Jodhpur, like Bikaner, was a desert
kingdom that prospered thanks to its ties to the Mughals.
● The men and ladies in paintings from the 15th and 16th centuries wore brightly colored attire.
● They followed Mughal traditions throughout this time, but after the 18th century, the Rajput element
grew more prominent, as seen by an influx of paintings with a linear rhythm and bright colours.
● Many excellent paintings may be seen in the Jodhpur atelier, but the attention has always been
on the exceptional paintings created during Man Singh's (1803-1843) reign and beyond.

Bikaner School of Painting

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● Rao Bika Rathore established one of the most prominent kingdoms of Rajasthan, Bikaner,
in 1488. During his regime, Anup Singh (1669–1698) instituted a library in Bikaner that
became a repository of manuscripts and paintings.
● As a result of long association with the Mughals, Bikaner developed a distinctive language
of painting that was influenced by the Mughal elegance and subdued colour palette.
● Several master artists of the Mughal atelier visited and worked in Bikaner in the seventeenth
century.
○ Karan Singh had employed Ustad Ali Raza, who was a master painter from Delhi.
○ His earliest work represents the beginnings of Bikaner School, which can be dated
back to around 1650.
● In the reign of Anup Singh, Ruknuddin (whose ancestors came from the Mughal court)
was the master artist, whose style was an amalgamation of the indigenous idiom with
Deccani and Mughal conventions.
○ He painted significant texts, such as the Ramayana, Rasikapriya and Durga
Satpsati.
● Ibrahim, Nathu, Sahibdin and Isa were other well-known painters in his atelier.
● A prevailing practice in Bikaner was to set up studios called Mandi, where a group of
artists worked under the supervision of a master artist. From inscriptions, it can be gathered
that Ruknuddin, Ibrahim and Nathu managed some of these professional studios.
● Several Mandis existed in Anup Singh’s reign. On the completion of a painting, the court archivist entered the name of the
master artist and the date behind the painting.
● This practice resulted in the name of the master artist being inscribed on works of his pupils, who may not be painting in
the same style as the master.
● However, it becomes evident from these entries that the master artist would occasionally put finishing touches to the
paintings.
● The term used for this was gudarayi, literally meaning to ‘lift’. Apart from its activities of making new miniatures, the
studio was entrusted with the task of marammat or repairing and making nakals (copies) of older works.
● The custom of having portraits of artists is unique to the Bikaner School and most of them are inscribed with information
regarding their ancestry.
○ They are referred to as Ustas or Ustad.
● Accounts from the Bahis, royal archival day-to-day diaries, and numerous inscriptions on Bikaner paintings make it
one of the best documented schools of painting.
● Inscriptions in Marwari, and occasionally, Persian reveal the names of artists and dates, and in some cases, even the
place of production and occasions for which the works were commissioned.
27.3.2.6.3 Pahari School of Painting

● These paintings were largely done in miniature painting

forms throughout the era of the 17th to 19th centuries when
they were formed and developed.
● Pahari painting evolved from Mughal painting, albeit it was
primarily patronised by Rajput rulers who dominated many
sections of the region, and it gave rise to a new idiom in
Indian painting.
● Based on their regional diversity, Pahari paintings in India
can be divided into two groups.
○ Basohli and Kullu Style - Chaurapanchasika style
○ Guler and Kangra Style - Calm colours and
modification

Pahari School of Painting - Features

● The themes painted spanned from mythology to literature, and new techniques were introduced.
● Nainsukh was a well-known master of the mid-eighteenth century, and his family workshop continued for another two
generations.
● The representation of the eternal love of Hindu deities Radha and Krishna is the core topic of Pahari art.
● In a typical Pahari painting, multiple figures appear on the canvas, all of them are animated.
● The composition, colour, and pigmentation of each figure are unique.
● Identifying Pahari paintings merely by the regions in which they were painted might be deceptive, as political boundaries in
the era in which they were created were flexible and frequently changed hands between different rulers.

Jammu Kashmir style of Pahari School of Painting

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Basohli Paintings

● They are famous in the Kathua region of Jammu and Kashmir

● This town has produced a remarkable Devi series, a spectacular series of the Supreme
Goddess's incarnations.
● The exquisite portrayal of the Rasamanjari text is likewise well-known.
● Basohli paintings are characterised by geometrical designs, brilliant colours, and shiny
enamel.
Jammu Paintings
● Jammu paintings have a striking resemblance to Kangra paintings.
● Jammu created the Shangri Ramayana in the late 17th and early 18th centuries.
Jasrota Paintings
● Jammu and Kashmir is home to the majority of Jasrota paintings.
● It revolves around kingly events, court scenes, symbolic scenes, and so on.
Mankot Paintings
● Paintings from Mankot can be found in Jammu & Kashmir.
● It looks a lot like the Basohli kind.
● It makes use of vibrant colours and striking subjects.
● Portraiture became a popular motif in the mid-seventeenth century.
● Later on, realism and muted colours became more prominent.

Himachal Pradesh style of Pahari School of Painting

Chamba Paintings
● The style of Chamba paintings is comparable to that of Mughal art.
● It is heavily influenced by the Deccan and Gujarat painting styles.
● The Basohli style dominated Chamba paintings in the late 17th century, paving the way for the Guler painting tradition.

Bilaspur Paintings
● Around the mid-seventeenth century, this town witnessed the growth of Pahari art.
● Painters created paintings on coverlets for sacraments and rites in addition to the Bhagavata Purana, Ramayana, and
Ragamala series.
Guler-Kangra Style Paintings
● Around the year 1800, the Guler Kangra painting style was formed.
● It was a naturalized version of the artwork, with noticeable differences in the treatment of
the eyes and face modeling.
● Landscapes were also frequently shown in Guler-Kangra art.
● This style also emphasized Indian women's grace and delicacy.

Garhwal Paintings
● When painters from outside the region settled in Srinagar, Garhwal Paintings began.
● The Mughal style was first dominant.
● Later, it came to reflect a more straightforward interpretation of Kangra customs.

Kulu Paintings
● Two Madhumalati manuscripts, the Bhagavata Purana, and other Kulu-style paintings
are included.

Mandi Paintings
● From 1684 through 1727, Mandi witnessed the birth of a new school of painting under Raja Sidh Sen.
● The king was depicted as a monstrous person with exaggeratedly large heads, hands, and feet in the paintings.
● Other pieces featured geometric configurations and delicate, realistic features.

Nurpur Paintings
● Himachal Pradesh is home to the Nurpur paintings.
● Bright colors and flat backgrounds are common in Nurpur paintings.
● Later periods substituted subdued colors for bright ones.
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Ragamala Paintings
● Ragamala Paintings are a series of illustrative paintings from medieval India based on
Ragamala or the ‘Garland of Ragas’, depicting various Indian musical Ragas. They
stand as a classical example of the amalgamation of art, poetry and classical music
in medieval India.
● Ragamala paintings were created in most Indian schools of painting, starting in the 16th
and 17th centuries and are today named accordingly, as Pahari Ragamala, Rajasthan or
Rajput Ragamala, Deccan Ragamala, and Mughal Ragamala.
● In these paintings, each raga is personified by a colour describing the story of a hero
and heroine (nayaka and nayika) in a particular mood. It also elucidates the season and
the time of day and night in which a particular raga is to be sung.
● Moreover, many paintings also demarcate the specific Hindu deities attached with the
raga, like Bhairava or Bhairavi to Shiva, Sri to Devi etc.
● The six principal ragas present in the Ragamala are Bhairava, Deepak, Sri, Malkaush,
Megha and Hindola.

27.3.2.7 Miniature Paintings in South India

The trend of making miniature paintings was already prevalent in South India and it
developed in the early medieval period. These were different from the North Indian
schools owing to the heavy use of gold in South Indian paintings. Furthermore, they
concentrated on painting divine creatures much more than painting the rulers who
patronised them. Some of the major schools are:
27.3.2.7.1 Tanjore Paintings (famous for gold coating)
● The Thanjavur or Tanjore School is famous for the special style of decorative
paintings. It was probably the result of the defeat of Thanjavur Nayakas by
Marathas and the fall of the Vijayanagara empire.
● The Maratha rulers immensely patronised them during the 18th century.
● These paintings are unique as they are mostly created on glass and wooden
planks (Palagai padam) instead of cloth and vellum as preferred in North India.
● They are unique because of the use of brilliant colour patterns and the liberal
use of the gold leaf.
● It has been recognised as Geographical Indication (GI) by the Government of India.
● They used many types of gemstones and cut glasses for embellishments to create larger-than-life images.
● Most of the paintings depict smiling Krishna in various poses and various major events in his life.
● These paintings reached their zenith under the patronage of Maharaja Serfoji II of the Maratha dynasty who was a
great patron of art.
● Currently, this school is still operational but they have moved towards experimenting with diverse subjects like birds,
animals, buildings, et.c
27.3.2.7.2 Mysore Painting
● These paintings were patronised by the rulers of the Mysore province
and continued in the British period too.
● The major theme of the Mysore paintings is the depiction of Hindu
gods and goddesses. The unique part of these paintings is that they
had two or more figures in each painting and one figure
predominates all the others in size and colour.
● Furthermore, even the technique of making these paintings is very
different from the North Indian styles.
● They use the ‘gesso paste’, which is a mixture of white lead powder,
gambose and glue. This gives a particular base to the painting that
develops a sheen on the background. They counter it with the use of
muted colours that are not so bright so as to counteract the
background.
● Both Tanjore and Mysore paintings originated from the same source -
Vijayanagara paintings to begin with and their Nayaka paintings subsequently.

27.3.2.8 Modern Indian Painting

● Indian painting, as an extension of Indian miniature painting, was declining by the end of the nineteenth century, with only
limited artistic expression in the interim via the 'Bazaar' and 'Company' styles of painting, as well as some folk arts around
the country.
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● Then came the newly introduced Western philosophy of naturalism, whose most prominent proponent was Raja Ravi
Verma.
● Abanindranath Tagore made an attempt to stem this cultural quagmire, and under his inspired guidance, a new school
of painting was born, which was decidedly nostalgic and romantic at the outset.
● For more than three decades, it was known as the Bengal School of Painting, also known as the Renaissance School
or the Revivalist School.
● The period following WWII unleashed extraordinary and entirely new political and cultural forces and situations, which the
artist had to contend with.
● The time roughly corresponded to the country's independence. With independence comes the possibility of never-before-
seen possibilities.
● With far-reaching effects, the artist was placed on a general road of modernization and confrontation with the large, wide
world, particularly with the Western World.
● The artists assimilated the change that was forced upon them by the situation and a desire to modernise (to adopt the
ideas such as impressionism, expressionism or post-expressionism in the realm of arts).

Company Paintings
● During the colonial period, a hybrid painting style arose, combining Rajput,
Mughal, and other Indian painting styles with European influences.
● They influenced the artwork with European styles and techniques. When the
British Company officers hired painters who had been schooled in Indian styles,
these paintings resulted.
● As a result, they combined their Indian training with their bosses' European
sensibilities. The 'Company Paintings' were dubbed as such.
● The use of water colour set them apart, as did the appearance of linear
perspective and shading in technique. Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Patna, Varanasi,
and Thanjavur were the birthplaces of this painting style.
● Lord Impey and Marquess Wellesley were patrons of the painters, and several
of them were working on paintings of India's "exotic" flora and animals.
● Until the twentieth century, this style of painting was popular.

Bazaar painting

● The European encounter in India had an impact on this school as well. They
differed from the Company paintings in that they combined European and Indian
methods and themes.
● The Bazaar school was influenced by Roman and Greek culture rather than
Indian culture. The painters were forced to imitate Greek and Roman statuary.
● This school was quite popular in Bengal and Bihar. Apart from Greco-Roman
history, they created paintings depicting everyday bazaars in India with a
European backdrop.
● The depiction of Indian courtesans dancing before British officials was one of the
most well-known genres.
● They painted religious themes as well, but figures of Indian Gods and
Goddesses with more than two axes, as well as elephant faces such as Lord
Ganesha's, were forbidden since they departed from the European notion of a natural human figurine.

Raja Ravi Varma paintings

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● Raja Ravi Verma is regarded as one of India's most talented painters.

● He is widely regarded as the founder of the contemporary painting school. Because of
the overwhelming influence of western techniques and motifs, the school was dubbed
"modern."
● He was unique in that he combined elements of South Indian art with western colour
and style techniques.
● Because of his bright brush strokes and extremely lifelike paintings, he was dubbed the
"Raphael of the East" and came from the state of Kerala.
● Lady in the Moonlight, Mother India, and other works by him are well-known.
● His paintings from the epic Ramayana, particularly the one named 'Ravana Kidnapping
Sita,' earned him national acclaim.

27.3.2.9 Bengal School of Art

● The Bengal school is thought to be a reactionary response to the established painting trends of the 1940s and 1960s.
● This school stands out because of its use of muted colours. The Bengal school was founded on the writings of
Abhanindranath Tagore in the early twentieth century.
● His Arabian Night series created an impact on a global scale since it broke away from past
Indian painting schools and introduced something fresh.
● He attempted to infuse Swadeshi values into Indian art and to lessen the influence of
Western art styles on artists.
● Bharat Mata and other Mughal-themed paintings are among his most well-known works.
● Nandlal Bose is another renowned painter from this school, whose works influenced the
development of modern Indian art.
● He has ties to Santiniketan as well. He is best known for his iconic white-on-black Gandhi
sketch from the 1930s. He was also charged with the responsibility of illuminating the Indian
Constitution's original document.
● Rabindranath Tagore was a well-known painter from this style. His paintings are distinct in
that they have bold black lines that emphasise the topic.
● He painted on a tiny scale. His paintings, according to some art historians, can be linked to his
writings. He penned vivid poems, and his paintings had a similar feeling of rhythm to them.
● Rabindranath Tagore was a very spiritual guy, and many of his works reflect this. Many of his
students went on to become well-known Bengal school painters.

Cubist Style of Painting

Painting's cubist trend was influenced by the European Cubist movement. The artefacts were
broken, analysed, and then reassembled in this method.
Through the use of abstract art forms, the artist rebuilt this process on the painting. They
attempted to attain the ideal balance of line and colour.
M.F Hussain, who created the 'Personification of Romance' series of paintings, was one of
India's most popular cubist artists.
He commonly utilised the subject of a horse in works with abstract meanings since it was the finest
way to convey the fluidity of motion.

Progressive Artists Group

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● Another group of artists drew the attention of the art world in 1947 with their use of advanced and daring topics. These
ideas were mixed up with softer, more abstract ones.
● They didn't have much in common, yet they were all inspired by European Modernism. Francis Newton Souza
founded the organisation, although its most well-known members included S.H Raza, H.A Gade, Ara, and others.
● M.F Hussain, a well-known cubist painter, was a member of the Progressive Artist Group.
● Mulk Raj Anand was a patron of their first art show, which took place in 1948. They've grown into a major collective
since then, with numerous galleries in Delhi and Mumbai.

27.4 Folk Painting

● Folk painting is an expression of culture shared by a specific group of people in pictorial form, and it includes traditions
specific to that culture, subculture, or group. For millennia, folk paintings have been a part of India's traditions.
● Every region of India has its own folk painting traditions, ranging from the prehistoric cave paintings of Bhimbetka to
Madhubani, which is thought to be as old as the Ramayana, to the frescoes at Ajanta and Ellora.
● Indian Folk Paintings are generally pictorial expressions distinguished by topics drawn from epics such as the
Ramayana and Mahabharata, the Bhagavata Purana, as well as ordinary village life, birds and animals, and natural
phenomena such as the sun, moon, plants, and trees.

Folk painting Region Features/Significance

Madhubani Paintings
Bihar ● It's also known as Mithila paintings, and it's traditionally
done by women from villages near Madhubani town.
● The art can be found in Nepal's Terai region and its
surrounding areas. The paintings all have a common
theme and are usually inspired by Hindu religious motifs
such as Krishna, Rama, Durga, Lakshmi, and Shiva.
● The figures in the picture are symbolic; for instance, a
fish represents good fortune and fertility.
● On a base of cow dung and mud, these were
traditionally painted on walls with rice paste and
vegetable colours.
● With time, the foundation shifted to handmade paper,
clothing, and canvas, with natural colours remaining.
● The paintings appear two-dimensional due to the lack of
shading. The double line border, intense use of colour,
intricate floral patterns, and exaggerated facial features
are all prevalent aspects of these paintings.
● They have been accorded the GI (geographical
Indication) status as it has remained confined to
compact geographical areas and skills have been
passed on through centuries, but the content and the
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style have largely remained the same.

Pattachitra Odisha ● Pattachitra is a traditional Odisha artwork whose name

stems from the Sanskrit words patta, which means
canvas/cloth, and chitra, which means picture.
● The pattachitra paintings of Odisha are divided into
three categories based on the medium namely,
Paintings on cloth or ‘Patta Chitra’, Paintings on walls or
‘Bhitti Chitra’, and Paintings on the palm leaf or “Tala
Patra Chitra’.
● The paintings combine classical and folk themes, with a
slight preference for the latter.
● The painting's base is treated with cotton, and the
colours are made from natural material.
● Instead of using a pencil or charcoal, a brush is used to
draw the outlines in red or yellow, which are then filled
in with the colours.
● These artworks are based on the Jagannath and
Vaishnava religions.
● The GI of Patachitra is registered differently because
the style and motif of the paintings in both states are
different.
○ Patachitra of Odisha is registered as Orissa
Pattachitra while of West Bengal is registered
as Bengal Patachitra.

Patua Art Bengal ● Patua art, Bengali art, dates back over a thousand
years. It began as a local custom in which artists would
tell Mangal Kavyas or auspicious stories about Gods
and Goddesses.
● These paintings are done on pats or scrolls, and scroll
painters, or patuas, have been travelling to different
towns to sing their stories in exchange for food or
money for generations.
● These were traditionally painted on fabric and told
religious stories, nowadays, they are painted with
poster paints on sewed-together sheets of paper to
make political and social statements.

Kalighat Painting West Bengal ● Kalighat paintings were created by rural migrants who
lived around the Kalighat temple in the then British
capital of Calcutta (now Kolkata) in the 19th century as
a consequence of the evolving urban civilization of
Calcutta (now Kolkata) (Calcutta).
● Watercolours were painted on mill paper with calf and
squirrel hair brushes.
● The paintings originally represented religious themes,
particularly Hindu Gods and Goddesses. These
artworks were used to depict social attitudes over time.
● Kalighat paintings are the first of their sort in the
country, expressing subaltern sentiments and directly
addressing buyers.
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Jharkhand ● Paitkar paintings, also known as scroll paintings, are

one of the country's oldest schools of painting.
● Giving charity and holding yajnas are among the social
and religious customs depicted in these paintings.
● 'What happens to human life after death is a recurrent
theme in Paitkar's paintings.
● Paitkar paintings are mostly associated with Hindu
epics. The stories are from Ramayana, Mahabharata,
Manasa song (Manasa pada), and Kali song (Kali
Pada).
● They recount the story about the deeds of gods and
goddesses, such as Shiva or Durga from Hindu
Paitkar Painting mythology; or the local deities, such as the snake
goddess Ma Mansa.

Kalamkari Paintings Andhra Pradesh ● The name derives from the word kalam, which means
pen, and refers to the pen that is used to create these
beautiful works of art.
● The pen is constructed of sharp-pointed bamboo and is
used to control the flow of the colours.
● The fabric is made of cotton, and the colours are made
with vegetable dyes.
● The images were created freehand and were inspired
by Hindu mythology.

Warli Painting Gujarat-Maharashtra ● These paintings have a striking resemblance to the

prehistoric mural paintings at Bhimbetka in Madhya
Pradesh.
● The center subject of a chaukat or chauk is surrounded
by scenes depicting fishing, hunting, farming, dances,
animals, trees, and festivals in these ritualistic paintings.
● Palaghata (goddess of fertility) is depicted with the
Goddesses, whereas those spirits who have taken
human form are depicted among the male gods.
● Paintings on the walls are traditionally done with
extremely basic visual language, such as a triangle, a
circle, and a square.
● Warli is the vivid expression of daily and social events of
the Warli tribe of Maharashtra, used by them to
embellish the walls of village houses

Thangka Painting Sikkim, Himachal ● Thangkas were originally employed as a form of

Pradesh, Ladakh region, veneration, evoking Buddhism's ultimate ideals.
and Arunachal Pradesh ● Thangkas are created using natural vegetable dyes or
mineral dyes on a cotton canvas basis (white
background).
● The picture is usually framed in colourful silk brocade
after it is completed.

Manjusha Painting Bihar ● Angika art is another name for it, with 'ang' referring to
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one of the Mahajanapada.

● It's also known as snake painting since snake patterns
are constantly present.
● These paintings are done on jute and paper cartons.
● It was granted GI Tag in 2021 in the handicraft category.

Phad Paintings Rajasthan ● It is a scroll-type art.

● It is religious in nature, with depictions of local deities
such as Pabuji and Devnarayan.
● They are 15 feet or 30 feet long and painted with
vegetable colours on a long piece of cloth called phad.
● The subjects have round features and wide eyes. They
often feature pompous and cheerful narratives, as well
as scenes of the procession.

Cheriyal scroll painting
Telangana ● It originated from Cheriyal, a place situated in the
Warangal district of Andhra Pradesh.
● It is a modernised and stylized version of Nakashi art.
● A rich scheme of colours is used to depict the scrolls of
narrative format from mythology and folklore.
● These paintings are Cheriyal scrolls because these
paintings are now only confined to Cheriyal villages.
● This style of painting is considered culturally and
sociologically significant by the people of the Telangana
part of Andhra Pradesh.
● By virtue of its distinct traditional style and
characteristics Cheriyal Paintings received GI status in
2007.

Pithora paintings
Gujarat and Madhya ● The paintings are done by some tribal communities of
Pradesh Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh and are said to serve
religious and spiritual purposes.
● They are painted on the walls of the houses to bring
peace and prosperity.
● They are drawn on special family occasions as a ritual.
Depiction of animals is common, especially horses.

28 Indian Sculptures
● Sculpture on the Indian subcontinent mostly consists of stone, metal, or terracotta sculpture, partially due to the Indian
subcontinent's climate, which makes long-term survival of organic materials problematic.
● There was clearly a lot of painting and sculpting in wood and ivory throughout these times, but only a few pieces have
survived.
● By the beginning of the Common Era, all of the major Indian faiths had evolved the use of religious sculpture, after a shaky
start, and the use of stone was becoming more common.

28.1 Sculptures of the Harappan Civilization

● The Indus Valley civilization (3300–1700 BCE) produced the first documented sculpture in the Indian subcontinent.
Among them is the well-known tiny bronze Dancing Girl.
● Bronze and stone figures, on the other hand, are uncommon, outnumbered by ceramic figurines and stone seals, which
typically portray animals or deities in exquisite detail.
● Their renderings of human and animal forms were extremely lifelike and the modelling of figures was done with utmost
caution.
● The major materials used for sculptors were: Stone, Bronze, Terracotta, Clay, etc.
28.1.1 Stone Sculptures of Harappan Civilization
● The handling of the 3-Dimensional volume may be seen in stone figures found in Indus valley sites. There are two major
stone statues:
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● In Mohenjo-Daro, a Bearded Man (Priest Man, Priest-King) was discovered. The main features of the figure were:
○ Steatite figurine of a bearded guy.
○ The figure is covered in a shawl that comes under the right arm and covers
the left shoulder, indicating that it is a priest. The shawl has a trefoil design on
it.
○ As in contemplative concentration, the eyes are extended and partially
closed.
○ The nose is well-formed and of average size.
○ Short beard and whiskers, as well as a short moustache.
○ A basic woven fillet is carried around the head once the hair is separated in the
center.
○ A right-hand armlet and holes around the neck imply a necklace.
○ Overall, there is a hint of the Greek style in the statues.
● Male Torso
○ Red sandstone was used to create it.
○ The head and arms are attached to the neck and shoulders through socket
openings. Legs have been broken.
○ The shoulders are nicely browned, and the belly is a little protruding.
○ It is one of the more expertly cut and polished pieces
28.1.2 Bronze Sculptures of Harappan Civilization
● Bronze casting was conducted on a large scale in practically all of the civilization's main sites.
● Bronze casting was done using the Lost Wax Technique.

Lost wax technique

● At first, the required figure is formed of wax and coated with clay. After allowing the clay to dry, the entire assembly
is heated to melt the wax within the clay. The melted wax was then drained out of the clay section through a small
hole.
● The molten metal was then poured into the hollow clay mould. The clay coating was fully removed once it had
cooled.
● The Bronze casting includes both human and animal representations.
● The buffalo, with its raised head, back, and sweeping horns, and the goat, among animal representations, are aesthetic
assets.
● Bronze casting was popular at all locations of Indus valley culture, as evidenced by the copper dog and bird of Lothal
and the Bronze figure of a bull from Kalibangan.
● Metal casting persisted until the late Harappan, Chalcolithic, and other peoples following the Indus valley civilization.

Examples of Bronze Casting are

Dancing Girl

● Founded in Mohenjo-Daro, it is one of the best-known artefacts from the Indus valley.
● It depicts a girl whose long hair is tied in a bun and bangles cover her left arm.
● Cowry shell necklace is seen around her neck with her right hand on her hip and her left hand
clasped in a traditional Indian dance gesture.

Bull from Mohenjo-Daro

● Mohenjo-Daro has a bronze statue of a bull.
● The bull's massiveness and the charge's wrath are vividly depicted.
● The animal is seen standing to the right with his head cocked.
● A cord is wrapped around the neck.
28.1.3 Terracotta Sculptures
● In Gujarat and Kalibangan, terracotta statues are more lifelike.
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● A few figures of bearded males with coiled hairs are found in terracotta, their stance firmly erect, legs slightly apart, and
arms parallel to the sides of the torso. The fact that this figure appears in the same posture over and over again suggests
that he was a divinity.
● There was also a clay mask of a horned god discovered.
● Terracotta was also used to create toy carts with wheels, whistles, rattles, birds and
animals, gamesmen, and discs.
● Mother Goddess figurines are the most important clay figures.
● The main example of a terracotta figure is:
○ Mother Goddess
■ Found in Mohenjo-Daro
■ These are mainly crude standing figurines.
■ Wearing a loin robe and a grid, she is adorned with jewellery dangling
from her large breast.
■ The mother goddess's distinctive ornamental element is her fan-shaped
headpiece with a cup-like protrusion on either side.
■ The figure's pellet eyes and beaked snout are exceedingly primitive
(constructed in a rudimentary way).
■ A tiny hole indicates the mouth

28.2 Pre-Mauryan Sculpture

● The art of the Indus Valley Civilisation appears to contain some very early portrayals of deities, but the millennium after
that, overlapping with the Vedic period saw several Tirthankara artefacts.
● It has been hypothesised that early Vedic religion was only concerned with the worship of "elementary forces of
nature" through complex sacrifices, which did not lend themselves well to anthropomorphological depictions.

28.3 Mauryan Period Sculpture

● Sculpture dominates the Mauryan Empire's surviving art, which reigned, at least in
principle, over most of the Indian subcontinent from 322 and 185 BCE.
● There was imperial court-sponsored art that the emperors, particularly Ashoka,
admired, and then there was a "popular" style made by everyone else.
● Local sculptors' work exemplifies the Mauryan Period's popular art. This included
sculpture that was most likely not commissioned by the Emperor.
● Sculptures were used primarily for the decoration of stupas, in the torana and
medhi and as the form of religious expression.
● Two of the famous sculptures of the Mauryan period are those of Yaksha and Yakshi.
They were objects of worship related to all three religions – Jainism, Hinduism and
Buddhism.
● The earliest mention of yakshi can be found in Silappadikaram, a Tamil text.
Similarly, all of the Jain Tirthankars were associated with a yakshi.
● The local governors were supporters of popular art.
● Dr. Ananda Coomarswamy divides Mauryan sculptures into two categories: Court art
and Popular art.
○ The pillars and their capitals are considered Court art, while the works of
sculptors such as the Yakshas and Yakshinis are considered popular art.
○ Popular art includes the Yaksha picture from Parkam and the Yakshini figure from Besnagar.
28.3.1 Influence of Religions on Mauryan Sculptures
● Religious activities in ancient days had numerous aspects and were not limited to a single method of worship.
● During the Maurya period, Buddhism became the most prominent social and religious movement.
● Yaksha worship was immensely prevalent both before and after Buddhism, and it was extensively incorporated into both
Buddhism and Jainism. As a result, throughout the Mauryan Empire, the notion of sacred sculpture was prevalent.
28.3.2 Influence of Foreign Countries on Maurya Sculpture
● It is generally known that the first three Mauryan emperors, Chandragupta, Bindusara, and Asoka, had cordial
connections with the Hellenic West, notably with the court of the great Seleucid rulers, who may be considered heirs of
Alexander the Great and the Achaemenids of Iran.
● This might point to the origins of foreign influences, and an adaptation of Achaemenid models has been found in the
Edicts of Asoka and the ruins of the Mauryan palace at Pataliputra's imperial capital.
● The Mauryan pillars, on the other hand, are not the same as the Achaemenid pillars. The Mauryan pillars are rock-cut,
demonstrating the carver's expertise, but the Achaemenid pillars are pieced together by a mason.
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28.3.3 Mauryan Court Art

● Excellent stone sculpture emerged in its entirety during the Maurya dynasty. The stone was now utilized for sculpture
and building throughout the country.
● During the Maurya dynasty, the stone surface was also given a dazzling polish. Mauryan art is known for its dazzling
mirror-like gloss and wide range of compositions.
● Stone pillars, railings, parasols, capitals, animal and human sculptures, and a variety of other themes are all examples of
this art.
● Throughout the Mauryan Empire, stone pillars were built with inscriptions carved on them.
● The pillar's top was carved with capital figures such as a bull, a lion, an elephant, and so on. A square or circular
abacus supports each capital figure. The abacuses are embellished with stylized lotuses.
● Basarah-Bakhira, Lauriya- Nandangarh, Rampurva, Sankisa, and Sarnath are some of the notable sites where the
pillars have been discovered.
28.3.4 Mauryan Popular Art
● Yakshas and Yakshinis are depicted in popular art throughout the Maurya period. Yaksha refers to friendly nature spirits,
commonly known as fertility spirits.
● The female Yakshini is the male Yaksha's equivalent. Yaksha is also the name of one of Ancient India's Exotic Tribes.
● Natural riches are cared for by Yakshas and Yakshinis. They occupy a major role in Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist literature,
as well as being depicted in Buddhist and Jain sacred monuments.
● Large sculptures of Yakshas and Yakhinis have been discovered in India, primarily in standing positions, in areas like
Patna, Vidisha, and Mathura.
● The smooth surface and clear physiognomic characteristics are the most prevalent elements in these photographs.

28.3.4.1 Yakshini of Didarganj

● The Yakshi figure from Didarganj, Patna, is one of the greatest specimens of popular Maurya
art.
● This free-standing sculpture in sandstone with a polished surface is tall, well-built, and
balanced, displaying the complexity in the treatment of form and medium.
● Yakshini's right hand is holding a chauri (flywhisk), while her left hand is shattered. The
sculptor's sensitivity to the round strong female human form may be seen in this photograph.
Muscle folds are represented correctly.
● The illusion of a protruding belly is created by tightening the fabric around the belly. The
bottom garment has been meticulously crafted.
● Protruding lines adhere to the legs, creating a slightly translucent impression, exposing every fold
of the garment on the legs. The large breasts and impressive back indicate thoracic heaviness.

28.3.4.2 2.3.4.2 Elephant sculpture at Dhauli

● The Elephant Rock Cut Sculpture at Dhauli, Odisha, shows the fore-part of an elephant carved
over the Edicts of Asoka, including the two expressly intended for Kalinga.
● A tone and sentiment distinct from those expressed in the animal forms surmounting the pillar
capitals may be detected in the modelling and execution of this elephant
sculpture.
● It depicts a good delineation of bulky volume and live flesh, as is innate
to that animal, as well as a dignified movement and linear rhythm that is only
matched by the elephant image in relief on the Sarnath capital's abacus.

28.4 Post Mauryan Sculpture

● Three prominent schools of sculpture developed in this period at three
different regions of India – centred at Gandhara, Mathura and Amaravati.
28.4.1 Gandhara School
● The Gandhara School of Art developed in the western frontiers of Punjab,
near modern day Peshawar and Afghanistan.
● The Greek invaders brought with them the traditions of the Greek and Roman sculptors, which influenced the local
traditions of the region.
● Thus, Gandhara School also came to be known as Greco-Indian School of Art.
● The Gandhara School flourished in two stages in the period from 50 BC to 500 AD. While the former school was known
for its use of bluish-grey sandstone, the later school used mud and stucco for making the sculptures.
● The images of Buddha and Bodhisattvas were based on the Greco-Roman pantheon and resembled that of Apollo.
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28.4.2 Mathura School

● The Mathura School flourished on the banks of the river Yamuna in the period between 1st and 3rd centuries AD.
● The sculptures of the Mathura School were influenced by the stories and imageries of all three religions of the time –
Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism.
● The images were modelled on the earlier yaksha images found during the Mauryan period.
● The Mathura School showed a striking use of symbolism in the images. The Hindu Gods were represented using their
avayudhas.
● For example, Shiva is shown through linga and mukhalinga. Similarly, the halo around the head of Buddha is larger than in
Gandhara School and decorated with geometrical patterns.
● Buddha is shown to be surrounded by two Bodhisattavas – Padmapani holding a lotus and Vajrapani holding a
thunderbolt.
28.4.3 Amaravati School
● In the Southern parts of India, the Amaravati School developed on the banks of Krishna river, under the patronage of
the Satavahana rulers.
● While the other two schools focused on single images, Amaravati School put more emphasis on the use of dynamic
images or narrative art.
● The sculptures of this school made excessive use of the Tribhanga posture, i.e. the body with three bends

28.4.4 Differences between Gandhara, Mathura and Amravati Schools

Basis Gandhara School Mathura School Amravati School

External Heavy influence of Greek or Developed indigenously and Developed indigenously

Influence Hellenistic sculpture, so it is also not influenced by external and not influenced by
known as Indo-Greek art. cultures. external cultures.

Ingredient Bluish-grey sandstone while the Spotted red sandstone. White marbles.
Used later period saw the use of mud
and stucco.

Religious Mainly Buddhist imagery, Influence of all three Mainly Buddhist influence.
Influence influenced by the Greco-Roman religions of the time, i.e.
pantheon. Hinduism, Jainism and
Buddhism.

Patronage Kushana rulers Kushana rulers Satavahana rulers

Area of North West Frontier, in the Mathura, Sonkh and Krishna-Godavari lower
Development modern day area of Kandahar Kankalitila. Kankalitila was valley, in and around
famous for Jain sculptures Amaravati and
Nagarjunakonda.

Features of The Buddha is shown in a
Buddha spiritual state, with wavy hair.
Sculpture He wears fewer ornaments and
seated in a yogi position.
The eyes are half closed as in
meditation.
A protuberance is shown on the
head signifying the omniscience
of Buddha.
Buddha is shown in a
delighted mood with a
smiling face.
The body symbolises
muscularity, wearing tight
dress.
The face and head are
shaven.
Buddha is seated in
padmasana with different
mudras and his face reflects
grace.
A similar protuberance is
shown on the head.
Since the sculptures are
generally part of a narrative
art, there is less emphasis
on the individual features of
Buddha.
The sculptures generally
depict life stories of Buddha
and the Jataka tales, i.e.,
previous lives of Buddha in
both human and animal
form
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28.5 Gupta Sculptures

● Gupta art is a type of art that flourished under the Gupta Empire, which governed most of
northern India from 300 to 480 CE, and which survived in a greatly diminished form until around
550 CE.
● For all major religious groups, the Gupta period is recognized as a classic pinnacle and golden
age of North Indian art.
● During the Gupta period, a new school of sculpture developed around Sarnath.
● It was characterised by the use of cream coloured sandstone and the use of metal.
● The sculptures of this school were immaculately dressed and lacked any form of nakedness.
● The halo around the head of Buddha was intricately decorated. Example: Sultanganj Buddha
(7.5 ft high) in Bihar. It is a copper sculpture
●

28.6 Other Pre - Medieval Age Sculptures

● The Chandela dynasty built the Khajuraho temples, a complex of Hindu and Jain temples, during the 9th and 11th
centuries.
● They are regarded as one of India's finest examples of art and architecture. The temples have a large number of
elaborately carved statues on exhibit. Despite its reputation for sensual sculptures, sexual themes account for less than a
tenth of the temple's sculpture.
● The Pallava dynasty, which governed most of south-east
India, was the first dynasty in southern India to leave stone
sculpture on a vast scale after the Gudimallam lingam. A
handful of important Hindu temples with great sculptural
ornamentation have survived. Most of the Group of
Monuments at Mahabalipuram (7th and 8th centuries),
possibly the best-known examples of Pallava art and
architecture, are rock-cut at first.
● Many of them make use of natural rock outcroppings,
which are cut away on all sides until just a structure remains.
Others, like the Shore Temple, are built traditionally.
● The Descent of the Ganges at Mahabalipuram is "India's
largest and most ornate sculptural composition," a relief
carved on a near-vertical rock wall with hundreds of figures,
including a life-size elephant (late 7th century).

28.7 Medieval Age Sculptures

● The time was ruled by Islamic monarchs, who not only did not make figurative sculptures themselves but also had their
forces destroy enormous volumes of previous religious sculptures, particularly during the
early conquests, discouraging the creation of new figures.
● Despite this, religious sculpture continued to flourish, particularly in the far south, where the
bigger temples competed for space.
● Towering gopuram gates, a late medieval southern invention, were adorned with huge
statues, mainly in vividly painted plaster in recent centuries.
● For the vast numbers of visitors to temples, very large halls were built, sometimes filled with
amazing sculptures, such as the famed row of life-size rearing horses at Srirangam's
Ranganathaswamy Temple from the 17th century.

28.8 British Colonial period Sculptures

● European-style sculptures were constructed in city squares as memorials to the British
Empire's strength during this time.
● There were statues of Queen Victoria, George V, and numerous Indian Governor-
Generals constructed.
● Following independence, many sculptures were taken from public spaces and placed in museums. Some, such as the
Bangalore Statue of Queen Victoria, remain in their original locations.
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28.9 Post-Independence Period Sculptures

● D.P Roy Choudhury, Ramkinkar Baij, Sankho Chaudhuri, and Chintamoni Kar are contemporary Indian sculptors.
● A substantial collection of modern Indian sculptures may be seen at the National Gallery of Modern Art.

29 Indian Theatre
It has been postulated that the excavated ruins at Sitabena and Jogimara caves represent the world’s oldest amphitheatres.
This is just one of the instances that highlight the long tradition of theatre in the Indian cultural scenario. In Bharat Muni’s Natya
Shastra, Lord Brahma created the Natya Veda for the pastime of Gods, combining elements of the four Vedas. Natya shastra
itself was written in the period between 200 BC and 200 AD and is the first formal treatise on dramaturgy. In it, ten types of play -
from one-act play to 10 acts - has been described and covers all aspects of classical Sanskrit literature.

29.1 Classical Sanskrit Theatre

● Theatre in India began as a narrative art form, which encompassed a concoction of music, dance and acting. Recitation,
dance and music were integral parts of theatre.
● The Sanskrit word ‘nataka’ was derived from the root word ‘nata’ which actually meant a dancer. Rupaka,
Drishyakavya and Preksakavya were other words used to describe drama.
● In ancient India, plays were generally of two types:
○ Lokadharmi: These were realistic depictions of daily life.
○ Natyadharmi: These were conventional plays with a more stylised narration and overt symbolism.
● Sariputraprakarana by Ashvaghosha, an eminent philosopher, is considered the first example of classical Sanskrit
drama. It was a nine act play.
● Another important playwright of the time was Bhasa, who composed 13 plays probably in the period between 3rd-4th
century AD.
● Sudraka was the first to introduce the essence of conflict in his play Mricchakatika. Apart from a hero and a heroine,
this play features an antagonist for the first time.
● Kalidasa is perhaps the most popular among the Sanskrit playwrights. His three works - Malavikagnimitram,
Vikramorvashi and Shakuntalam - are some of the finest examples of classical Sanskrit drama. Kalidasa was unparallel
in his portrayal of the eternal conflict between desire and duty.
● Some of the other examples of plays are Uttaramacharita and Mahaviracharita by Bhavabhuti, Mudrarakshasa by
Visakhadatta and Ratnavali by Harshavardhana.
● In the classical Sanskrit tradition, plays were categorised into 10 types - namely Anka, Bhana, Dima, Ihamgra, Nataka,
Prahasana, Prakarana, Svakarna, Vithi and Vyayog.
● Natya Shastra describes only two of these - Nataka and Prakarna.
● Classical Sanskrit play was bound by some rigid conventions:
○ They were generally four to seven-act plays.
○ They always had happy-endings. (unlike the Greek tragedies), where the hero wins or does not die. Portrayal of
tragedy was almost rare.
○ The protagonist was male who would always achieve the object of his desire at the end.
○ The plays had well defined opening, progression, development, pause and conclusion.
● Characters in Sanskrit plays were important. They were broadly classified into three kinds which are Nayaka (Hero or
the Protagonist), Nayika (Heroine) and the Vidusaka (Clown).
○ Nayaka (Hero), played by males may be of different personalities like Lalita (Kind- hearted), Shanta (Calm and
composed), Uddhata (Agitated or arrogant), etc. Hero may also be ‘Pratinayaka’ (Anatagonist) like Ravana,
Duryodhana, etc.
○ Nayika (Heroine), played by females are queens, friends, courtesans (ganika) and divine lady (Divya).
○ Vidusaka (Clown), the comic character plays a vital role in the plays. He is noble and good-hearted, often a
friend of the hero. He questions the prevailing social norms through satire. Traditionally, he spoke in Prakrit while
others in Sanskrit. Thus, the Sanskrit play became an amalgamation of entertainment and religious traditions.
29.1.1 Reasons for Decline of Sanskrit Theatre
● As Sanskrit dramatists began to diverge towards poetry, the lyrical writings started gaining popularity over the dramatic
works.
● The rigid orthodoxy of the Sanskrit theatre restricted the creative space of new playwrights who turned to other forms.
● As Sanskrit became more and more embellished, it lost popularity among the masses. It was increasingly confined to
the religious sphere and among the Brahmins, while other languages such as Pali and Prakrit took its place.
● With the advent of Muslim rulers, Sanskrit theatre took a definite backseat, as dance and music gained patronage.

Koodiyattam (Koodiyattam)
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It is India’s oldest continuing form of theatre and living tradition that has
survived since 10th century AD in Kerala. It completely adheres to the rules
laid down in Natya Shastra and is the traditional privilege of the Chakyar
and Nambiar castes of Kerala. The play is performed in Sanskrit, Prakrit
and Malayalam, with musical instruments Mizhavu and Edakka providing
the background music. All the characters begin the play with Nirvahana, a
recollection of the past events of the story. After this, the story unfolds in a
leisurely fashion with commentaries on social, philosophical, and political
behaviour. MargiMadhu Chakyar is a leading exponent of this art form.

29.2 Folk Theatre

● India has a long legacy of folk theatre in many areas
of the country. Traditional folk theatre portrays
numerous aspects of local culture, such as social
conventions, beliefs, and practices.
● Folk theatre had rural roots, and the rustic flavour
was reflected in the dramatic technique involved,
whereas Sanskrit theatre was more urban-oriented
and sophisticated in its interpretation of the play.
● The majority of the still-existing folk theatre has
devotional themes and dates from the 15th to 16th
century AD.
● With time, however, it began to incorporate love
ballads and stories of local heroes and therefore
took on more secular tones.
● Folk theatre became a prominent technique of
disseminating societal wisdom rather than simply
social enjoyment in the post-independence period.
● Indian Folk theatre can be categorised into three
types:

29.2.1 Ritual Theatre

● During the period of Bhakti movement, folk theatre became a popular means for communicating faith to God, both for
the performer as well as the audience. Some of the popular examples of such theatre are:

29.2.1.1 Ankia Naat

● It is the traditional one-act play of Assam.
● It was started by the famous Vaishnava Saint Sankaradeva and his disciple Madhavdev in the 15th-16th century AD.
● It is performed in the style of an opera and depicts incidents from the life of Lord Krishna.
● The Sutradhar or narrator is accompanied by a group of musicians known as Gayan-Bayan Mandali who play the
‘khol’ and cymbals. One of the unique features of this form of theatre is the use of masks to depict special expressions.
● Plays are written in Assamese-Maithili mixed language called Brajavali.

29.2.1.2 Ramlila
● Ramlila is a popular folk theatre in the region of Uttar Pradesh. It is an enactment of Ramayana using songs, dances, and
dialogues, mainly during the period before Dussehra.
● It is generally performed by male actors, who perform the role of Sita as well.
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29.2.1.3 Raslila
● Raslila is a dance drama enactment of the adolescent love stories of Krishna and Radha, popular mainly in the region
of Gujarat and even in some parts of North India.

29.2.1.4 Bhuta Aradhana

● Bhuta, which means spirit, is a traditional practice of worshipping the dead ancestors, prevalent in coastal Karnataka.
● Kola is the chief form of Bhuta worship and it is a ritualistic theatre.

29.2.1.5 Ramman
● It is a ritualistic theatre in the Garhwal region of Uttarakhand. It is dedicated to Bhumiyal Devta, the local deity.
● It is listed in UNESCO’s Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
● People of the Bhandari caste wear the sacred mask symbolizing Narasimha (half-man and half lion).
● Dances are performed and various songs are sung. Stories of Lord Rama are also narrated.

29.2.1.6 Kala
● Kala is an ancient Vaishanvite folk theatre.
● It is primarily concerned with Vishnu's lives and incarnations.
● Dashavatar Kala, Gopal Kala, and Gaulan Kala are some of the most well-known Kala branches.

29.2.2 Theatres of Entertainment of North, West and Eastern Part of India

This form of theatre was more secular in its narration and story-telling. They focused more on stories of love, valour and the socio-
cultural traditions and were meant primarily as means of entertainment for the rural masses.

29.2.2.1 Bhavai
● Bhavai is a popular folk theatre form of mainly Gujarat and Rajasthan. This form incorporates an extensive use of dance
to narrate a series of small plays.
● The theme of the play is generally romantic and the performers balance a number of earthen pots or brass pitchers.
● The play is accompanied by semi-classical music, played in a distinct folk style with instruments such as Jhanjhar and
dholak.
● The sutradhar is known as Nayaka in the Bhavai theatre.

29.2.2.2 Daskathia
● Daskathia is a form of folk theatre popular in Odisha.
● In this form, there are two narrators - Gayaka, who is the chief singer and Palia, who is the conarrator.
● The narration is accompanied by dramatic music composed using a wooden musical instrument called kathia.
● The theme mainly revolves around Lord Shiva. A close variant of this form is the Chhaiti Ghoda, which uses two musical
instruments – dhol and mohuri – and three narrators.

29.2.2.3 Garoda
● This is a popular art form of the ‘Garoda’ brahmin community of Gujarat.
● It uses painted pictures to narrate stories of romance and valour.

29.2.2.4 Jatra
● Jatra is a popular folk theatre of Eastern India.
● It is generally an open-air performance that was initiated by Vaishnava Saint Chaitanya Mahaprabhu.
● During his travels through rural Bengal, he used the medium of Jatra to propagate the teachings of Lord Krishna.
● Later, variants such as Rama Jatra, Shiv Jatra and Chandi Jatra also came into existence that narrates stories of Puranic
legends.
● In modern times, Jatra was used to narrate stories of secular, historical and even patriotic themes. In Odisha, a
popular form of street theatre known as Sahi Jatra is prevalent.

29.2.2.5 Kariyila
● It is another form of open-air theatre that is popular in the foothills of Himachal Pradesh.
● Generally staged during village fairs and festivals, the performance occurs through the night and comprises a series of
small plays and skits.

29.2.2.6 Maanch
● Maanch is the folk theatre of the region of Malwa in Madhya Pradesh.
● Initially, it was based on mythological themes such as Mahabharata and Ramayana. Later, romantic folk tales were
included into its repertoire.
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● The unique feature of this form is the dialogues, which are delivered in the form of couplets known as Rangat Dohas.

29.2.2.7 Nautanki
● An offshoot of Swang, Nautanki is the most popular form of theatre in North India, which finds mention in Abul Fazl’s
Ain-i-Akbari.
● The plays are themed around historical, social, and folk tales and delivered through dance and music.
● Dialogues are delivered in a lyrical fashion, accompanied by the beats of a drum called Nagada.
● In the later period, two schools of Nautanki seated around Kanpur and Lucknow gained importance.

29.2.2.8 Oja-pali
● Oja-pali is a unique narrative theatre form of Assam, primarily associated with the festival of Manasha or the Serpent
Goddess.
● The narration is a prolonged affair, with three distinct parts – Baniya Khanda, Bhatiyali Khanda and Deva Khanda.
● Oja is the main narrator and Palis are the members of the chorus.

29.2.2.9 Powada
● When Shivaji killed his adversary Afzal Khan, a play was written lauding the heroic deeds of Shivaji, which later came
to be known as Powada.
● They are operatic ballads depicting stories of valour and sung by the folk musicians known as Gondhalis and Shahirs.
● It is popular mainly in the region of Maharashtra.

29.2.2.10 Tamasha
● Tamasha is form of folk theatre in the region of Maharashtra, known for its humour and erotic content.
● The unique feature of Tamasha is the presence of female actors, who play even the male roles.
● The Tamasha performances are generally accompanied by Lavani songs.

29.2.2.11 Bhaona
● It is a folk theatre of Assam, especially the Majuli Island.
● The idea is to spread religious and moral messages to people through entertainment and drama.
● It is a presentation of Ankia Naat and Vaishnavite themes are common.
● Sutradhar (Narrator) narrates the play and sings verses from holy texts. Songs and music are also a part of it.
● This folk theatre was created by Sankardeva in the early 16th century.

29.2.2.12 Dashavatar
● It is a popular form of drama by the farmers of Konkan region, notably Sindhudurg (Maharashtra) and North Goa.
● It is to honour the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu.
● It has two parts: ‘poorva-ranga’(initial part) and ‘uttararanga’(second part).
● The second session is the main act and is based on mythological stories.

29.2.2.13 Naqal or Bhand

● It is mimicry based performance, based in Punjab (Naqal) and Uttar Pradesh (Bhand).
● The performing artist is often called ‘Behroopiya’ or ‘Naqalchi’ (impersonator). He uses comedy, absurdities, wit and
humour to get across the social or political message.
● It is performed by artists from Muslim Bhand Community.

29.2.2.14 Swang
● Swangs are another popular source of entertainment in the region of Rajasthan and Haryana.
● They are mainly musical dramas, sung through verses, accompanied by the music of ektara, harmonium, sarangi,
dholak, and khartal.
● It also involves mimicry accompanied by dialogue.

29.2.2.15 Bhand Pather

● It is a folk theatre of Jammu and Kashmir.
● It involves contemporary social satire or even mythical stories.
● It is secular in outlook, although it is performed by Muslims. It has music, dance and drama.
29.2.3 Theatres of South India
When Sanskrit classical theatre started to decline in North India around the period of 8th century AD, it gained popularity in the
Southern parts of India. The speciality of the theatrical traditions of South India is the emphasis on dance as compared to the
emphasis on music in Northern India. Some of the popular theatres of South India are:
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Theatre Features

Villu Paatu The term ‘Villu Paatu’ means bow-song. It is a form of musical theatre popular in Kerala and some
parts of Tamil Nadu, in which stories of Ramayana are narrated using bow shaped instruments.

Yakshagana It is perhaps the oldest theatre tradition, which is prevalent till date in Karnataka and parts of Kerala. It
originated in the royal courts of the Vijayanagara empire and was performed by a particular
community known as Jakkula Varu. Originally, it was largely a descriptive dance-drama enacted by a
single artist. Later forms adopted further variations and became a typical dance drama. It is strongly
influenced by Vaishnava Bhakti Movement.

Burra Katha Burra Katha is a popular story-telling tradition of Andhra Pradesh. It derives its name from Burra – the
percussion instrument used extensively during the performance. The performance consists of a main
artist or narrator and two co-artists who provide the rhythm as well as the chorus.

Pagati Veshaalu It is the folk tradition popular in the Telangana region as well as the Krishna district of Andhra
Pradesh. It is primarily a role-playing act, revolving around a principal character known as vesham
(disguise) and other sub-characters.

Bayalata It is an open-air theatre tradition of Karnataka that is performed during the worship of the local deity.
The stories are also based on the love of RadhaKrishna.

Tal-Maddale Tal is a kind of Cymbal and Maddale is a kind of drum. It is generally considered as the predecessor
of Yakshagana. The play is performed while sitting and without any costumes, dance or acting. The
narration is done by a Bhagavata who is aided by a group of Arthadharis. It is mainly performed in
coastal Karnataka and Kerala

Krishnanattam It is a colourful dance-drama tradition of Kerala that originated in the mid 17th century. Based on the
works of Krishna Geethi, it is a carnival that lasts for eight days, with performances in eight
consecutive nights at temples narrating the life story of Lord Krishna.

Theyyam Theyyams are performed in Kerala. It is similar to a practice in Karnataka, called Bhuta Kola. It is an
open theatre and is performed in front of the local temples to mainly honour the spirit of the ancestors
besides gods. Themes of Vaishnavism, Shaktism and Shaivism are now common. The actors wear
elaborate headgear and colourful costumes.

Kuruvanji Originated around 300 years ago, Kuruvanji is characterised by classical Tamil poetry and songs. The
first Kuruvanji was composed by Thirukutarajappa Kaviyar. The basic theme revolves around a love-
struck heroine. Kuruvanji literally means ‘fortune-teller’ who predicts the fate of the heroine. It is
performed in a dance ballet form with Bharatnatyam being the principal dance form in Tamil Nadu.

29.3 Modern Indian Theatre

● Modern theatre, or what is known historically as the Western proscenium type of theatre, was not introduced in India
until the late eighteenth century, when the British Empire was consolidating in various areas of India.
● Western proscenium-style theatre made its way to Indian shores thanks to the British.
● Works of Gotthold Ephraim Lessing and Shakespeare were adapted. Rise of cities like Calcutta (Now Kolkata) and
Madras (Now Chennai) created a need for new forms of entertainment.
● Thus, the Western Proscenium Style of Theatre emerged in the 18th and 19th century.
● Many theatres sprang up in Calcutta in the 19th century like Belgachia Natyashala, Shobhabazar Natyashala, etc.
● During the British era, Indians developed their own theatrical style combining the features of both Western and the
Indian style.
● Theatres also became commercialised, with cost being imposed on viewership unlike the ancient past where theatre was
mostly open to all. Common themes were social evils like dowry, caste system, religious hypocrisy and even political
affairs. The British Government even imposed the Dramatic Performances Act in 1876 to counter the growing political
awareness.
● During the 1850s and 1920s, Parsi Theatres were popular in Western India, with plays produced in regional languages
such as Gujarati and Marathi. Music and colourful backgrounds were required.
● Regional theatres of Bengal, Maharashtra etc, also gained prominence. Rabindranath Tagore was a celebrated
playwright.
○ He wrote his first play at the age of 20 – Valmiki Pratibha. His famous works are Raktakarabi (Red Oleanders),
Chitrangada, Post-Office, etc.
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○ His themes included nationalism, spirituality, socio-political situation, etc. Other noted personalities were
Prasanna Kumar Thakur, Girishchandra Ghosh, Dinabandhu Mitra (Nildarpan), etc
● In 1943, lndian People’s Theatre Association (ITPA) was formed as a cultural wing of Communist Party. Although it was
disbanded in 1947, it played an important role in further development of theatre. They wrote plays on various social
themes like Bengal Famines, etc. Notable personalities associated with ITPA were Balraj Sahni, Prithviraj Kapoor, Bijon
Bhattacharya, Ritwik Ghatak, Utpal Dutt, etc. IPTA now exists in Chhattisgarh, Punjab and West Bengal.
● Prithvi Theatre was established in 1944, by Prithviraj Kapoor. It was a moving theatre with an entourage of 150 artists
and held more than 2000 plays. It was only in 1978 when a permanent theatre was opened in Mumbai and it still exists.
● Sangeet Natak Akademi was founded in 1952 to promote performing arts, especially theatre, and to help the growth of
theatre in India.
● The National School of Drama has contributed to the development of notable theatre figures.

30 Indian Puppetry
● Puppets with sockets have been discovered in the Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro excavation sites, indicating that
puppetry was a popular art form in those days.
● Around 500 BC, several allusions to marionette theatre have been discovered.
● Puppetry is mentioned in the Tamil classic Silappadikaram, written during the first and second centuries BC, as well as
in the Mahabharata.
● Puppetry has philosophical significance in Indian culture, in addition to being an art form. God is characterised as a
puppeteer in the Bhagavad Gita, directing the cosmos with three strings: Satta, Raja, and Tama.
● In Indian theatre, the storyteller is known as Sutradhar, which means "string bearer."
● In many areas of India, a wide range of puppetry
traditions have arisen, each with its own particular
style of puppets.
● Mythology, folklore, and local tales were used as
inspiration. Painting, sculpture, music, dance, and
drama have all been infused into puppetry,
resulting in a unique form of artistic expression.
However, in current times, this art form has been
steadily declining due to a lack of loyal audiences
and financial uncertainty.

30.1 String Puppets

String puppets, often known as marionettes, have an important role in Indian culture. String puppets have the following
characteristics:
● The string puppets are usually made of wood and are eight to nine inches tall.
● Oil paint is used to paint the wood and to add additional face characteristics such as eyes, mouth, nose, and other facial
features.
● The limbs are formed by joining wooding litten pipes to the body. The body is then stitched and wrapped with a
colourful little garment.
● Miniature jewels and other embellishments have been added to give it a more realistic appearance.
● The puppeteer controls the strings that are attached to little holes in the hands, head, and rear of the body.
● Strings are linked to each leg, arm, and shoulder, as well as the lower back and each side of the head. The strings are
connected to a hand controller in the shape of the letters H or X.
● Even more strings are linked to various sections of the marionette's body in other cases.
● In India, some of the most well-known examples of string puppetry are:

30.1.1 Kathputli - Rajasthan

● Kathputli, Rajasthan's traditional string puppets, gets its name from the words "Kath"
and "putli," which mean "wood" and "doll," respectively.
● The puppets are dressed in vibrant Rajasthani traditional attire.
● A dramatic folk music score is used to accompany the show while the puppeteer's
finger is linked to the strings.
● The puppets' lack of legs is a distinguishing trait.
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30.1.2 Kundhei - Odisha

● Odisha's string puppets are called Kundhei.
● They are composed of light wood and have lengthy skirts on them.
● The puppets have more joints, which allows the puppeteer to move around more freely.
● A triangular prop is used to hold the strings.
● Odissi dance has a strong presence in Kundhei puppet shows.

30.1.3 Gombeyatta - Karnataka

● It is a typical Karnataka puppet show.
● They are fashioned and created in the style of the Yakshagana Theatres' numerous
characters.
● The utilisation of many puppeteers to operate the puppets is a distinctive aspect of this
puppetry.

30.1.4 Bommalattam - Tamil Nadu

● Bommalattam is a type of puppetry that originated in Tamil Nadu.
● It incorporates aspects of both rod and string puppetry.
● The strings are connected to an iron ring that the puppeteer wears on his head.
● The Bommalattam puppets are India's largest and heaviest marionettes, with
some measuring up to 4.5 feet tall and weighing up to 10 kilograms.
● Vinayak Puja, Komali, Amanattam, and Pusenkanattam are the four unique
stages of the Bommalattam theatre.

30.2 Shadow Puppets

● India offers the most range of shadow puppet forms and styles. Shadow puppets
are flat figures.
● They are made of leather that has been processed to become transparent.
● With a bright source of light behind it, shadow puppets are shoved on the screen.
● The interaction of light and screen produces silhouettes or colourful shadows, depending on the situation, for those who sit
in front of the screen.
● In Odisha, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu the shadow puppet culture is still alive and
well.

30.2.1 Characteristics of shadow puppetry:

● Shadow puppets are flat figurines carved out of leather that are painted in the same manner on both sides.
● The figures are controlled such that the silhouettes generated on the blank screen create telling visuals.
● The puppets are put on a white screen with light falling from behind, generating a shadow on the screen.
● The following are some well-known instances of shadow puppetry:

Theatre Region Features

Togalu Gombeyatta Karnataka ● It is Karnataka's well-known shadow theatre.

● The fluctuation in puppet size based on social position is a
unique aspect of the Togalu Gombayetta puppets, with
huge puppets representing monarchs and religious
dignitaries and smaller puppets representing poor people
and slaves.

Ravanchhaya Odisha ● It's the most dramatic kind of shadow puppetry, and it's a
popular form of entertainment in Odisha.
● The deer-skin puppets represent powerful and dramatic
postures.
● They do not have any joints, thus it's a more difficult art to
master.
● Non-human puppets, such as trees and animals, are
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frequently used.
● The Ravanchhaya artists have received extensive training
in their craft, allowing them to create a poetic and sensitive
theatrical narrative.

Tholu Bommalata Andhra Pradesh ● It is Andhra Pradesh's shadow theatre.

● The presentation is focused on mythical and religious tales
from the Epics and Puranas and is complemented by a
musically classical background.
● The puppets are bigger and have different colours on both
sides.

30.3 Glove Puppets

● Sleeve, hand, and palm puppets are other names for glove puppets.
● These puppets resemble limp dolls, but in the hands of a skilled puppeteer, they can perform a variety of motions.
● Two hands emerge from just below the neck, and the head is constructed of papier-mache, linen, or wood. A long flowing
skirt makes up the remainder of the body.
● The manipulation technique is straightforward; the puppet's movements are controlled by the human hand, with the
first finger put in the head and the middle and thumb serving as the puppet's two arms. The glove puppet comes to life
with the aid of these three fingers.
● Glove puppets are a prominent Indian ritual in Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal, and Kerala.
● Glove puppet performances in Uttar Pradesh are mainly about societal issues, but in Odisha, they are about Radha and
Krishna legends.
30.3.1 Pavakoothu, Kerala
● Pavakoothu is the name of a traditional glove puppet show performed in Kerala.
● It arose in the 18th century as a result of the impact of Kathakali, Kerala's famed
classical dance-drama, on puppet performances.
● The height of a puppet in Pavakoothu ranges from one to two feet. The head and
arms are carved out of wood and linked with thick fabric that has been cut and sewn
together to form a little bag.
● Paints, tiny and thin bits of gilt tin, peacock feathers, and other embellishments are
used to adorn the puppets' faces.
● The manipulator reaches into the bag and moves the puppet's hands and head.
● Chenda, Chengila, Ilathalam, and Shankh (conch) are among the musical
instruments utilised throughout the performance.
● Glove puppet shows in Kerala are inspired by episodes from either the Ramayana or
the Mahabharata.
30.3.2 Beni Putul, West Bengal
● Dolls for commercial purposes is what it signifies.
● It was utilised as a weapon of resistance against British rule.
● This was popular in the districts of East Midnapur, Murshidabad, and 24 Parganas.
30.3.3 Sakhi Nach, Odisha
● Glove puppetry is a prominent kind of puppetry in Odisha.
● The plays are largely based on Krishna and Radha legends.
● It is well-known in the districts of Bhubaneswar and Cuttack.

30.4 Rod Puppets

● West Bengal and Odisha are known for their rod puppetry.
● These puppets are typically made up of three joints.
○ The primary rod supports the puppet's head, which is connected at the neck, and both hands are attached to
the rods at the shoulder.
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○ The puppet's robe or clothing hides the main rod.

○ The puppet's hands are attached to the action rods.
● The puppeteer shows action by manipulating the puppeteer's hands.
● The puppet's body and hands are fashioned of bamboo, rice husk, and hay. All of the ingredients are combined and
moulded into the desired form.
● The puppets are dressed in dhotis or saris according to the needs of the character.
● Some popular examples:

Puppetry Region Feature

Yampuri Bihar ● It is Bihar's traditional rod puppet.

● The puppets are typically made of wood and have no joints.
● They are carved from a single piece of wood, then painted and
clothed in vibrant colours.

Putul Nach West Bengal ● It is the Bengal-Odisha-Assam region's traditional rod puppet dance.
● The figurines are usually three to four feet tall and costumed like
Jatra characters.
● A musical troupe of three to four musicians plays harmonium,
cymbals, and tabla during the performance.

Kathi Kandhe Odisha ● Rod puppetry is called Kathi Kandhe in Odisha.

● The Kathi Kandhe rod puppets are substantially smaller than the
Putul Nach rod puppets of West Bengal.
● The stories are based on epic Ramayana and Purana legends, as
well as social themes.
● The play's music opens with a brief piece of ritual orchestral prelude
called Stuti and ends with the play itself.
● During the performance, medieval songs like Bhajan, Champu, Koili,
and Chautisha are usually sung. However, the songs are sung
differently or in a different style to appeal to a wider audience.

31 Martial Arts in India

● India, a country rich in culture and ethnic diversity, is recognized for its numerous martial arts, which date back to ancient
times.
● These art forms, which were once employed for battle, are now commonly utilised for demonstration, as part of a ritual, to
achieve physical fitness, or as a way of self-defence.
● The term "martial art" literally translates to "arts-related with the conduct of battle."
● Dance, yoga, and the performing arts are all strongly tied to martial arts in the nation.
● Some of the art forms, including Kalaripayattu and Silambam, were forbidden during British control, but they revived and
gained popularity after independence.
● Some of the popular martial arts in India are discussed below:

31.1 Kalaripayattu
● One of the oldest martial arts in India, Kalaripayattu, although
practiced in most parts of Southern India, originated in the state of
Kerala around 3rd century BC.
● Kalari, a Malayalam word, refers to a specific type of
school/gymnasium/training hall where martial arts are practiced or
taught.
● This art form includes mock duels (armed and unarmed combat)
and physical exercises.
● Not accompanied by any drumming or song, the most important
aspect is the style of fighting.
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● Kalaripayattu’s most important key is footwork; it also includes kicks, strikes and weapon-based practice. Even women
practise this art.
● Kalaripayattu is still rooted in traditional rituals and ceremonies. Kalaripayattu includes a number of techniques and
aspects.
● Some of them are: Uzhichil or the massage with Gingli oil, Fighting with Otta (an ‘S’ shaped stick), Maipayattu or body
exercises, Puliyankam or sword fight, Verumkai or bare-handed fight, Angathari or use of metal weapons and sticks of
Kolthari.

31.2 Silambam
● Silambam, a kind of staff fencing, is a modern and scientific martial
art of Tamil Nadu.
● Pandyas, Cholas and Cheras, promoted it during their reign. The
reference to the sale of silambam staves, pearls, swords and
armour to foreign traders can be found in a Tamil literature
Silappadikaram, which dates back to 2nd AD.
● The silambam bamboo stave was one of the most popular trading
items with the traders and visitors from Rome, Greece and Egypt.
This art is believed to have travelled to Malaysia from its originating
State, where it is a famous sport apart from being a mode of self-
defence.
● The long-staff was used for both mock fighting and self-
defence.
● There are different kinds of techniques that are used in
Silambam including swift movements of the foot, use of both hands to wield staff, use of thrust, cut, chop and sweep to
achieve mastery and development of force, momentum and precision at different levels of the body (head, shoulder, hip
and leg level).
● The player must be trained to diffuse an uncontrollable mob by using strokes like snake hits, monkey hits, hawk hits and
also deflect stones thrown by them.

31.3 Thang-ta and Sarit Sarak

● Created by the Meitei people of Manipur, Thang-ta is an armed martial art that finds its mention as one of the most
lethal combat forms. Sarit Sarak, on the other hand, is an unarmed art form that uses hand-to-hand combat.
● Their history can be traced back to the 17th century when it was
successfully used by the Manipuri kings to fight with the British. The
capture of this region by the British witnessed the ban on these art forms,
however post independence there was a resurfacing of the same.
● Thang refers to a ‘sword’, while Ta refers to a ‘spear’, thus sword and
spear are the two main elements of Thang-ta.
● The two components Thang-ta and Sarit Sarak are together called Huyen
Langlon.

31.4 Cheibi Gad-ga

● One of the most ancient martial arts of Manipur, Cheibi Gad-ga involves
fighting using a sword and a shield.
● It has now been modified to a stick encased in soft leather in place of a
sword and a leather shield.
● The contest takes place in a circle of 7 metre diameter, on a flat surface.
Within the circle, there are two lines, 2 metres apart.
● The ‘Cheibi’ stick is between 2 to 2.5 ft in length, while the shield is
around 1 metre in diameter.
● Victory in this contest is achieved according to the points earned during a duel. The points are given based on skills and
brute force.

31.5 Pari-khanda
● Pari-khanda, created by Rajputs, is a form of martial art from Bihar.
● It involves fighting using a sword and shield. Still practised in many parts of Bihar, its steps and techniques are widely
used in Chhau dance.
● The name of this martial art consists of two words, ‘Pari’ that means shield while ‘khanda’ refers to sword, thus the use
of both sword and shield in this art.
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31.6 Thoda
● Originating from Himachal Pradesh, Thoda is a mixture of
martial arts, sports and culture. It takes place during the
Baisakhi festival in April every year.
● A number of community prayers are done so as to invoke
the blessings of Goddesses Mashoo and Durga, the
principal deities. The martial art relies on a player’s skill of
archery.
● Thoda can be dated back to Mahabharata, the times when
bows and arrows were used in the epic battle, in the Valleys
of Kullu and Manali.
● In the game, there are two groups of roughly 500 people
each. Most of these are not archers but dancers who come
along to boost the morale of their respective teams.
● The game is played in a marked court so as to ensure a
certain degree of discipline.
● The two teams are called Pashis and Saathis, who are believed to be the descendants of Pandavas and Kauravas of
Mahabharata.
● The archers aim for the leg, below the knee, as there are negative points for striking any other parts of the body.

31.7 Gatka
● Gatka is a weapon based martial art form, performed by the Sikhs
of Punjab.
● The name ‘Gatka’ refers to the one whose freedom belongs to
grace.
● Gatka features the skillful use of weapons, including stick, Kirpan,
Talwar and Kataar.
● The attack and defence in this art form is determined by the various
positions of hands and feet and the nature of the weapon used. It is
displayed on a number of celebrations in the State including fairs.

31.8 Mardani Khel

● This is a traditional Maharashtrian armed martial art, which is practised widely in the district of Kolhapur.
● Mardani Khel focuses primarily on skills of weaponry, especially swords, swift movements and use of low stances that is
suited to its originating place, the hill ranges.
● It is known for the use of the unique Indian Patta (sword) and Vita (corded lance). Famous practitioners included
Shivaji.

31.9 Lathi
● An ancient armed martial art form of the country, Lathi also denotes one the
world’s oldest weapons used in martial arts.
● Lathi refers to a ‘stick’ (usually cane sticks), which is generally 6 to 8 ft in
length and sometimes metal tipped.
● Indian police can be seen using such Lathis to control crowds. Majorly
practised in Punjab and Bengal, it still is one of the popular sports in villages.

31.10 Inbuan Wrestling

● A native martial art of Mizoram, Inbuan Wrestling is believed to have its
genesis in 1750 AD.
● It has very strict rules that prohibit stepping out of the circle, kicking and knee
bending.
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● The way to win this is by lifting the opponent off their feet, while stringently
adhering to the rules.
● It also involves catching the belt (worn around their waist) by the wrestlers.

31.11 Kuttu Varisai

● It is mainly practiced in Tamil Nadu, although it is quite popular in North-
Eastern part of Sri Lanka and Malaysia.
● An unarmed Dravidian martial art, it is used to advance athleticism and
footwork through starching, yoga, gymnastics and breathing exercises.
● The major techniques used in this art include grappling, striking and locking.
● It also uses animal based sets including snake, eagle, tiger, elephant and
monkey. It is considered as an unarmed component of Silambam.

31.12 Musti Yuddha

● Originated in one of the oldest cities, Varanasi, Musti Yuddha is an unarmed
martial art form resembling boxing.
● It uses techniques like kicks, punches, knee and elbow strikes. Although rarely visible now, it was quite a popular art
during the 1960s.
● Musti Yuddha incorporated the development of all three aspects, physical, mental and spiritual.
● The fights in this art are divided into four categories and are named according to the Hindu Gods that excelled that
particular kind of art from.
○ The first one is called Jambuvanti that refers to forcing the opponent into submission through locking and
holding.
○ The second is Hanumanti, which is for technical superiority.
○ The third refers to Bhimaseni, which focuses on sheer strength while the last one is called Jarasandhi that
concentrates on limb and joint breaking.

32 Indian Handicrafts
● Hastkala, hastshilp, dastkari, and karigari are typical Indian terminology for handicrafts.
● They all indicate workmanship, but they also refer to products manufactured with craftsmanship, i.e., specialized hand
skills that are also beautiful.
● The aesthetic element of such products is an integral aspect of their worth, implying that the object of usefulness has a
value that extends beyond its utility and is also attractive to the sight.
● A handcrafted product is rarely purely ornamental, and whether it is unadorned or heavily embellished, its real purpose
is served only when it is both functional and beautiful.
● Some of the major handicrafts of India are:
○ Glassware
○ Cloth Handicrafts including Tie and Dye and Embroidery Crafts
○ Ivory Carving
○ Terracotta Craft
○ Silver Crafts
○ Clay and Pottery Work
○ Metal Crafts
○ Leather Products
○ Toy Making
○ Stoneware
○ Embroidery Craft
○ Floor Designs

32.1 Glassware
● The Indian epic Mahabharata has the earliest mention of glassmaking.
● The earliest tangible evidence came in the shape of magnificent glass
beads from the Ganges Valley's Painted Grey Ware civilization (1000
BC).
● The glass was referred to as kanch or kaca in the Vedic literature
Satapatha Brahmana.
● Archaeological evidence has been discovered of a glass industry in
Maharashtra's Bramhapuri and Kolhapur that operated between 2 BC and
2 AD and produced specialised glassware known as lenticular beads.
● The Sanskrit literature Vyasayogacharita has allusions to eyeglasses,
indicating that the glass industry dabbled in optical lenses.
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● Archaeological evidence of glass has been discovered at Maski, a Chalcolithic site in the Deccan, in the southern region
of India.
● Ahar (Rajasthan), Hastinapur and Ahichachhatra (Uttar Pradesh), Eran and Ujjain (Madhya Pradesh), and other
locations have provided glass evidence.
● During the medieval period, the Mughals favoured glassware and used it as a decorative element in their monuments,
such as the Sheesh Mahal.
● Glass hookahs, perfume boxes or ittardans, and engraved glasses were some of the other noteworthy glass objects
made for the Mughals.
● The glass business currently has various sides, but the most well-known is that of glass bangles.
● The most exquisite is known as 'Churi ka jodas' and is created in Hyderabad.
● Firozabad is well known for its glass chandeliers and other beautiful items.
● The city of Saharanpur, which makes 'panchkora' or glass toys for children, is another glass-producing center in Uttar
Pradesh.
● Similarly, Patna (Bihar) makes a unique type of ornamental glass bead known as 'Tikuli.'
● In the hallways of industrialization, this craft has virtually vanished.
● The Santhal tribes of Bihar, however, continue to wear it.
● Bihar's Tikuli Art is now being produced on glazed hardboards in order to restore the art form in a contemporary and
modern environment.

32.2 Cloth Handicrafts

● Cloth is used for a variety of handicraft techniques, including weaving and printing.
● The artists create patterns on other materials by using wooden blocks or printed clothes.

32.2.1 Tie and dye

● There are various types of handicraft techniques that are used on cloth like weaving and printing. The artists use wooden
blocks or printed cloths to make patterns on other materials.
● The technique of tie and dye gives beautiful designs on fabrics and there are different techniques used for it in India.
● One of the most important art is of Bandhani or Bandhej that is referred to as the technique of ‘Tie and Dye’ in English.
○ There is evidence of the use of this ancient technique even presently in Rajasthan and Gujarat. It is also
popular in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
○ It is also called the resist dyeing process where the portions tied do not take on the colour in which the fabric is
dipped.
○ Making a series of knots, it is dipped in the colour and the artists design the fabric.
○ A special kind of tie and dye that leads to ripples or wave-like patterns in the fabric is called Laharia. This is
usually made in Jaipur and Jodhpur.
● Another kind of tie and dye is called ‘Ikat’, which is also known as the ‘resist dyeing’ method.
○ In this method the resist dyeing on yarn is repeatedly applied before the cloth is woven.
○ The major centres for this work are Telangana, Odisha, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh.
● Other processes from the ancient period that are still being used are Kalamkari, which utilise the art of hand painting on
fabrics using vegetable dyes of the deep colours. It is commonly practiced in Andhra Pradesh.
● Another beautiful technique of fabric decoration is called Batik Art, in which one end of the fabric is permeated with
molten wax and then dyed in cold wax to produce batik sarees and dupattas that are multicoloured. Batik art is famous in
Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal. The origin of Batik Art is from Indonesia.
● Some techniques for fabric patterns came to India from abroad via trade routes, for example, the Tanchoi silk weaving is
said to be derived from Chinese inspiration. ‘This might have come to Surat, Gujarat via the trading communities.
● Presently, Tanchoi silk brocades are the expertise of weavers from Varanasi.
● This weave resembles a fine miniature painting. Another ancient art is of Jamdani (West Bengal) that weaves muslin
with opaque patterns on a transparent background in different styles.

32.2.1.1 Other Tie and dye, Cloth Painting and Cloth printing varieties

Name Region Details

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Paagadu Bandhu Tie Andhra Pradesh ● It is also known by the Indonesian name Ikat. In this tie- dye
and Dye process, the fabric is woven first, resist bindings are then
applied to the fabric which is then dyed.

Tehlia Rumal (Resist Andhra Pradesh ● It literally means ‘Oily handkerchief’ where alizarin dyes are
dyed Textiles) used to make the cloth oily.
● It was accorded a GI tag in 2020.

Ajrakh Printing Gujarat ● It is a block-printed textile that is resist-dyed using natural

dyes, including indigo and madder. It is done mainly by the
Khatris Community in the Kutch region.

Dabu printing Rajasthan ● It is an ancient mud resist hand block printing technique and
is very unique

Kani Shawl (GI) Jammu and kashmir ● It is made of delicate Pashmina wool collected from the
underbelly of wild Tibetan and Ladakh mountain goats.

Kotpad Handloom Odisha ● Its designs are taken from the geometrical pattern of duck,
Fabric (GI) hand fan, flower, palanquin, fish, animal, etc.

32.2.1.2 Traditional Regional Sarees of India

Name Region Details

Pochampalli Andhra Pradesh Silk and cotton saree with intricate motifs and geometric ikat style of
dyeing. Air India airlines crew wears this saree.

Patola Patan, Gujarat Rich handloom sarees

Baluchari Murshidabad, West Bengal Depicts ancient stories on its border and pallu. Silk threads are
extensively used.

Tanchoi Brocades Varanasi A kind of banarasi saree where weaving technique involves a single or
double warp and two to five colors on the weft on Silk fabric.

Chanderi Madhya Pradesh Silk, zari and cotton woven together to make a fabric that is lighter
than a feather. It is a see through saree.

Nauvari Maharashtra A single nine yard sari also known as Kasta saree.

Ilkat Karnataka Use of kasuti embroidery with chariot and elephant as common motifs.

Paithani Maharashtra Silk saree embroidered with gold colour thread and use of parrot as
motif.

Kalamkari Andhra Pradesh Use of pen for painting designs.

Kosa Chattisgarh A silk saree

Dabu Chittorgarh, Rajasthan Dabu is an ancient mud resist hand block printing technique used on
cotton fabric.

Jamawar Jammu and Kashmir Base used is generally wool with a little addition of cotton. The
brocaded parts are woven in Silk or Pashmina. Intricate weaving of a
Jamawar involves months of hard work.

Uppada Jamdani Andhra Pradesh Finest silk along with pure zari are used as raw materials. Jamdani
Saree (GI) Sari is a Persian terminology, in which Jam means flower and Dani
means Vase.

Kotpad Saree (GI) Odisha Use of natural maddar in dyeing of cotton yarn is the USP of Kotpad
products. The design is mainly inspired by the surroundings like duck,
hand fan, flower, palanquin, fish, animal, etc.
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32.2.2 Embroidery Crafts

● Amongst the crafts used on textiles, the art of working raised designs using threads or wooden blocks is unique. This art is
called embroidery and can be performed by using threads of gold, silver, silk or cotton on cloth with the help of
needles.
● There are several types of arts of embroidery, a list of which is given in a table later in the chapter.
● Embroidery arts like Applique or Pipli work is practiced in Pipli village in Odisha. It is a type of patchwork made of
embroidered colourful fabric that is sewn together to make a single piece. They use this technique to make beautiful
lamps.
● Another famous technique is called Phulkari, which literally means ‘making flowers’. This process uses the technique of
darning to create colourful flower-like patterns on the cloth. It is produced in Punjab, Haryana, and Delhi.
● Furthermore, there have been medieval yet innovative techniques like Bagh from Punjab, which use silk threads to
embroider on a green cloth to make flower-like patterns.
● Other techniques like the Gota (Rajasthan) use gold threads to embroider and to create applique like patterns on the
cloth.
● Khandela and Jaipur are two famous places for Zari work. Another technique related to Zari is called Karchobi
(Rajasthan), which is created by sewing flat stitches on cotton stuffing to create a raised zari like metallic thread pattern.
● The Chikankari or Chikan embroidery defines the culture and cloth making process of Lucknow. It uses white thread to
make flowers and other beautiful patterns. It can be done on a variety of clothes like cotton, mulmul ka cotton, polyester,
and voile.
● Kashmir is famous for the fine workmanship of the Kashida embroidery that is generally done on the famous Cashmere
Shawls.
● Banaras Brocade is famous for its silver and golden zari (embroidery) work on sarees. They have floral motifs and
generally, silk sarees are used. It takes two to eight weeks to make them.
● In the courts of Muslim rulers during the medieval period, Himroo material was used for royal dresses and shawls. Even
today, Himroo shawls are very popular. They are made in Aurangabad (Maharashtra).
● The royal Maheswari sarees of Madhya Pradesh also use a mixture of cotton and silk yarns. They are embellished with
golden zari work. They are famous for their reversible borders, which can be worn on either side.
● The Chamba Rumals (handkerchiefs) of Himachal Pradesh in which the influence of Chamba Pahari painting is
evident, are delicately embroidered in shades of green, yellow, and ochre with themes of Krishna’s tales. It is commonly
used as an item of gift during marriages. All of nature including trees, flowers, etc. are depicted in these rumals.
● Kutch in Gujarat is known for mirror work embroidery, called Shisha, in which tiny pieces of mirror are fixed to the
fabric using herringbone and satin stitch.
● In Manipur, delicate muga silk thread embroidery in dark colours is done on the borders of phaneks (traditional shawl)
worn by women during auspicious occasions like marriages.
● In Karnataka, beautiful geometrical motifs are created in cross stitches in the folk embroidery of Kasuti. They are hand-
made and possibly belong to the Chalukyan era.

Embroidery Produced mainly in Details

Khatwa Applique work (GI) Bihar Wall hangings, shamianas, saris,

dupattas, pillow covers, and other items
often have this appliqué and patchwork.

Lambani (GI) Karnataka Unique needlecraft done by women.

Sozni (or suzani) (GI) Jammu and Kashmir Dorukha is another name for this form of
needlework. The designs are made in
satin stitch and are identical on both
sides, but the colours are different.

Sujni (GI) Bihar The foundation cloth is usually red or

white in colour. The primary motif's
outline is accentuated with a thick chain
stitch.

Heer Gujarat Silk with bold geometric motifs.

Kasuti Karnataka Kasuti is a technique that includes

counting each thread on the cloth using
a single thread. The designs are sewn
without knots on both sides of the
material, giving it a uniform appearance.
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Phool Patti Ka Kaam Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh Floral petals and leaves are used as
motifs in the needlework.

Mukesh Uttar Pradesh Twisting thin metallic threads to create

patterns all over the fabric is what this
technique entails.

Kharchobi Rajasthan Sewing flat threads on cotton padding

resulted in raised zari metallic thread
embroidery.

Gara Gujarat Parsis took this technique from China

and introduced it to the world. Gara
entails first creating a pattern on paper
and then tracing it onto the saree.

32.2.3 Weaving
● Weaving refers to the process of interlacing yarn to produce textiles and fabrics.
○ The vertical thread is called the warp, while the horizontal thread is referred to as the weft.
○ Warp and weft are usually laced in fixed patterns using a loom. The different ways of lacing result in varied types
of weaves.

Name Region Details

Pata Weaving Bastar, Chhattisgarh Sari of this kind is mainly used by tribal women.

Mashru Weaving Gujarat This is a handwoven mix of Silk and Cotton textiles.

Bohra Cap weaving Gujarat and Madhya It is made using an aluminium vessel as a base, the crochet is begun
Pradesh at the centre and proceeds in a spiral form, from the core to the outer
edge. Here both geometric and floral patterns are created.

Patku Weaving Gujarat Patku is a tie-dyed textile, woven on a pit loom.

Crochet Work Andhra Pradesh It is a process of creating fabric by interlocking loops of yarn, thread, or
strands of other materials using a crochet hook.

Pattu Weaving Rajasthan It is mainly done on woollen textile. Threads of Pattu is made of either
camel or sheep wool.

Wangkhei Phee Manipur Very fine white cotton is used for this. The fabric is transparent with
(traditional weaving) designs and patterns on it.
(GI)

Shaphee Lanphee Manipur This traditional textile fabric is woven as a shawl. Meitei women are
weaving (GI) usually involved in making this type of shawl.

32.3 Ivory Carving

● Ivory carving has been practised in India since the Vedic time when it was referred to as 'danta,' most likely as a
reference to the elephant's tusk, which provided the ivory.
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● Recent discoveries have revealed that ivory and ivory-based products such as ivory dice were traded from India to
Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, and areas of the Persian Gulf during the Harappan period.
● An inscription from Sanchi has been discovered dating from 2 BCE. It mentions the
Vidisha guild of ivory workers and the carved sculptures in the Sanchi Stupa.
● Aside from these literary references, archaeological remains of an ivory comb from
Taxila have been discovered, demonstrating that ivory was popular even in 2 A.D.
● There are numerous ivory artefacts from the Mughal period that were used for
combs, dagger handles, and other ornaments.
● Traditional ivory carving centres include Delhi, Jaipur, and parts of West Bengal. They
have created beautiful works of art, caskets, palanquins, and the well-known Ambari
Hathi.
● Other important areas include:
○ Kerala - It is well-known for paintings on ivory.
○ Jodhpur - It is famous for ivory bangles.
○ Jaipur - It is well-known for its ivory jali work, which is used in homes and
small art objects.

32.4 Terracotta Crafts

● Terracotta, which literally means "baked earth," is a type of semi-fired ceramic clay.
● This process makes it waterproof and hard, making it ideal for sculpting and
architectural edifices.
● It has also been widely used in the production of pottery and bricks.
● Bankura Horse, Panchmura Horse, and Terracotta temples are some of the best
examples of terracotta craftsmanship in the Bankura district of West Bengal.
● The Buddhist viharas, which date back to the ancient Pala period, are India's finest
examples of terracotta art.

32.5 Silver Crafts

● Filigree work is one of the most well-known methods utilised by silver jewellery
designers.
● The silver anklets known as painri and paijam are very popular in Odisha.
● Gunchi are silver crocheted decorations that are one-of-a-kind.
● The Bidri art done in Karnataka's Bidri village is likewise well-known for its beauty.
● Silver inlay work is used to produce inlay work on dark backgrounds.
● For the gleaming silverwork, this provides an elusive and sharp contrast. It has been granted Geographical Indication
status.

32.5.1 Tarakasi - Silver Filigree Work of Cuttack

● The Kataka Tarakasi works are Odisha's most exported handicraft. The
exquisite creativity and dazzling craftsmanship of this beautiful silver
filigree have made it famous across the world.
● Silver is beaten into thin wires and foils, which are then fashioned
together to make infinitely beautiful jewellery. It's comparable to what
Indonesians do.
● Rose work, Siko work, and Jali work are three types of tarakasi crafts
used to manufacture filigree products.
● The artists begin by creating a frame using a piece of silver wire threaded
through spider's web strands. Then weave in the inner textures and place
them within the frame.

32.6 Clay and Pottery Works

● India has a rich tradition of clay crafts and pottery throughout the country.
● Asharikandi in Assam is the largest cluster in India, where terracotta and pottery craft is found. Other clusters are
Bhadrawati, Bulandshahar, Nizamabad, Pune, Chandrapur, etc.
● Because it is fashioned like a literary composition and has a sensuous appeal to the senses, pottery has been dubbed the
"Lyric of handicrafts."
● Making items out of clay is one of man's earliest crafts. The oldest evidence was discovered in the Neolithic site of
Mehrgarh, which is today in Pakistan.
● The technique of clay pottery manufacture was well developed around 6000 BC, according to the relics.
● Painted Grey Ware pottery, which is generally grey in colour and was associated with the Vedic period, is the most well-
known ancient pottery (1000-600 BC).
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● Evidence of red and black pottery dating from 1500-300 BC has been discovered in several sections of the nation. They
were discovered in significant sections of West Bengal.
● Northern Black Polished Ware was another form of ancient pottery, which was produced in two phases: 700-400 BC and
400-100 BC.
● These periods overlapped with the Mauryan period to some extent.
● Furthermore, fragments of 'Roulette Pottery' dating from 200-100 BC have been discovered in southern India. The
majority of the evidence was discovered near Puducherry in Arikamedu.
● We see fresh ornamental methods like ornamentation, painting, stamping, and moulding after the commencement of
the Gupta era (4th century AD).
● Evidence of glazed pottery may be found with the arrival of Indo-Islamic cultures. Every region of India now specialises in
a certain form of clay craft.

Name of pottery Origin Features

Khurja Pottery Uttar Pradesh Colourful and durable, it's commonly used to manufacture home
objects.

Black Pottery Azamgarh, Uttar Pradesh A dark tint that is unique

Blue Pottery Jaipur, Rajasthan Multani Mitti was used to make this piece.

Kagzi Pottery Alwar, Rajasthan Delicate, thin, and slightly fragile ceramic

Pokhran Pottery Pokhran, Rajasthan Applied to everyday goods

Dalgate Pottery Jammu and Kashmir Uses a unique glaze

Karigari Pottery Tamil Nadu South Arcot has a number of special centers.

Surai West Bengal Common jugware

Gopichandan Saurashtra Clay items as artwork

32.7 Bronze Crafts

● Metals were used more for spears and arrows in ancient India than for art.
● Metal casting, on the other hand, has been used in craftsmanship for over 5000 years.
● Bronze work is one of the oldest art forms, as evidenced by the bronze statue of a
Dancing Girl from Mohenjodaro, which dates between 3500 and 3000 BCE.
● We know that the first nonferrous metals used by humans were copper and tin, which
were combined to form bronze.
● The Matasya Purana contains the earliest literary evidence about various methods of
casting bronze. Later texts, such as Nagarjuna's Rasa Ratnakar, mentioned metal
purity and zinc distillation.
● Uttar Pradesh is the leading producer of bronze crafts, with major centers such as
Etawah, Sitapur, Varanasi, and Moradabad.
● They make decorative items such as flower pots and images of Gods and Goddesses.
● They are also known for making ritual objects such as tamrapatra, kanchantal, and
panchpatra.
● Tamil Nadu is another important centre for producing beautiful ancient statues
resembling art forms from the Pallava, Chola, Pandyan, and Nayaka periods.
● The following are important Brass work centres:

Brass work Feature Region

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Gaja Tandava Shiva dancing in the Tandava position. Kerala

Rare Jain imagery and icons Reflects the need of ancient Jain pilgrim Karnataka
centres in Karnataka.

Dokra Casting Used for ornaments made of brass. Odisha and West Bengal

Pahaldar Lamps Copper and brass lamps in different Jaipur and parts of Uttar Pradesh
styles and shapes

Pembarthi Crafts Exquisite sheet metal (brass) art to Warangal district, Telangana
adorn Chariots and temples.

32.8 Metal Crafts

● Metal casting in iron, copper, bell metal, and other metals can be accomplished in a variety of ways.
● These crafts are distinguished by the use of ornamentation on metal through techniques
such as engraving, embossing, and damascening.
● One of the most well-known techniques is Rajasthan's Marori work, which involves using
metal to create etchings on the base metal and filling the gaps with resin.

32.8.1 Pempharti
● Sheet metal art, which is prominent in Pembharti in Telangana's Warangal district.
● This type of art was often employed on chariots and temples under the Kakatiyas Empire.
● The art is now employed on vases, containers, and plaques made of brass.
32.8.2 Jaipur Metal Works
● Rajasthan's lacquering and brass engraving capital is Jaipur. The shiny surface of the
pots, plates, boxes, and other items is embossed with beautiful patterns.
● Bronze sculptures and Koftagiri, the skill of encrusting one metal with another, are also
well-known.
● One of the most well-known techniques of Rajasthan is Marori work, which involves using
metal to create etchings on the base metal and filling the gaps with resin.
32.8.3 Dhokra metal craft
● It is an ancient practice by one of the nomadic tribes of India.
● It dates back to the times of Harappa and Mohenjo Daro.
● It is essentially stunning metal figurines fashioned from bronze and copper-based alloys using
a ‘lost wax casting’ known as ‘cire perdue’ in French.
● There are several processes involved in the making of
Dhokra art and hence, a single piece could take up to a month
or two to be created.
● It originated in West Bengal, over time the tribes moved to
Jharkhand, West Bengal, Orissa and Chhattisgarh as well as
places like Kerala and Rajasthan and now it has spread all
over India.
● Most Dhokra artefacts are human or animal figurines.

Metal craft Produced mainly in Details

Bidri Craft Karnataka Hookahs, vases, jewellery, showcase objects, and other things
made of a blackened zinc and copper alloy are inlaid in thin sheets
of silver and have a significant export market.

Aranmula Kannadi Kerala It's a handcrafted metal-alloy mirror manufactured in Aranmula, a

tiny village in Kerala, and it's a remarkable work of art.
To get a mirror-like reflecting surface, the alloy is polished for many
days.
The families involved keep the alloy's composition a trade secret.
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Netturpetti jewellery Kerala It is a traditional antique handcraft constructed of rosewood and

boxes brass curios.
It has elaborate designs inspired by Kerala temple architecture and
ancient art styles.

Chandi Tarkashi (Silver Odisha The alloy is made up of 90% or more pure silver.
Filigree) Ornaments are made using unique techniques including
granulation, snow glazing, and casting.

Swamimalai Bronze Tamil Nadu Swamimalai is a historic spot where this skill has been done since
Icons the Chola era.
For religious purposes, bronze and "panchaloha" (copper, brass,
lead, silver, and gold) idols are manufactured.

32.9 Leather Products

● The art of leather tanning has been documented since 3000 BCE.
● Although tigers and deer were among the first animals whose skins
were tanned, camels quickly became the most popular animal for
skinning.
● It is said that in ancient times, the rishis, or wise men, who lived in the
forest, used animal skins as mats.
● Even though leather was used during the Mughal period, the
degenerative nature of leather makes finding material evidence
difficult.
● Currently, leather is primarily used in the manufacture of footwear,
bags, and wallets.
● Rajasthan has the largest leather market, where camel leather is
used to make bags of various shapes and sizes.
● Aside from these, Jaipur and Jodhpur are well-known for their
Mojadis, which are specialised types of leather footwear.
● Kanpur is another important city in Uttar Pradesh, with a thriving economy based on leather and tanned products.
Kolhapuri chappals are also popular in Maharashtra.
● Apart from these, Chennai and Kolkata are important leather bag and footwear manufacturing centres.
● Punjabi juttis are also well-known due to the use of an applique technique on the footwear, which makes them very
attractive.
● Manoti Art, which involves decorating articles with camel skin, is another major technique of leather art practised in
Bikaner.

32.10 Wooden Work

● India has a large forest cover, and one of the main products derived from these resources is wood.
● Furniture is one of the most important products made from wood. We can find exquisitely carved woodwork furniture in
Sheesham wood, pinewood, and other materials.
● Kashmir, where this art form has flourished since the 13th century, is one of the most important centres for making
wooden furniture. They make extensive use of walnut and deodar wood.
● Because of the cold and wet climate, Kashmiri artists are also skilled at creating wooden houses, houseboats, and other
structures.
● Kashmiri lattice work, such as acche-dar, khatamband, and azlipinjra, is some of the most exquisite woodwork.
● Gujarat is another major centre where wooden latticework is used on windows and wooden doors.
● Furthermore, most hilly areas with access to abundant wood excel at carving techniques.
● In Himachal Pradesh, for example, towns like Brahmour and Chatrahi excel at wood carving techniques used in temples
such as the naghbel, kutheriphool, jali, and dori.
● Other major woodworking centres include:

Region Type of wood Features

Karnataka Sandalwood Making of various carved wood items

Andhra Pradesh Raktachandan (Typical Red Carved dolls and figurines

Sandalwood)
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Kerala Teakwood Used to make Tharavad Houses that are famous for their
deep brown colour and intricate woodwork.

Nagaland Kumisyng Local wood found in most parts of the Northeastern states
and noteworthy for huge log drums

Rajasthan Rohilda Used to make decorative items like sindoor boxes and
turned bowls.

Ratnagiri, Maharashtra Hale and Pangora Woods Lacquered imitation fruits

32.11 Toy Making

● Toy manufacturing is both an art and a thriving business.
● The first evidence for toy carts can be found in the Harappan
civilisation and dates back to the early historic period.
● Archeological sites from the Harappan period, such as Alamgirpur,
Ambkheri, Kalibangan, and Lothal, have models from which toy carts of
copper, bronze, and terracotta can be made.
● Early historic sites such as Atranjikhera, Nagarjunakonda, Sambhar,
Sonapur, Ujjain, and Brahmpuri have similar cart models.
● Toys were made of various materials in the ancient and mediaeval
periods, including clay, paper, papier-mâché, and painted or lacquered
wood.
● Beautiful dolls were made of red wood, such as the Tirupati dolls
popular in Andhra Pradesh.
● Rajasthan is well-known for its colourful cloth dolls and stuffed
animals.
● Traditional Assamese dolls are made of pith or Indian cork.
● Southern Indian states are known for their expertise in making toys out of various types of wood.
● Because they are so exquisite, special toys made of lacquered wood are also substituted for crafts in Mysore and
Chennapatna.
● Local soft wood known as ponki is used to make the Ambari Hathi, a popular toy in Kondapalli, Andhra Pradesh.

32.12 Stoneware
● Stone masonry and crafting is one of the most popular arts in the country.
● To create exquisite monuments during the ancient period, artisans needed carving and sculpting skills.
● South Indian towns have the best examples of stonework.
● The artisans worked with a variety of stones to create their masterpieces, including soft-brittle sandstone, patchy red
stone, and hard granite.
● The task was to create lifelike structures that resemble natural human postures.
● The evidence of sculptures and architectural facades from Mauryan Period monuments can be seen.
● The rock-cut caves of Ajanta and Ellora, the erotic sculptures of Khajuraho, and the Buddhist carvings of Sanchi and
Bharhut are the best examples.
● A good example in the hilly areas is the monolithic carving of the rock cut temple at Masrur in the Kangra district.
● This trend shifted dramatically during the Mughal period, when stonework gave way to marble stonework.
● They concentrated on Pietra Dura Work, which is inlay work with colourful stones on marble.
● They also erected numerous monuments out of sandstone. The Taj Mahal and Itmad-ud-tomb, Daulah's both made of
white marble, are among the most magnificent monuments.
● Rajasthan, which produces the renowned 'Sang-e-Marmar' or white Makrana marble, is a major source of marble.
● Another important location is Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh, which produces articles made of dark brown stone known as Sang-e
Rathak.

32.13 Floor Designs

● This diverse art form transcends regional boundaries and can be found in a variety of states. They are frequently
made under religious or family auspices.
● In general, the designs are created freehand, beginning with a dot in the centre and expanding in concentric patterns of
geometrical shapes such as circles, squares, triangles, straight lines, and curves.
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● It is a natural way of drawing, starting in the centre and expanding with the repetition of
a pattern.
● The basic motif of the Chowkpurna designs of Punjab and Uttar Pradesh, as well
as the Aipan designs of Himachal Pradesh, is squares, circles, and triangles.
● Mandana of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh means "mandan" (decoration).
Patterns include squares, hexagons, triangles, and circles.
○ To make a mandana, the ground is cleaned with cowdung and several times
finished with crimson red, which is made by mixing reticulated iron with water
(red earth).
● In Gujarat, Santhias are made to decorate the entrance of houses on special
occasions.
● In Maharashtra, Rangoli employs elegant shapes and motifs such as lotus, swastik,
and others.
● South Indian Kolam designs are drawn to connect an array of dots that vary in
number, combination, and form.
● The thin lines are created on a wet ground with powdered rice or white crushed stone
powder. Red geru is used to outline kolam designs.
● Hase is another name for it in Karnataka, Muggulu in Andhra Pradesh, and Golam in
Kerala.
● Cosmological bodies, particularly the Sun and Moon, are also depicted.
● Mandapa Kolams are large floor designs created specifically for marriage
ceremonies.
● These kolams, made from wet rice paste, add sanctity to the marriage hall. Every
morning, the space for worship in many homes is sanctified with a Graha Kolam.
● The Odisha Jhonti and West Bengal and Assam Aripana designs are highly
stylized. Conch shells, fish motifs, serpents, flowers, and other motifs are frequently used.
● The designs are drawn with chalk powder on the floor and filled with coloured powder or rice paste coloured with alta
(sindoor) for red and turmeric for yellow. Each Aripana design is traditionally preceded by a flower.

33 Indian Festivals
Indian festivals are displayed throughout the year as diverse as the country's landscapes and as vibrant as its people. Festivals
and fairs are an integral part of Indian culture, serving as an expression of our beliefs and emotions. Each community has its
festivals and holy days, but this does not prevent other religious groups from participating in these celebrations. India is a secular
country, and holidays are declared for a variety of festivals associated with various faiths and communities.
● India is a secular country, and holidays are observed for a variety of religious and community celebrations.
● Some festivals are on the ‘restricted list’ which means that the employer can choose whether or not to designate it as a
holiday.
● Festivals are detrimental to understanding Indian culture, and even visitors from other countries make them a part of their
trip to India.
● Festivals are divided into two categories.
○ Religious festivals
○ Secular festivals

33.1 Indian Festivals - Historical Background

● The Aryan Vedic tradition of celebrating festivals can be traced back to the Vedic era.
● Many sources of knowledge on festivals when celebrations were held to honour gods, plants, rivers, and mountains may
be found in the Vedic scriptures and literature.
● Prayers, fasting, and social and cultural significance are all part of India's festivals.
● India's festivals feature music, dancing, and theatre performances as well as strenuous physical activities.
● Wrestling, wild bull, elephant, horse, and rhino races were among the other events.
● The most important celebration of the Vijayanagar empire was Mahanavami. It was conducted to commemorate
Goddess Durga's victory over the demons Bhandasura, Chanda, and Munda.
● The event lasted five days, during which time the king held court in front of the people.
● Muslims celebrated several festivals, many of which were related to the Shia faith. The most notable celebrations were
Imam Husain's martyrdom and the Prophet's birthday.

33.2 Religious Festivals

● Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, and other religious groups, all celebrate their festivals on the same day,
either individually or as a mixed group if their festivals are the same.
● These are festivals observed by distinct communities that adhere to a specific belief system or religion.
● Most religious denominations have important festivals in their culture.
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● For example, the Hindu community around the world celebrates the Diwali festival.
33.2.1 Hindu Festivals

Festival Significance

Diwali ● It is also known as the 'Festival of Lights,' and it is observed by all Hindu groups in India
and worldwide.
● It occurs on the auspicious day of the 'new moon,' or Amavasya, in the Karthik month,
which is normally in October or November.
● Several Hindu priests refer to it as 'Krishna Chaturdashi.'
● The day before Diwali is known as Naraka Chaturdasi, and it is one of the numerous
auspicious days that precede the arrival of the festival.
● This represents Lord Krishna's victory over the demon Naraka.
● The following day is Diwali, also known as Lakshmi Puja.
● Diwali is also known for the Chopad Puja, which commemorates Lord Krishna's sermon
on Karma Yoga to Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra.

Sharad Purnima ● This festival, which occurs 15 days before Diwali, celebrates the harvest season.
● It occurs on the Navanna Purnima, or full moon night.
● The festival's unique feature is that individuals sip saffron-colored milk during the moonlit
night, a custom known as Kojagiri.
● This rite is associated with the Goddess Durga in some parts of India.
● In a torch-lit procession known as Chhabina, the Goddess's idol is carried across the
temple grounds.

Holi ● It's known as the 'Festival of Colours,' and it's celebrated with enthusiasm and colour
across the country.
● It is a festival that characterises Indian culture and is observed by people of many
religions and communities.
● Holi is celebrated in many ways around the country; for example, in Vrindavan and
Mathura, Lathmar Holi is observed, in which the ladies of the family come out and beat
their husbands with sticks.
● It's done in a lighthearted manner with plenty of merriment.
● In many regions of rural Maharashtra, it is known as Rangapanchami.

Makar Sankranti ● It is a festival honouring the Sun God, who is also known as the King of the Planets.
● Makar Sankranti commemorates the Sun's arrival in the northern hemisphere.
● The celebration is also tied to the agricultural cycle that most rural farming communities
follow.

Janmashthami ● It is Lord Krishna's birth anniversary, which is commemorated by Hindus all throughout
the country.
● It occurs during the month of Shravan (July/August), and the date is determined by the
lunar calendar and the moon's position.

Dussehra ● Dussehra, also known as 'Vijaydashami,' is a national holiday in India commemorating

Lord Rama's victory over Ravana.
● Prior to the festival's conclusion, Hindus in north India observe a nine-day fast known as
'Navratri.'

Ram Navami ● Lord Rama's birth anniversary is commemorated with this celebration.
● The event takes place in the months of March/April, also known as Chaitra.
● The event is observed all over the country, however Ayodhya and Puducherry are two
particular regions where it is observed.

Durga Puja ● The holiday of Dussehra is identical to the Bengali, Assamese, and other communities'
Durga Puja celebrations.
● This festival commemorates Goddess Durga's victory over the demonic 'Mahisasura.'

Ganesh Chaturthi ● The celebration is held to commemorate Lord Ganesha's birth anniversary.
● It occurs on the fourth day of Bhadra (August/September) month.

Mahashivratri ● This event is held every year in honour of Lord Shiva.

● Maha Shivratri is a day of celebration and prayer to the Almighty for health and
happiness.
● It occurs on the fourteenth day of the month of Magha, which falls in February or March
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according to the Gregorian calendar.

Chhath ● Chhath is an ancient Hindu festival that has been held since the Vedic era.
● It is dedicated to Surya, the Sun God, who is the source of all life on Earth.
● It is celebrated six days after Diwali on the sixth day of the lunar fortnight of the Kartik
month.

33.2.2 Muslim Festivals

Festival Significance

Eid-ul-Fitr ● This is one of the Muslim festival celebrated around the world.
● The event takes place on the last day of Ramadan (Ramzan), which is the Islamic
calendar's ninth month.
● People fast for the full month of Ramadan, beginning at daybreak and ending at dusk

Milad-Un-Nabi ● This festival, also known as the Barah-wafat, commemorates the Prophet
Muhammad's birth anniversary.
● The Prophet was born on the twelfth day of Rabi-al-Awwal, the third month of the
Muslim calendar, according to the Quran.

Muharram ● Muharram is a mournful occasion since it commemorates the loss of Hussain,

Ali's son.
● The event takes place in Muharram, the first month of the Islamic calendar.

Shab-e-Barat ● The 'Night of Emancipation,' as it is sometimes known, occurs on the night between
the 14th and 15th day of the month of Shaban.
● Every person's fate is determined on this night, according to Muslim tradition.

Shab-e-Miraj ● Shab-e-Miraj literally translates to "night of Ascension." It was thought that the Holy
Prophet would continue his trip and come closer to the Almighty.
● This occurred on the 27th day of Rajab, two years before Hijra. The journey did not
take place in a physical body

33.2.3 Christian Festivals

Festival Significance

Christmas ● The birth anniversary of Jesus Christ is commemorated on this day all around the
world.
● Every year on the 25th of December, it is observed.
● The celebrations begin with the Midnight Mass, which is celebrated in all churches
on the night of December 24th - 25th, and commemorates Christ's birth at midnight.

Easter & Good Friday ● The resurrection of Jesus Christ is commemorated on this day.
● According to the Bible, Jesus was resurrected three days after he was crucified,
hence Easter is supposed to represent the triumph of life over death.

33.2.4 Sikh Festivals

Festival Significance

Gurpurab ● It is commemorated by the Sikh community all over the world.

● The birth anniversaries of all ten Sikh gurus are commemorated in Gurpurabs,
although Guru Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh are the most important.

Maghi ● It is the Sikhs' seasonal meeting, which takes place once a year.
● In Muktsar, it is commemorated in honour of forty Sikh martyrs (Chalis Mukte) who
resisted the Mughals.

Hola Mohalla ● It is a major holiday for Sikhs, as well as the start of the Sikh New Year.
● It is usually held in Anandpur Sahib in the month of March on the second day of the lunar
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month Chett.

Vaisakhi ● Every year on the 13th or 14th of April, a religious event is held.
● This event commemorates the Sikh new year as well as the birthday of the Khalsa Panth.
For the Sikhs, this is the spring harvest festival.
● Gurudwaras are ornamented and kirtans are held there.

Lohri ● On the 13th of January, in the month of Magh, a day before Makar Sankranti, this
occasion is commemorated.
● Lohri is a Hindu festival that honours fertility and the spark of life.

33.2.5 Jain Festivals

Festival Significance

Mahavir Jayanti ● The festival is observed by the Jain community. It is held to commemorate Lord
Mahavira's birth anniversary as the 24th Tirthankara and one of Jainism's
founders.
● It occurs on the thirteenth day of Chaitra, the month of the rising moon.

Paryushana ● Paryushana is the name of the Jains' annual festival.

● The Svetambara sect celebrates it for eight days in the month of Bhadrapada
(August/September).
● The celebration is held for ten days by the Digambara sect.

Mahamastakabhisheka ● It is a Jain festival held once every twelve years in the Karnataka town of
Shravanabelagola.
● The holy bathing ceremony of Siddha Bahubali, son of Rishabhdev, is held at
this festival.

Gyana Panchami ● "Gyana Panchami" is the name given to the fifth day of Kartika.
● It's known as "Knowledge Day." The Holy Scriptures are presented and revered
on this day.

Varshi Tapa or Akshay ● This festival commemorates Rishabhdev, the first Jain Tirthankara, who fasted
Tritiya Tapa for a total of 13 months and 13 days.
● His fasting came to an end on the 3rd day of the light fortnight of the Jain
calendar's Vaishakh month.

33.2.6 Buddhist Festivals

Festival Significance

Buddha Purnima ● The Buddha Purnima, also known as the Buddha Jayanti, commemorates the birth of
Lord Buddha.
● It occurs throughout the months of April and May and is widely observed in portions of
North-east India.
● In Sikkim, it is known as Saga Dawa (Dasa), and in the Theravada tradition, it is known
as Vishakha Puja.

Songkran ● This Buddhist festival is celebrated in the same way that spring cleaning occurs.
● During the middle of April, it is commemorated for many days.
● People wash their clothes, clean their homes, and enjoy sprinkling fragrant water on the
monks.

Ploughing Festival ● This event commemorates Buddha's first enlightenment, which occurred while he was
seven years old and was watching ploughing with his father.

Ullambana ● From the first to the fifteenth days of the eighth lunar month, this festival is
commemorated.
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● The gates of hell are said to open on the first day, allowing ghosts to enter the world for
fifteen days

Losar Festival ● It is one of the most important holidays in Arunachal Pradesh, as it commemorates the
Tibetan New Year, which resonates with the region's significant Tibetan and Buddhist
populations.

33.2.7 Sindhi Festivals

Festival Significance

Chaliho Sahib ● It is the Sindhi Community's event. In the months of July and August, the Sindhis
conduct a forty-day fast.
● They fast for forty days in order to pray to Lord Jhulelal, and then they commemorate
the occasion as Thanksgiving Day.

Cheti Chand ● The occasion is Sindhi New Year, which is observed all around the world. On the first
day of Chaitra, it is commemorated.
● Cheti Chand is a Sindhi festival commemorating the birth of Jhulelal, the Sindhis' patron
saint.

33.2.8 Parsi Festivals (Zoroastrian)

Festival Significance

Jamshedi Navroz ● The Parsi community celebrates the holiday of Navroz as the New Year's
celebration.
● According to the Shahanshahi calendar, it falls on the Roj Hormuzd, or the first
day of the first month (Mah Farvardin)

Zarthost No Deeso ● On the eleventh day of the tenth month (Khorshedroz, Daemah) of June.
● Prophet Zoroaster's death anniversary.

Pateti ● On the Parsi Calendar's last Gatha day.

● To express regret for the crimes perpetrated throughout the year.

33.3 Secular Festivals

● A secular festival is staged for the aim of publicly celebrating remarkable individuals, commemorating significant
historical or cultural events, or re-creating cherished folkways. Secular Festival is the polar opposite of religious festival;
perhaps a celebration of people's labour and plentiful harvest.
● Secular festivals are observed by the entire nation, regardless of religious affiliation.
● Most states have specific festivals and fairs that are important to their culture.
● The Pushkar fair, for example, is held in the Rajasthan city of Pushkar. It is a livestock fair that is open to all communities.
33.3.1 Important Secular Festivals

Festivals Significance

Gangaur Festival ● It originated in medieval Rajput times and is most frequently observed in Rajasthan.
● It is commemorated in honour of Goddess Parvati or Gauri, Lord Shiva's wife, although
it is observed by the entire community, regardless of religion.
● It is a celebration of the coming of spring, the harvest, and martial fidelity.
● On this day, unmarried women pray for the blessing of a good spouse, while married
women pray for their husband's well-being, good health, and long life.

Khajuraho Dance ● This festival was founded in 1975 by the Government of India in partnership with the
Festival Madhya Pradesh Kala Parishad.
● The purpose of this dance festival was to encourage tourism in the state and to
emphasise the beauty and eroticism of the Khajuraho temples.
● The festival is also intended to express the spirit of perpetual grandeur and
perseverance of dance and architectural landmarks that represent our cultural heritage.
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Teej ● In Northern India, it is one of the most colourful festivities.

● It occurs on the third day of the Shravan month (July/August).
● It is commemorated by the women of the household wearing new garments and
applying Mehendi or henna to their hands.
● It is celebrated in Rajasthan, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
● There are three types of Teej i.e., Hariyali Teej, Kajari Teej and Hartalika Teej.

Tyagaraja Aradhana ● It is conducted every year to honour the legendary Tamil saint and composer
Tyagaraja's 'Samadhi' day.
● It takes place in January near Thanjavur, on the banks of the Kaveri River.
● Leading representatives of Carnatic music attend the festival to pay their respects to
the saint.
● Saint Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, and Shyama Sastri form the Carnatic
music Trinity.
● Thousands of Carnatic music enthusiasts who come to watch the concerts are looking
forward to it.

Raksha Bandhan ● This celebration honours the bond that exists between brothers and sisters.
● It literally means 'protective connection.' Sisters tie silk strands around their brother's
wrists and pray for his well-being and success on this day.
● In turn, the brother makes a promise to defend their sisters in any manner he can.
● It is observed on the full moon day of the Shravan month.
● It is observed all over India. It is also significant to the Jain community.

Pongal ● Pongal is a harvest festival observed by Tamils worldwide.

● It is observed from the 13th to the 16th of January and marks the start of Uttarayan, the
Sun's six-month northward journey.
● The word 'Pongal' means 'to boil' in Tamil, and the initial rice boiling is an essential
ceremony observed throughout the festival.
● It is held during the Thai monthwhen various crops including rice, sugarcane, turmeric,
and others are harvested.
● It is a time to pay appreciation to nature and celebrate the life cycles that provide us
with food.

Sarhul ● For the tribals of Jharkhand, Sarhul signifies the start of the New Year.
● The Munda, Oraon, and Ho tribes are the principal celebrators.
● Sarhul literally translates to 'Worship of Sal.' It is observed during the spring season
or in the Hindu calendar month of Phagun.
● Tribals revere nature and Mother Earth is worshipped throughout the celebration.
● Sarhul is a festival that lasts many days and features the major traditional dance
Sarhul.

Baisakhi ● In Punjab, 'Baisakhi,' derived from the month of 'Vaisakh,' is celebrated as New
Year's Day.
● It occurs on April 13th and commemorates the end of the Rabi harvest.
● Baisakhi is always celebrated with remarkable vim and gaiety, as well as Bhangra
performances.
● It also has religious significance for Sikhs, as the Khalsa Panth was created during
the Baisakhi celebrations in 1699 A.D. by the tenth Sikh Guru Gobind Singh.
● People come to Amritsar on Baisakhi to pray at the Golden Temple and take a plunge
in the Holy Sarovar.
● Sikhs go to gurdwaras to hear kirtans and talks, as well as read texts from the holy
Guru Granth Sahib.

Bohag Bihu ● Bohag Bihu, also known as Bhogali Bihu, is a spring celebration celebrated on April
14th. It is the start of the first month of the Assamese calendar.
● Rongali Bihu (Bihu of Merriment) is another name for the festival.
● Goru Bihu (Animals Bihu) is the first day of Bihu when the cattle are cleansed and
decorated with garlands.
● The following day is Manuh Bihu (Human Bihu) when people share New Year's
greetings.

Gudi Padwa or Gudi ● In Maharashtra, New Year's Day is celebrated as Gudi Pava on the first day of
Pava Chaitra in March/April. It is a day of immense celebration and joy.
● People get up early to clean their homes, which are then decorated with beautiful
rangoli designs.
● A silk cloth is fastened to a pole and topped with a brass goblet or Kalash, which is
meant to ward against evil.
● During this festival, fresh neem tree leaves, puran-poli, and Shrikand are consumed.
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● Gudi Pava commemorates the victory of Satavahana monarch Shalivahana over his
adversaries around 1921 years ago.

Ugadi ● Ugadi, also known as Chaitra suddha padhyami, is observed as a New Year's Day in
certain areas of India, most notably in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra,
and Goa.
● Gudi Padwa (Maharashtra), Samvatsar Padvo (Goa), Naba Barsha (West Bengal),
Puthandu (Tamil Nadu), and Vishu (Kerala) are all names for this festival.
● On this day, Lord Brahma is said to have begun creation, and it also marks the start of
a new Hindu lunar calendar.

Naba Barsha ● Naba Barsha, or Bengali New Year's Day, is observed on April 14th.
● The day begins with Prabhat pheris, which are early morning processions accompanied
by song and dance routines.
● People take ritual baths in a river or tank, and women adorn their dwellings with
exquisite floor decorations (Alpana).

Bundi Festival ● Bundi Festival is held at Bundi, Rajasthan, and draws a considerable number of foreign
tourists.
● Several one-of-a-kind festivities are planned during this festival, including a colourful
procession of camels and bullock carts.
● The famed Jaitsagar Lake hosts a Deep Daan, or lamp flux.

Moatsu Mong ● It is a festival of the Ao tribe of Nagaland. This marks the end of the sowing season.
● It is a three-day festival celebrated from May 1 to 3 every year.
● This festival begins with cleaning wells and brewing beer. During the festival, people
enjoy the local cuisine and cultural programs.

Chapchar Kut ● It is a festival in Mizoram, India.

● It is celebrated during the month of march after the completion of their most difficult
task of clearing the forest. It is a spring festival celebrated with great kindness and joy

33.4 National Festivals

● On the occurrence of major historical events of national significance, national festivals are commemorated.
● National festivals in India have a special aspect that distinguishes them from other celebrations.
● The government understands and acknowledges the critical importance of these days. It intensifies preparations for the
event, mobilising all of its resources at all levels of government.
● Through these celebrations, Indians are instilled with a strong sense of patriotism.
● Three national festivals observed in India are:
○ 26th January - Republic Day
○ 15th August - Independence Day
○ 2nd October - Gandhi Jayanti