2018-2019 - Abe 512 - Class Note

ABE 512: SOIL & WATER CONSERVATION ENGINEERING
ABSTRACT
Soil and Water Conservation Engineering is a
three-credit course for 500 Level students in
Agricultural and Bioresources Engineering
Department of the School of Infrastructure,
Process Engineering and Technology (SIPET).
The course consists of seven topics which have
been divided into two modules. The course
material has been developed to suit
undergraduate students by using appropriate
approach to treat Soil Erosion by water, types of
water erosion, control structures and model for
predicting soil loss. Thus, a student who
successfully completes the course will be in a
better position to manage soil erosion and
conservation in both private and public
ABE 512: SOIL & WATER organizations.
CONSERVATION H. I. Mustapha, PhD
ENGINEERING
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Soil & Water Conversation Engineering Syllabus (Part 1)
Course Lecturers: Publications:

H. I. Mustapha • Soil Erosion by Water in the Tropics, El-Swaify, S. A [USAID]
P.A. Adeoye (PhD) • Soil Erosion by water in Africa, Nill et al., [GTZ]
• Chapter 2 – Causes and Effects of Erosion and Sedimentation,
Hydrologic changes and Pollution Transport
Email
(https://dnr.mo.gov/env/wpp/wpcp-guide/docs/chapt2.pdf)
h.i.mustapha@futminna.edu.ng
Office Location Course Materials:

Agricultural and Bio resources Engineering • Soil and Water Conversion Engineering (4th ed.) – Schwab et al.,1993
Departmental Office [Annex], • Introduction to Soil Erosion
CODEL Building, 1st Floor, • Soil erosion and Sedimentation Control Training Manual
Federal University of Technology, Minna,
Gidan Kwano Campus. Resources:
• http://www.sciencemag.org/content/304/5677/1627.full.pdf
Lecture Hours • www.theguardian.com/world/2004/feb/14/science.environment
Tuesdays 12 pm - 3 pm • http://www.sciencemag.org/content/304/5677/1614.full.pdf
WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS MODULE
The module is made up of four units, covering areas such as:

• Soil Erosion
• Processes of Soil Erosion
• Types of soil erosion
• Soil productivity relation and modelling (USLE)
• Control of soil erosion
COURSE AIM:
• Define soil erosion and outline the causative agent of soil erosion
• Explain the processes of soil erosion
• Outline factors of water erosion
• Factors affecting water erosion
• Explain major soil properties controlling soil erosion at field-scale, on-site and off-site problems of erosion
• List and discuss briefly different kinds and types of erosion
• Outline the relationship between soil erosion and agricultural productivity
• Explain erosion modelling, difference between empirical and conceptual models and the USLE
• Explain soil conservation and control measures
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• Define soil erosion and outline the causative agent of soil erosion
• Explain the processes of soil erosion
• Outline factors of water erosion
• Factors affecting water erosion
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• Explain major soil properties controlling soil erosion at field-scale, on-site and off-site problems of erosion
• List and discuss briefly different kinds and types of erosion
• Outline the relationship between soil erosion and agricultural productivity
• Explain erosion modelling, different between empirical and conceptual models and the USLE
• Explain soil conservation and control measures
Course Schedule
Week Topic Division

1. Introduction (Soil and Water Conservation)
2. Types of erosion; Soil erosion by water MODULE 1
3. Universal soil loss equation
4. Universal soil loss equation
5. Control of soil erosion
6. Control of soil erosion
7. Continuous Assessment Test 1
8. Wind Erosion, control and preventions MODULE 2
9. Earth dams
10. Desertification
11. Continuous Assessment Test 2
Assessment Schedule
Week Activity
1-6 Class Quiz/Work
4 Assignment
6/7 Continuous Assessment Test 1
1-6 Attendance
10 Continuous Assessment Test 2
7-9 Attendance
Additional Information:
Assessment Marks
Attendance 5%
Assignment 15%
Continuous Assessment 20%
Examination 60%
Total 100%
NOTE: Students must have at least 75% attendance to enable them sit for the final examination.
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INTRODUCTION TO SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION ENGINEERING
Opening Questions:
• What is soil and water conservation?
• What are the reasons that make soil conservation so important?
• What are the ways to conserve soil through agricultural means?
PREAMBLE:
Soil and water conservation:
I. The sustainable utilization of natural resources for the benefit of people within a watershed. Its success will depend
on the participation of local people with their traditional knowledge;
II. Those activities which maintain or enhance the productive capacity of the land including soil, water and vegetation
in areas prone to degradation through:
• prevention or reduction of soil erosion, compaction, salinity;

• conservation or drainage of water and
• maintenance or improvement of soil fertility
Reasons why soil conservation is so important:
1. Soil is the foundation of plant life. It provides support for plant growth, provide nutrition to this plant life. It is through
this vegetation that the humankind and animal kingdom are nourished. Plants are important resource of food and fuel and
of wood and other by-products that make our other life functions possible.
2. Soil additionally supports the animal kingdom. Our agriculture also relies on soil, for its location and for other
functions to be derived from its existence. It will be almost impossible to support the animal and human life without land.
Biodiversity relies on soil at all times.
3. Soil is necessary for water supply. This is the magic of nature. The land is also necessary to ensure the quality of water
we derive from our earth. Soil and water co-exist. So do we and soil co-exist? Taking good care of our soil equates to
taking care of our water supply.
Ways to conserve soil through agricultural means:
1. Practice no till farming. With no till farming, crops are allowed to remain rather than being ploughed under at the
end of the season. This practice keeps soils anchored in place rather than having bare ground exposed to wind and
water.
2. Use terrace farming. This type of farming uses the topography of the land to slow water flow through a series of
terraces. This manipulation of the water flow prevents it from gathering speed and washing soil away from farmlands.
3. Practice contour farming. Contour farming replicates the effects of terrace farming, but on a smaller scale. Rather
than planting crops in straight vertical rows, crops are planted following the contour of the landscape. Crops planted
up and down hillsides create pathways for water to flow. Crops planted parallel to the land slow the flow of water
that prevents soil erosion.
4. Reduce impervious surfaces. Impervious surfaces like driveways and courtyards allow precipitation to flow freely
over them. Water flow gains momentum when moving over such surfaces and can then erode stream banks and
lakeshores. A good compromise is to use paving stones rather than a concrete slab for your courtyard to allow the
water to percolate down into the soil.
5. Plant a rain garden. A rain garden is a shallow depression in your yard, which will collect precipitation washing
over impervious surfaces. It prevents soil erosion and gives you an opportunity to grow wetland plants.
6. Use a rain barrel. You can place a rain barrel underneath a downspout to collect the water that runs off of your roof.
Your roof, after all, is another impervious surface. You can use the water you collect for your lawn and garden. In
this way, you can conserve water and soil.
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7. Plant windbreaks. Windbreaks prevent soil erosion by slowing the force of the wind over open ground. You can
plant trees or shrubs in your windbreak. In addition to preventing erosion, these plantings will prevent snow from
drifting onto your driveway or into the road. They can also protect your home from wind damage.
8. Restore wetlands. Wetlands are one of the most effective ways to prevent soil erosion. Wetlands act as natural
sponges, absorbing rainwater and preventing it from carrying the soil away. They also provide a habitat for birds and
other wildlife and help prevent water pollution.
9. Plant buffer strips along stream banks. Buffer strips help hold stream banks intact during times of flooding. They
also prevent runoff from entering waterways. Buffer strips can include a mixture of grasses, shrubs, and trees.
10. Re-establish forest cover. The re-establishment of forest cover provides an extensive, tree-root network that offers
a long-term solution to soil erosion. It can function both as a windbreak and a means to anchor soils in place.
What is soil and water conservation engineering?
Soil and water conservation engineering is the application of engineering principles to the solution of soil and water
management problems. The conservation of these vital resources implies utilization without waste so as to make possible a
high level of production which can be continued indefinitely.
The engineering problems involved in soil and water conservation may be divided into the five following phases:
Erosion control,
Drainage,
Irrigation,
Flood control, and
Land clearing.
Soil erosion takes place even under virgin conditions, the problems to be considered are caused principally by man's removal
of the protective cover of natural vegetation.
Drainage is the removal of excess water from wet land.
Irrigation is the application of water to land having a deficiency of moisture for optimum crop growth. Irrigation provides one
of the greatest possibilities for increasing potential production.
Flood control consists of the prevention of overflow on low land and the reduction of flow in streams during and after heavy
storms.
Land clearing includes the removal of trees, stumps, brush, or stones from otherwise tillable land.
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CHAPTER 1
SOIL EROSION
Opening Questions:
• What is soil erosion?
• How does soil erosion occur?
• What role do humans play in this process?
• Why is it important to limit soil erosion?
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Soil is an important factor for crop and livestock production. Plants depend on it for support, nutrients, water and air while
animals depend on it for grazing materials. It takes about 300 – 1000 years for nature to build a single inch of soil. Hence,
if we allow our soils to be destroyed it will take many generations before it can be built up again for use. Soil erosion is the
process of wind and water moving soil particles from one location and transporting and depositing them elsewhere.
Erosion is a natural occurrence, shaping sand dunes, creating river deltas, or carving out enormous rock features like the
Grand Canyon. Humans, however, have dramatically accelerated this process through agricultural practices, mining, logging
and clearing and grading for construction. These activities can cause detrimental effects on the environment, degrading water
quality, compacting the soil, limiting water infiltration, removing vegetation, and exposing the soil surface, thereby
increasing both runoff and erosion. Erosion rates are higher on lands that are denuded and reshaped for urban development,
than on agricultural land. Sedimentation is the gravitational deposition of transported materials in flowing or standing water.
Sediment can carry polluting chemicals, destroy fish habitat, decrease the storage capacity of water bodies, and increase the
risk of flooding. Deposition of sediment on roads, and in stream channels, reservoirs, lakes, estuaries, and harbours, reduces
recreational and municipal usefulness and may require expensive removal operations. Soil erosion reduces the productivity
of agricultural lands by removing topsoil, exposing less desirable subsoil. This results in a loss of organic matter and nutrients
causing a reduction of fertility and plant-available, water-holding capacity.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 1. 1. (a). Sand dune (b). River delta and (c). Grand Canyon
1.1. Mechanics of Soil Erosion

Erosion occurs in three steps: detachment of soil particle, (a)
transportation of soil particle down slope and deposition of
the transported sediment.
The physical impact of a raindrop on unprotected soil
serves as the primary detachment mechanism, loosening
soil particles and freeing them to be transported. When a
raindrop strikes a surface, the force of the impact acts to
destabilize the particles. The force can be compared to that
of a bomb blast. The kinetic force disrupts soil aggregates,
shattering them into individual soil particles. The loosened
particles are then easily removed by runoff water.
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Dispersed soil may wash into soil surface pores, forming a  Runoff sediment transported off-site can reach
crust that inhibits the emergence of seedlings and downstream water bodies and cause pollution.
encouraging rapid runoff from subsequent rain events. Soil  Runoff sediment is deposited in deltas along streams.
particle transportation primarily occurs through water  Texture of eroded material is different from the original
runoff across the land surface, causing sheet erosion. Soil material because of the selective transport process.
particles are transported as the sediment is suspended in
water and travels down slope. The rate of soil detachment (b)
and transport depends on soil textures, slope, vegetation
and rainfall.
Deposition. It occurs when the detached and transported
soil particles by rain are deposited as sediment. This is
because the level area causes a decrease in the velocity
which results in deposition. It involves the following;
 Transported particles deposit in low landscape positions.
 Most of the eroded soil material is deposited at the
downslope end of the fields.
Fig. 1.2. (a). Detachment of bare unprotected soil from impact of the raindrop and (b). Transportation of the soil downslope
once it is detached and suspended in runoff.
1.2. Water Erosion Processes:

1. Detachment by raindrop impact: individual grains are separated from soil mass/matrix
2. Transportation (by raindrop impact) [splash erosion]: detached grains transported over land surface
3. Detachment by the shearing forces of flowing water
4. Transport in surface runoff (sheet or interill erosion, rill and gully erosion)
5. Deposition: soil grains deposited in new sites
The amount of surface runoff (SRi) during a storm can be expressed as:
SRi = Pi - (I + DS + RS) (1.1)
with Pi - rain volume of storm i [mm]

I - infiltration [mm]
DS - detention storage
RS - retention storage
Sheet and splash erosion occur in areas of shallow sheet or interrill flow (few millimetres deep) whereas rill erosion is caused
by concentrated rill flow. In the rills, fine sediment is transported as suspended load whereas coarser particles are dragged along
as bedload.
Flow depth in rills is generally deep enough to minimize the influence of raindrop action. The amount of soil loss in the rills,
therefore, depends almost solely on the shearing forces of the flow and the saturation of its transport capacity. If the transport
capacity of the rill flow is saturated with sediment from the interrill areas, the rills do not deepen. If the sediment concentration
is smaller than the transport capacity, the flow picks up more sediment from the rills.
1.1 Factors Affecting Soil Erosion

1.1.1. Soil:
A soil is a product of its environment. The vulnerability of a soil to erosion, known as its erodibility, is a result of a number of
soil characteristics, which can be divided into two groups: those influencing infiltration, movement of water into the ground;
and those affecting the resistance to detachment and transport by rainfall and runoff. The soil erodibility factor (K) is a measure
of a soil’s susceptibility to erosion by water. Key factors that affect erodibility are soil texture, content of organic matter, soil
structure, and soil permeability.
Soil texture is described by the proportions of sand, silt, and clay in the soil. It refers to the size of soil particles.
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Sand is the largest sized particle, followed by silt, with clay being the smallest sized soil particle. Of all the soil particles, silt-
sized particles erode most easily. Sand has large pore paces that allow for greater infiltration of water at a higher rate of
infiltration. Clay particles, when wetted, become sticky and cohesive. These clay particles bind to each other becoming more
difficult to dislodge and translocate.
High sand content gives a coarse texture, which allows water to infiltrate readily, reducing runoff. A relatively high infiltration
rate coupled with resistance to transport by runoff results in a low erosion potential. Soils containing high proportions of silt
and very fine sand are most erodible. Clay acts to bind particles and tends to limit erodibility; however, when clay erodes, the
particles settle out very slowly.
Organic matter, such as plant material, humus, or manure, improves soil structure, increases water-holding capacity, and may
increase the infiltration rate, it reduces erodibility and the amount of runoff.
Soil structure is determined by the shape and arrangement of soil particles. A stable, sharp, granular structure absorbs water
readily, resists erosion by surface flow, and promotes plant growth. Clay soils or compacted soils have slow infiltration
capacities that increase runoff rate and create severe erosion problems.
Soil permeability refers to a soil’s ability to transmit air and water. Soils that are least subject to erosion from rainfall and
shallow surface runoff are those with high permeability rates, such as well-graded gravels and gravels sand mixtures. Loose,
granular soils reduce runoff by absorbing water and by providing a favourable environment for plant growth.
Soil erodibility is an estimate of the ability of soils to resist erosion, based on the physical characteristics of each soil.
Generally, soils with faster infiltration rates, higher levels of organic matter and improved soil structure have a greater
resistance to erosion. Sand, sandy loam and loam textured soils tend to be less erodible than silt, very fine sand, and certain
clay textured soils.
Tillage and cropping practices which lower soil organic matter levels, cause poor soil structure, as a result compaction,
contribute to increases in soil erodibility. Decreased infiltration and increased runoff can be a result of compacted subsurface
soil layers. A decrease in infiltration can also be caused by a formation of a soil crust, which tends to "seal" the surface. On
some sites, a soil crust might decrease the amount of soil loss from sheet or rain splash erosion, however, a corresponding
increase in the amount of runoff water can contribute to greater rill erosion problems.
Past erosion has an effect on a soils' erodibility for a number of reasons. Many exposed subsurface soils on eroded sites tend
to be more erodible than the original soils were, because of their poorer structure and lower organic matter. The lower nutrient
levels often associated with subsoils contribute to lower crop yields and generally poorer crop cover, which in turn provides
less crop protection for the soil.
1.1.2. Topography:
The topographic features that influence erosion are degree of slope, shape and length of slope, size and shape of the watershed.
Erosion can occur at different rates depending on the slope of the land. The steeper the slope, the greater the velocity of the
water flowing across the surface and its capacity to transport and erode soil. Thus, runoff is more erosive, and can easily
transport detached sediment downslope. Increase the length of the slope and the erosive energy of the water increases.
Naturally, the steeper the slope of a field, the greater the amount of soil loss from erosion by water. Soil erosion by water also
increases as the slope length increases due to the greater accumulation of runoff which tend to increase rill erosion.
Consolidation of small fields into larger ones often results in longer slope lengths with increased erosion potential, due to
increased velocity of water which permits a greater degree of scouring (carrying capacity for sediment).
Soils on convex fields are more readily eroded than in concave areas due to interaction with surface creeping of soil by gravity.
Degree, length, and size of slope determine the rate of surface runoff. Rill, gully, and stream channel erosion are typical of
sloping watersheds. Steeper terrain slopes are prone to mudflow erosion and landslides.
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1.1.3. Vegetation:
Vegetation is the most effective means of stabilizing soils and controlling erosion. Vegetative cover acts as a barrier that
protects the soil particles from falling rain, reduces flow velocity and disperses flow. It provides a rough surface that slows the
runoff velocity and promotes infiltration and deposition of sediment.
Establishing grassed expanses provides a fast and effective measure to slow the velocity of water and allow sediment to drop
out of suspension. Having a leaf canopy from trees, debris, and litter on a forest floor can reduce the impact on soil caused by
the raindrops.
Soil erosion potential is increased if the soil has no or very little vegetative cover of plants and/or crop residues. Plant and
residue cover protects the soil from raindrop impact and splash, tends to slow down the movement of surface runoff and allows
excess surface water to infiltrate.
The erosion-reducing effectiveness of plant and/or residue covers depends on the type, extent and quantity of cover. Vegetation
and residue combinations that completely cover the soil, and which intercept all falling raindrops at and close to the surface
and the most efficient in controlling soil (e.g. forests, permanent grasses). Partially incorporated residues and residual roots are
also important as these provide channels that allow surface water to move into the soil.
The effectiveness of any crop, management system or protective cover also depends on how much protection is available at
various periods during the year, relative to the amount of erosive rainfall that falls during these periods. In this respect, crops
which provide a food, protective cover for a major portion of the year (for example, alfalfa or winter cover crops) can reduce
erosion much more than can crops which leave the soil bare for a longer period of time (e.g. row crops) and particularly during
periods of high erosive rainfall (spring and summer). However, most of the erosion on annual row crop land can be reduced by
leaving a residue cover greater than 30% after harvest and over the winter months, or by inter-seeding a forage crop (e.g. red
clover).
Non-vegetative covers such as mulches, paving, and stone aggregates also protect soils from erosion.
Soil erosion potential is affected by tillage operations, depending on the depth, direction and timing of ploughing, the type of
tillage equipment and the number of passes. Generally, the less the disturbance of vegetation or residue cover at or near the
surface, the more effective the tillage practice is in reducing erosion.
1.1.4. Climate:
Climatic factors affecting erosion include precipitation, temperature, wind, humidity and solar radiation.
Rainfall presents two parameters to consider: 1.) the rain intensity, or how hard the rain falls, and 2.) the length of time it rains.
Overall, the amount of rain that falls and how quickly it falls determines how fast soils become saturated and runoff begins.
The combination of factors listed above determines the amount of erosion that will occur as well as the amount of sediment
that may be transported and deposited elsewhere.
Both rainfall and runoff factors must be considered in assessing a water erosion problem. The impact of raindrops on the soil
surface can break down soil aggregates and disperse the aggregate material. Lighter aggregate materials such as very fine sand,
silt, clay and organic matter can be easily removed by the raindrop splash and runoff water; greater raindrop energy or runoff
amounts might be required to move the larger sand and gravel particles.
Soil movement by rainfall (raindrop splash) is usually greatest and most noticeable during short duration, high-intensity
thunderstorms. Although the erosion caused by long-lasting and less intense storms is not as spectacular or noticeable as that
produced during thunderstorms, the amount of soil loss can be significant, especially when compounded over time. Runoff can
occur whenever there is excess water on a slope that cannot be absorbed into the soil or trapped on the surface. The amount of
runoff can be increased if infiltration is reduced due to soil compaction, crusting or freezing. Runoff from the agricultural land
may be greatest during spring months when the soils are usually saturated, snow is melting and vegetative cover is minimal.
Temperature is another climatic factor influencing erosion. Frozen soil is highly resistant to erosion, rapid thawing of soil
surface brought on by warm rains can lead to serious erosion. Temperature also influences the type of precipitation. Falling
snow does not erode, however, heavy snow melts in the spring can cause considerable runoff damage. Temperature also
influences the amount of organic matter that collects on the ground surface and incorporates with the topsoil layer. Areas with
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warmer climates have thinner organic cover on the soil. Organic matter protects the soil by shielding it from the impact of
falling rain and soaking up rainfall that would otherwise become runoff.
Temperature and wind are most evident through their effects on evaporation and transpiration. High temperature may reduce
water erosion by increasing evapotranspiration and reducing the soil water content. High air humidity is associated with higher
soil water content. Higher winds increase soil water depletion and reduce water erosion. Wind also changes raindrop velocities
and the angle of impact. Humidity and solar radiation are associated with temperature and rate of soil water depletion.
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CHAPTER 2
2.0. TYPES OF EROSION

A. Geologic erosion
B. Accelerated erosion
• Water Erosion
• Wind erosion
C. Other types of soil erosion
• Glacial erosion
• Snow erosion
• Organic erosion
• Anthropogenic erosion
A. Geologic erosion:
It refers to the formation of and loss of soil simultaneously which maintain the balance between formation and various
losses. It is normal process which represents the erosion of soil in its normal conduction without influence of human being.
It is also known as natural or normal erosion. The various topographical features such as existing of stream channels, valleys,
etc. are the results of geologic erosion.
B. Accelerated erosion:
It is an excess of geologic erosion. It is activated by naturals and man’s activities due is changes in natural cover and soil
conditions.
Accelerated erosion takes place by the action of water, wind, gravity and glaciers. Various forces involved in this are:
1. Attacking force of water or wind which remove and transport the soil particle from one place to another.
2. Retarding forces which resists the erosion. In general accelerated erosion is known as soil erosion or erosion.
2.1. Water Erosion. It is sub classified as:

2.1.1. Splash erosion
2.1.2. Sheet erosion
2.1.3. Rill erosion
2.1.4. Gully erosion
2.1.5. Stream erosion
2.1.1 Splash/ raindrop erosion. It results from soil splash caused by the impact of falling raindrops. Falling raindrops
breaks soil aggregate and detach soil particles from soil mass. Fine soil particles are taken into suspension and the splash
thus become muddy. The major effect of surface flow of water is to carry off the soil loosened by splash erosion.
The relationship among erosion, rainfall momentum, and energy is determined by raindrop mass, size distribution, shape,
velocity and direction. The relation between rainfall intensity and energy has been found to be:
E = 0.119 + 0.0873 log10 I (2.1)
With E = kinetic energy [MJ/ha-mm]

i = intensity of the rainfall [mm/h]
Rain splash erosion is particularly important on steep slopes without vegetation. A thick vegetation cover intercepts
virtually all the kinetic energy of the rainfall. However, the protective effects of vegetation are not always as simple; the
interception process in a forest may increase the erosive power of the drops. Another influence on rain splash erosion is
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the resistance of the soil to disp.ersal. High organic content and moderate amounts of clay and calcium promote the
development of stable soil aggregates whereas silt and sand are dispersed more easily. In some cases rain splash erosion
can account for 50 to 90 times the runoff losses.
Fig. 2.1. Splash erosion
2.1.2. Sheet erosion:

Sheet erosion is soil movement from raindrop splash resulting in the breakdown of soil surface structure and surface runoff;
it occurs rather uniformly over the slope and may go unnoticed until most of the productive topsoil has been lost.
When rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil, there is a net accumulation of water on the land surface
that runs downslope as an irregular sheet (Fig. 2.2). The depth and velocity of the water increases downslope until the force
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applied to the soil by the water is sufficient to overcome the resistance of the soil to erosion. The amount of erosion depends
on the water depth and hillslope gradient.
The beating action of raindrops combined with surface flow causes initial microscopic rilling. Raindrops detach soil
particles, and the detached sediment can reduce the infiltration rate by sealing the soil pores. The eroding and transporting
power of sheet flow is a function of the rain intensity, infiltration rate, and field slope, for a given size, shape and density of
soil particle or aggregate.
Fig. 2.2. Sheet Erosion
2.1.3. Rill erosion:
Rill erosion is the detachment and transport of soil by a concentrated flow of water. Rill erosion results when surface runoff
concentrates forming small yet well-defined channels. These channels are called rills when they are small enough to not
interfere with field machinery operations. It occurs during/after rain or when snow melts, and involves concentration of flowing
water into small channels (<0.3 m) that are more turbulent and have greater scouring action than sheet flow. It is most serious
where intense storms occur on soils with high-runoff-producing characteristics and highly erodible topsoil.
Rill erosion is more dominant on shorter, steeper slopes while interill erosion is more important on longer, gentler inclines.
Rills erode downward until they reach the soil layer of low susceptibility to erosion. After that the rills widen by lateral erosion.
If the subsoil is also susceptible to erosion, rills eventually transform into gullies.
Fig. 2.3. Rill erosion

𝑸𝑸𝒔𝒔
𝑫𝑫𝒓𝒓 = 𝑲𝑲𝒓𝒓 ( 𝛕𝛕 − 𝛕𝛕𝒄𝒄 )(𝟏𝟏 − )
𝑻𝑻𝒄𝒄
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2.1.4 Gully erosion:
Gully erosion is an advanced stage of rill erosion where surface channels have been eroded to the point where they cannot be
smoothened over by normal tillage operations. It is a relatively deep, vertical-walled channel recently formed within a valley
where no well-defined channel previously existed.
Gully erosion is a highly visible form of soil erosion that affects soil productivity, restricts land use and can threaten roads,
fences and buildings. Gullies are relatively steep-sided watercourses which experience ephemeral flows during heavy or
extended rainfall. Soil eroded from the gullied area can cause siltation of fence lines, waterways, road culverts, dams and
reservoirs. Suspended sediments, which may have attached nutrients and pesticides, can adversely affect water quality. These
fine, colloidal clay particles remain in suspension and may clog groundwater aquifers, pollute water courses and affect aquatic
life.
Surface runoff, causing gull formation or the enlarging of existing gullies, is usually the result of improper outlet design for
local surface and subsurface drainage systems. The soil instability of fully banks, usually associated with seepage of ground
water, leads to sloughing and slumping (caving-in) of bank slopes. Such failures usually occur during spring months when
the soil water conditions are most conducive to the problem.
Controlling gully erosion can be difficult and costly. It may be justified on better quality soils where there is a reasonable
chance of success or where a road or building is threatened by an advancing gully. However, controlling gullies over large
areas of poor soils may be impracticable. For this reason prevention is far better than control.
Gully formations can be difficult to control if remedial measures are not designed and properly constructed. Control measures
have to consider the cause of the increased flow of water across the landscape, and a multitude of conservation measures
come into play. Operations with farm machinery adjacent to gullies can be quite hazardous when cropping or attempting to
reclaim lost land.
2.1.4.1. Gully Erosion in Nigeria
In Nigeria, high torrential rainfall of the southern Nigeria creates enabling environment for catastrophic soil erosion in the
region while desertification and aridity are the major environmental problems of the Northern part of the country. The greatest
threat to the environmental settings of southeastern Nigeria is the gradual but constant dissection of the landscape by water
erosion.
Gully erosion is the most visible form of erosion in Nigeria mainly because of the remarkable impression they leave on the
surface of the earth. More than 1.6% of the entire land area of eastern Nigeria is occupied by gullies.
2.1.4.2. Causes of Gully Erosion

• In Nigeria, gully is more predominant in the sedimentary terrains and perhaps in the basement/sediment contact
areas. This accounts for why its occurrences is more skewed to the south-eastern Nigeria where most of the gullies
take the advantage of the loosely consolidated and sometimes friable rocks such as the Ajali Sandstone in Auchi
area of Edo State of Nigeria (Nwajide, personal communication).
• The anthropogenic factors are mainly technical factors comprising mainly of land use and tillage methods, the
choice and distribution of cultures and the nature of agro-technology. Although, man has helped in reshaping and
preserving the earth surface yet man has also helped in causing instability of equilibrium in the natural ecology and
hence the rapid spread of environmental problem such as soil erosion.
• The factors that encourage soil erosion are vegetation clearance, intensive harvesting and over-grazing leaving the
soil bare. Other factors are soil compaction caused by heavy machinery which reduces the infiltration capacity of
the soil and thus promoting excessive water runoff and soil erosion.
13
• Others factors include: topography/relief, rainfall and soil factors as being the main agents that determine the extent
of soil erosion hazard. The soil factor represents the soil erodibility which is also a product of geology and soil
characteristics.
Pictures of gully erosion sites across Nigeria:
South:
East:
West:
North:
Fig. 2.4. Gully erosion sites across Nigeria.
14
2.1.4.3. The role of topography

• Steep land is more vulnerable to water erosion than flat land for reasons that erosive forces, splash, scour and
transport, all have greater effect on steep slopes.
• Soil erosion generally is a function of slope attributes. The slope length and the amount of soil erosion have always
been proportional to the steepness of the slope. Also the slope geometry of hill sides (i.e. whether convex or
concave) often contribute significantly to soil loss and gully development.
• In southeastern Nigeria, there is a positive relationship between relief and soil erosion while in southwestern
Nigeria, there is an increased severity of soil erosion as the slope changed from 5 to 15%. On a 15% slope, Lal
(1976) recorded a total soil loss of 230 t/ha/yr from bare plots as against soil loss of 11.2 t/ha/yr on 1% slope.
2.1.4.4. The influence of vegetation

• The constant deforestation of the former rainforest due to population explosion and increased agricultural activities
in the region expose the bare soils to the vagaries of weather thus escalating the soil erosion problems. The
implication is that the soils are frequently subject to different degrees of erosion including accelerated erosion.
• Vegetation and land use are one of the most important factors in soil erosion process in southeastern Nigeria.
Vegetation acts in a variety of ways by intercepting raindrops through encouraging greater infiltration of water and
through increasing surface soil organic matter and thereby reducing soil erodibility. Also, choosing an appropriate
land use can drastically curtail soil erosion.
• In southeastern Nigeria, soil erosion is connected mainly with agricultural activities and other related land use
activities such as mining, road building, urbanization, industrialization and general infrastructural development.
These land use activities deprive the soil surface of its vegetation and also contribute directly to sliding, slumping,
interrill and rill erosion including gullying.
2.1.4.5. The influence of soil factor (erodibility)

• The erodibility of the soil is defined as the vulnerability or susceptibility of the soil to erosion. It is a measure of a
soil’s susceptibility to particle detachment and transport by agents of erosion. A number of factors such as the
physical and the chemical properties of the soil influence erodibility
• In southeastern Nigeria, the nature and the long weathering history of the soils parent material evident in the
dominance of the clay mineralogy by non-expanding minerals and low soil organic matter concentration due to
high mineralization rates and excessive leaching of nutrients could be linked to the worsening situation. The highly
weathered soils contain high concentrations of Fe and Al oxides.
• Anthropogenic factors often combine to weakened soils to produce severe gullies. The soils are hence loose and
slumps under high intensive rainfall that renders them easily detachable. Some of the soils have the tendency to
slake and form seals under such intense rainstorms thereby resulting in considerable runoff and soil erosion.
2.1.4.6. Impacts of gully erosion

• Loss of farmlands
• Treat to vegetation
• Effects on properties
• Effects on life
2.1.4.7. Proposed solutions to gully erosion in Nigeria

• Poor farming techniques were found to be a contributing factor to the growth of gully erosion. Improved farming
practices that reduce the gully erosion processes to the barest minimum therefore should be encouraged.
15
• Refuse dump along the river courses impede the flow of water leading to flooding especially during heavy rainfall.
Therefore, dumping of refuse on the river channels and floodplains should be prohibited. Government at all levels
should enact and enforce laws to deter such activities.
• Cultural method (also called vegetative techniques) of erosion control has been found to be a cheap and effective
method. Planting of plantain and banana on the floodplains have also been found to be effective in controlling erosion.
Grasses species such as Eulaliopsiss binata (Babiyo), Neyraudia reynaudiana (Dhonde), Cymbopogon microtheca
(Khar), Saccharum pontaneum (Kans) and Thysanolaena maxima (Amliso), Arunduella nepalesis (Phurke) and
Themeda species are suitable especially for slope stability.
• Inadequate awareness of effects of human activities on both floodplain and river channels contribute to misuse of
these areas. Therefore, there should be general enlightenment campaign on the dangers posed by gully erosion and
human activities that promote them.
• Efforts should also be made by relevant authorities to enact a law against location of engineering structures on
waterways.
• The government at all levels in Nigeria should take it as a matter of urgency to yield to addressing issues relating to
erosion especially gully erosion at an early stage so as to avoid loss of lives of Nigerian people and their properties.
2.1.5. Streambank erosion
Streambank erosion refers to the removal of soil and

other material, such as rock and vegetation, from the
streambank.
Streambank erosion is a dynamic and natural process as
rivers meander across their floodplains. However,
human influence through catchment development,
stream regulation, removal of large wood, and clearing
of riparian vegetation, can greatly increase the rate of
bank erosion, sometimes to unacceptable levels.
Rapid bank erosion leads to loss of valuable land,

reduced water quality as sediment and nutrients enter
the stream, as well as threatening infrastructure such as
roads, bridges and buildings. Stream bank erosion is the
dominant source of sediment in many river systems
Fig. 2.5a. Stream bank Erosion
2.1.5.1. Causes of Streambank erosion
Streambank erosion occurs when the driving forces of
water (hydraulic) and gravity (geologic) are greater than
the ability of the streambank to resist them, thus
resulting in a failure (Fig. 2.5b).
A hydraulic failure occurs when the flowing water from
stream directly hits the streambank. A geologic failure
occurs when an overhanging bank collapses due to
gravity.
Urbanization can result in an increase in the amount of
impervious surfaces such as parking lots, buildings and Fig. 2b. Hydraulic failures occur when flowing water
roads within a watershed. erodes streambank.
Impervious surfaces prevent water from infiltrating into
the soil or more rainfall during storm events becomes
runoff which in turn flows into streams.
16
ABE 512: SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION
CHAPTER 3:
UNIVERSAL SOIL LOSS EQUATION (USLE)
3.1 Soil loss prediction with the Universal Soil Loss Equation
Erosion has already been noticed in ancient times. Plato already described the disastrous effects of the denudation of the hills
around ancient Athens more than 2000 years ago (in: Herkendell & Koch, 1991). However, more attention to the problem was
only given by the 1920s when the menacing extent of soil loss in the US became aware (Bennett & Chapline, 1928; Lyon &
Buckman, 1922). As a consequence the US Soil Conservation Service was created in 1935. Soon it became insufficient to
notice, describe and measure soil erosion. For a deeper comprehension of erosion and its assessment under varying conditions,
it was important to understand the basic processes.
The development of mathematical models started with the equation of Zingg (1940) which related soil loss to slope length and
gradient. Smith (1941) included factors for the influence of crops and conservation practices on soil loss. The addition of a
rainfall factor resulted in the Musgrave equation (Musgrave, 1947). Finally data collection and analysis of 10,000 plot years
from 49 locations led to the 'Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE)' (Wischmeier& Smith, 1978) which, today, is still the basic
tool for soil conservation in the US and other countries.
The USLE is an empirical model with widespread use in land use planning, extension and the design of cropping systems and
conservation practices. It allows to estimate soil loss under varying climatic conditions, topographic and management
conditions on different soils with a set of relatively simple parameters. The basic idea was to measure maximum possible soil
loss of a specific soil on a control plot with standard size, gradient and treatment, - the 'unit' plot. The 'unit' plot was 22.1 m
long on a 9% slope. Soil loss as caused by gradients, slope lengths and management conditions different from the standard
conditions was examined relative to maximum soil loss on the control plot which was achieved by barefallow tilled up- and
down-slope to maize seedbed conditions. The equation is expressed as:
A = R* K* L* S* *C* P (3.1)
with A = average annual soil loss [Mg/ha]

R = rainfall and runoff erosivity index for specific geologic location
K = soil erodibility factor, i.e. its susceptibility to erosion
L = slope length factor [-]
S = slope steepness factor [-]
C = plant cover management factor [-]
P = conservation/support practice factor [-]
Soil loss (A) gives the mean annual soil loss in t/ha or Mg/ha on a long term basis. Soil loss of a specific year may differ
considerably from year to year.
Rainfall erosivity (R) is calculated from rainfall charts for single erosive rains during a period of 22 years and represents the
mean annual erosivity for this period.
Soil erodibility (K) indicates a soil's susceptibility to the erosive forces and gives the amount of soil loss per unit erosivity. K
was defined constant for a specific soil.
L, S, C and P are expressed as ratios of soil loss on a given plot to soil loss on the unit plot. For example, an L factor of 2.1 for
a 100 m long slope of 9% means that this slope will suffer 2.1 times the soil loss of the 22.1 m long unit plot if all other
conditions (climate, soil, management etc.) are alike.
A C Factor of 0.2 for a crop signifies that soil loss under this crop is only one fifth of the bare fallowed unit plot provided that
all other factors remain constant.
The model parameters were calculated from a defined set of natural and management conditions in the US. Therefore, it was
not surprising that the application of the USLE has led to contradictory results under tropical conditions (Mtakwa et al., 1987).
Part of the differences were however caused by treatments very different from the one's defined by Wischmeier and Smith
(1978).
Recent data show, that the USLE can be directly applied to a wide range of tropical soils and corrections can be made for most
other soils (Nill, 1993). The most urgent need exists now in obtaining reliable data on tropical cropping systems.
Today, several deterministic models exist which try to consider the numerous, complicated processes which determine erosion.
Mostly they need a large amount of information on climate, soils and management. Often they are not tested under differing
conditions. Compared to these models, the USLE convinces by its simplicity, the large data base which was used for its
development and its widespread application. Although empirical in principle, it still includes all important factors which
influence soil loss.
The USLE was designed to predict long term annual soil loss from a given slope under specified land use and management
conditions (Wischmeier, 1976). It can be used for watersheds, if these are subdivided into smaller units where the USLE factors
apply. Using mean gradients, erodibilities and slope lengths for the whole watershed may cause important errors in the estimate.
Soil loss, as estimated by the USLE should rather be regarded as best available estimate than as absolute data.
Soil loss from a specific event cannot be calculated with the USLE. Even annual soil loss of a specific year may vary largely
from long term mean annual soil loss. The USLE does not account for deposition of sediment along field borders, ridges or on
foot slopes and cannot predict gully erosion.
Beside the USLE, a second important prediction model is applied in southern Africa. The 'Soil Loss Estimator for Southern
Africa (SLEMSA)' (Elwell, 1980a) predicts mean annual soil loss (Z) on a given slope by:
Z = K* X* C (3.2)
with K - mean annual soil loss from a 4.5 % slope, 30 m long under conventional tilled bare soil
X - Adjustment factor for different slope lengths and -gradients
C - Adjustment factor for the influence of crop cover derived from the annual energy distribution curve and growth curves
crops
3.2. Component of USLE
3.2.1. The erosivity of rain (R factor)

Soil erosivity index, I is the aggressiveness of the climate to cause soil erosion. In the USLE, for a given storm, the rainfall and
runoff erosivity index (EI) is the product of the kinetic energy of the storm (Eq. 2.1) and the maximum 30 –min intensity for
that storm. The EI values for all storms occurring in a given year for a location are added to an annual erosivity index. It is
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 30
expressed as EI30. The erosivity index, I = (3.2)
100
It is numerically equal to EI30 × 10-2. The power in the expression is to make the figure more manageable.
Wichrneier & Smith (1958) found that soil loss increased linearly with a storm's total kinetic energy (E) times its maximum 30
minute intensity (I30):
R = ∑𝑚𝑚
𝑗𝑗=1(𝐸𝐸 + 𝐼𝐼 30 ) [N/h] (3.3)
with R - long term mean annual erosivity [N/h]

E - kinetic energy of a storm j [kJ/rn2]
I30 - maximum storm intensity of storm j during 30 min [mm/h] for I30 > 63.5 mm/h: I30 = 63.5 mm/h
m - number of erosive storms j per year [-]
The energy of a storm is calculated by:
E = ∑𝑛𝑛𝑗𝑗=1(11.89 + 8.73 log 𝐼𝐼 i ) * Pi * 10-3 [kJ/m2] (3.3)
with Ii - intensity for storm interval i [rnm/h] for 0.05 < I < 76.2 mrnlh; for I > 76.2 rnrnlh 1 = 76.2 mm/hl
Pi - rainfall volume during interval i [mm]
18
n - number of storm intervals i with equal intensity [-]
R is calculated from rain gauge charts. Each storm is divided in i intervals of constant intensity (I). For each interval intensity,
volume and energy are calculated. The total storm energy is the sum of energy of all intervals.
Determination of the R factor
Erosivity for many locations in Africa must be estimated from available data of different origin:
- In some countries erosivity is calculated for single sites.

- In other countries regressions exist which may be extrapolated to the surroundings.
- For some countries national or regional erosivity maps (iso-erodent maps) are available.
For countries where no erosivity data are available El30 must be derived from rain data or rainfall distribution maps.
The quality of the obtained erosivity values will be more reliable for sites or areas where E130 was directly calculated from rain
data (provided that the measurement period was sufficiently long). If regressions are used. The reliability decreases with
increasing difference in climate and increasing distance from the stations of which the regressions were derived. National
erosivity maps generally will be more precise than regional maps.
For the Sahel countries Roose's regression is recommended (Roose, 1977). The regression of Bresch (1993) was developed
from 18 stations in Cameroon with 700 to 4000 mm/a. Its use is proposed for the semi-humid to humid parts of West and Centr-
a1 Africa. The equations for Zambia (Pauwelyn et al., 1988) and Zimbabwe (Stocking & Elwell, 1976) are based on a large
and well described data base and are recommended for areas of southern Africa with comparable climate. For the highland
areas of East Africa, the regression for Rwanda (Durand, 1983) and Kenya (Moore, 1979) can be used.
3.2.2. Soil erodibility (K factor)

The soil erodibility factor, K of the USLE is the soil property that reflects the ability of the soil to resist climatic erosivity.
That’s it expresses a soil's susceptibility to erosion. It is defined as a quantitative value experimentally determined. Numerically,
K is defined as the average soil loss per unit increase in EI. In metric system, the K factor was found to vary between 0.026 –
0.89 metric tons per hectare-cm [Mg/ha-cm]. The lesser the value of K, the more resistance the soil to climatic erosion while a
soil with a larger value of K will readily be eroded.
For a particular site, it is the rate of soil loss per erosivity unit as measured on a 'unit plot'. A 'unit' plot is 72.6ft long, with a
uniform lengthwise slope of' 9%, in continuous fallow, tilled up- and down-slope (Wischmeier and Smith, 1978).
Crusts on the soil which form during rains have to be regularly destroyed by further tillage. In order to exclude influences of
the previous vegetation, the unit plot is kept under bare fallow for at least 2 years before determining erodibility. It is assumed,
that by then soil loss is primarily a function of inherent soil properties and increases linearly with the rainfall erosivity.
Erodibility is considered to be a specific constant for a soil and is calculated by:
𝐴𝐴
𝐾𝐾 = [t. h/N. ha] (3.4)
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
On a unit plot L, S, C and P equal 1 and the equation can be written as:
𝐴𝐴
K= [t h/N. ha] (3.5)
𝑅𝑅
This basic concept of erodibility can also be applied to tropical soils. However, on some soils erodibility may still increase or
decrease after some years of bare fallow. Tropical soils mostly have surface horizons of less than 15 cm depth. Partial or
complete truncation of a bare fallow soil is possible under tropical rain within a few years as shown by annual erosion depths
of some Cameroonian soils (Table 3.1).
19
Table 3.1. Total soil loss in 1 year and Table 3.2. Definition of structure classes for
corresponding erosion depth on some Cameroonian use in the USLE (as modified by Schwertmann
soils under bare fallow et al., 1987)
Soil Soil loss Structural Structure Mean
[t/ha.a] [cm/a] class aggregate
Andisol over basalt 698 5.8 size [mm]
Kandiudalf on gneiss 293 2.4 1 Very fine crumb <1
Tropohumult on gneiss 269 2.2 2 Fine crumb 1-2
Tropudult on gneiss 225 1.8 3 Medium to coarse 2 - 10
crumb
4 Blocky, platy or >10
massive
A decrease in erodibility occurs if the surface soil or subsoil contains coarser particles like quartz or iron oxide gravels. With
the selective removal of the fine-earth, the gravel is enriched on the soil surface and protects the soil. Soil loss estimates for
gravel-covered soil need, therefore, to be corrected for the protective influence of the cover. An increase in erodibility takes
place if an unstable subsoil (e.g. with high sodicity) is more and more incorporated into the surface soil.
Measuring erodibility is time consuming and expensive. Wischmeier and Smith (/1978), therefore, came up with an equation
to calculate erodibility from simple soil properties which are measured routinely:
−6 1.14
𝐾𝐾 = 2.77 ∗ 10 M (12-OM) + 0.043 (SC-2)+ 0.033*(4-PC) (3.6)
Where
M [-] = (si + ffS) * (100-cl) (3.7)
With cl – clay [%]

si – silt [%]
ffS – very fine sand (0.05 – 0.1 mm) [%]
OM – organic matter [%]
SC – structure class [-]
PC – permeability class [-]
The equation shows that soil erodibility increases with increasing silt plus very fine sand content of the soil. It decreases with
increasing clay and organic matter content.
Structure class of a soil (Table 3.2) does not refer to the actual structure of the soil surface of a field but to structure after 2
years of bare fallow. Therefore, some experience is needed in order to assign a structure class to a soil. Soils with an unstable
structure develop coarse fragments after prolonged bare fallow periods whereas stable soils maintain an aggregated surface.
The coarser the final structure, the higher the structure class and erodibility.
The permeability of a soil describes its infiltration capacity and ability to conduct water. Permeability classes (Table 3.3) must
be determined for all horizons down to 80 cm depth. For each horizon a permeability class is chosen. The permeability class
of the soil is determined by averaging the permeability classes of all horizons.
It the horizon with the lowest permeability is within the upper 40 cm, its permeability is counted twice before averaging. If the
least permeable horizon is found within the upper 20 cm, it determines the permeability class of the soil.
For field use, the permeability of a soil can be estimated by using information on biological activity or structure in the profile
description. An example is given in Table 3.44. However, use of such data needs experience and should only be considered
carefully.
Table 3.3. definition of permeability classes as

used in the USLE (as modified by Table 3.4. determination of permeability class by using
Schwertmann et al., 1987) profile information
Permeability Permeability Hydraulic Description Permeability
class conductivity class
[cm/d] Very few pores 1
1 Very low <1 Few pores 2
2 Low 1-10 Common pores 3
3 Medium 10-40 Many pores/ porous 4
4 High 40-100 Very porous 5
5 Very high 100-300 Very high biological activity, very porous 6
6 Extremely >300
high
On low slopes, m becomes smaller because low obstacles

Erodibility measurements on 28 tropical soils from as rills and clods (surface roughness) produced by tillage
Cameroon and Nigeria showed that equation (3.6) cannot slow down runoff. Thus, more water stays on the field for
be applied to all tropical soils but needs correction factors a longer time and water depth on the field increases. Time
for 3 different soil groups. F or part of the soils (group 1), for infiltration is longer and at least part of the soil surface
erodibility as calculated by equation (3.6) underestimated is protected against drop impact by a water layer.
the measured erodibility whereas group 3 was
overestimated. For group 2 (about half of the soils), An exponent m < 1 shows that soil loss increases to a
calculated erodibility agreed well with measured smaller extent than slope length. Nevertheless, in contrast
erodibility. to erosivity, soil erodibility, and slope-gradient, slope
length can be influenced easily by man and is an important
parameter for soil loss reduction. Slope length in the USLE
3.2.3. Topographic factor (LS): is defined as the distance from the point where runoff
3.2.3.1. Slope length, L begins to the point where deposition occurs or where runoff
enters a well-defined channel.
Soil erosion is favoured with increasing slope length and
gradient. This is the ratio of soil loss from a particular slope
length to that from a 22m length when all other conditions 3.2.3.2. Slope steepness, s
are the same for 1 – 10% slope. This is the ratio of soil loss from a given slope length to
that from a 9% when all other factors are the same.
The ratio is: L = (l/22) m Slope steepness factor based on slope steepness are
(3.8) expressed below for different conditions:
where l is slope length in metres and m is a dimensionless For slopes shorter than 4m: 𝑺𝑺 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟎𝟎 (𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜽𝜽)𝟎𝟎.𝟖𝟖 + 𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓
exponent. (3.11)
Note: where rill erosion and interrill erosion where about
equal on a 9%, 22-m long slope, For slopes longer than 4m and S ≤ 9%: 𝑺𝑺 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟖 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜽𝜽 +
𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 (3.12)
𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜽𝜽
m = For slopes longer than 4m and S ≥ 9%: 𝑺𝑺 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟖 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜽𝜽 −
𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜽𝜽 +𝟎𝟎.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 (𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜽𝜽)𝟎𝟎.𝟖𝟖 +𝟎𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
(3.9) 𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 (3.13)
in which 𝜃𝜃 = field slope steepness in degree, 𝜃𝜃 = 3.2.4. Crop management factor, C:

−𝟏𝟏 𝒔𝒔 This is the ratio of soil loss from the land cropped under
𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 (𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏) (3.10)
specified conditions to the corresponding loss from
and s = field slope in percent. continuous fallow. The value of C varies between 0 and 1.
The crop management factors include the effects of cover,
where rill erosion > interrill erosion like soils with a large crop sequence, productivity level, and length of growing
silt or fine sand content, m should be increased up to 75%. season, tillage practices, residue management and the
where rill erosion < interrill erosion i.e. on short slopes or expected time distribution of erosive rainstorms.
high-clay content soils, m should be decreased down to
50%.
3.2.5. Conservation practice factor, P: 3.3.2. Disadvantages:

In addition to crop management, conservation practice • The USLE lumps the rill and interrill erosion
factor accounts for any other erosion control practice that together
may have been super imposed on ‘C’ such as contouring • It does not account for deposition within the
(contour farming), terrace system, strip cropping etc. ‘P’ is watershed
defined as the ratio of soil loss with a specific practice to • It is totally empirical, that is to say,
the corresponding loss with up and down culture. The mathematically, it does not illustrate the actual
conservation practice factor, P can be found from the soil erosion process, of course such errors like
equation: predictive error would occur which may be
overcome by using empirical coefficients
P = Pc × Ps × Pt • It does not compute gully erosion. The USLE is
(3.14) employed for assessing sheet and rill erosion and
not used for predicting gully erosion.
In which, Pc = contouring factor based on slope
Ps = strip cropping factor for crop strip widths 3.4. Modification of USLE
(1.0 for contouring only or for alternating strips of corn and There are different modifications of USLE and they have
small grains, 0.75 for 4 –year rotation with 2 years of row been suggested for several applications. One such
crops, 0.50 with 1 year of row crops) modification is to improve the estimation of rainfall
Pt = terrace sedimentation factor (1.0 for no values for a region.
terrace, 0.2 for terraces with graded channel sod outlet, and
0.1 for terraces with underground outlets). (i). An effort to apply USLE to sediment yield estimates
from small watersheds:
Table 3.5. contouring factor Pc, maximum slope length, A = (0.224) (RKLSCP) Ec
maximum strip crop widths for different slopes a (3.15)
Land Pc Maximum Maximum strip-
slope value slope length b crop width where Ec = channel erosion factor and other terms remain
(%) (m) (m) as previously defined.
1-2 0.6 120 40
3-5 0.5 90 30 (ii). Y = 11800 (Qqp) 0.50 KCPLS
6-8 0.5 60 30 (3.16)
9-12 0.6 36 24 where Y = sediment yield from individual storm, kg
13-16 0.7 24 24 Q = storm runoff volume, m3
17-20 0.8 18 18 qp = peak runoff rate, m3/s
21-25 0.9 15 15 KCPLS = as defined in the USLE
Note: a factor for farming upslope and downslope is 1.0
b
maximum slope length for strip cropping can be (iii). A = (0.224) WKCPLS
twice that for contouring only. (3.17)
In which W = a Rst + (1 - a) 0.40 Qqp ½

3.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of USLE (3.18)
3.3.1. Advantages: Rst = storm rainfall factor
• It can easily be used to calculate average annual Q and qp = is previously defined
soil loss and a = coefficient, a = 0.5
• For research and design of soil loss purposes, for
example, to control the values/ amount of soil 3.5. The Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation
loss from a particular field/site, P or C can be (RUSLE)
designed for The RUSLE is a technology for estimating soil loss from
• It is useful for determining the adequacy of the most undisturbed lands experiencing overland flow,
conservation measures I farm planning from lands undergoing disturbance, or from newly or
programmes established reclaimed lands.
• It is used for predicting non-point sediment RUSCLE retains the structure of its predecessor, the USLE
losses in pollution control programmes. i.e.
A = RKLSCP
In which A = soil loss
22
R = rainfall/runoff erosivity = 1.05 – 0.85 * 0.819323\

LS = hillslope length and steepness = 1.05 – 0.696 = 0.358
C = cover management
P = support practice ∴ Substituting into the Di formula:
Di = 4.5 × 106 * (2.0 × 10-5)2 * 0.358
The various changes incorporated in USLE to result into = 6.444 × 10-4 kg/m2-s
RUSLE are mentioned below:
• Computerizing the algorithms to assists the
calculations 2. If the soil loss for a given set of conditions is 2.7
• Rainfall-runoff erosivity term (R) in the Western Mg/ha for a 75-m slope, what soil loss could be
United States, based on more than 1200 gauge expected for a 120-m slope length if the slope is
locations 4%?
• Some revisions and additions for the Eastern
United States, including corrections for high R- A = RKLSCP
factor areas with flat slopes to adjust splash
erosion associated with raindrops falling on Solution:
ponded water Given that A = 2.7 Mg/ha; l1 = 75-m length of
• Development of a seasonally variable soil slope
erodibility term (K) A =? l2 = 120m at 4% slope
• A new approach for calculating the cover
management terms C with the sub factors A = RKLSCP
representing considerations of prior land use, crop
canopy, surface cover and surface roughness 2.7 = RKLSCP
𝑠𝑠
• New slope length and steepness (LS) algorithms L = (l/22)m But 𝜃𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) where S = 4%
100
reflecting rill to interrill erosion ratio
4
• The capacity to calculate LS products for the 𝜃𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = 2.29°
100
slope of varying shapes sin 𝜃𝜃
• New conservation practices value (P) for range 𝑚𝑚 = =
sin 𝜃𝜃 +0.269 (sin 𝜃𝜃) 0.8 +0.05
lands, strip-crop rotations, contour factor values sin 2.29
and subsurface drainage. =
sin 2.29 +0.269 (sin 2.29) 0.8 +0.05
0.040
0.8
0.040+0.269(0.040) +0.05
EXERCISES 0.040
m =
0.040+0.269(0.076)+0.05
=
0.040 0.040
1. Calculate the interrill erosion rate during a storm = = 0.36
with an intensity of 2.0 × 10-5 m/s, an interrill 0.090+0.0204+0.050 0.104
erodibility of 4.5 × 106 kgS/m4 at a slope of 5%.
75
Di = K*(i)2*Sf L1 = (22) 0.36 = 1.56
Solution: 120 0.36
K = 4.5 × 106 kgS/m4 L2 = ( ) = 1.84
22
i = 2.0 × 10-5 m/s L1 = 1.56 → 2.7 Mg/ha
S = 5% L2 = 1.84 → A2 Mg/ha
SF =? SF = 1.05 – 0.85 exp (- 4 sin 𝜽𝜽)
1.84 ×2.7
𝑠𝑠 A2 = = 3.18 Mg/ha
But 𝜃𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) where S = 5% 1.56
100
5
𝜃𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = 2.86°
100
3. If the soil loss for up and down slope farming at
Substituting into the Sf formula: Gidan Kwanu campus with a cover management
Sf = 1.05 – 0.85 exp (- 4 sin 2.86) factor of 0.2 was 35 mg/ha from a field having a
=1.05 – 0.85 exp (- 0.1996) slope of 9% and slope length 120 m with
erodibility factor of 0.18 and runoff index of
23
2314. What will be the soil loss if the field is to be

terraced with horizontal spacing of 18 m and grass ∴ A = 2314 × 0.18 × 0.91 × 1.01 × 0.2 × 0.10
outlet? Assume that the cover management = 7.66 Mg/ha.
conditions remain unchanged. Comment on your
answer.
4. If the soil loss was 16 Mg/ha, K = 0.1, l = 120m,
A = RKLSCP S = 8%, C = 0.2 and P = 0.6 (contouring) in the
Given that: C = 0.2 USLE. What maximum slope length and
S = 9% corresponding terrace spacing are needed to
K = 0.18 reduce the soil loss to the terrace channel to 7
R = 2314 Mg/ha. Compute the terrace spacing, assuming
Field to be terraced that soil loss has a low intake rate and that good
L = 18 m = H.I cover conditions exist. Let X = 0.15 and Y = 0.6.
Grass outlet = 0.2
Given that:
Solution: A = 16 Mg/ha
K = 0.1
l = 120 m
𝒔𝒔 𝟗𝟗
(i) 𝜽𝜽 = 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭−𝟏𝟏 (𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏) = 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭−𝟏𝟏 ( ) = 5.14◦ S = 8%
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
C = 0.2
sin 𝜽𝜽 P = 0.6
(ii) m =
0.8
sin 𝜽𝜽+0.269 (sin 𝜽𝜽) +0.05 Solution:
𝒔𝒔 𝟖𝟖
𝜽𝜽 = 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭−𝟏𝟏 (𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏) = 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭−𝟏𝟏 (
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
) = 4.57◦
sin 5.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
m= = sin 𝜽𝜽
sin 5.14+0.269 (sin 𝟓𝟓.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏)
0.8
+0.05 m=
0.8
0.090 0.090 sin 𝜽𝜽+0.269 (sin 𝜽𝜽) +0.05
=
0.8 0.090+0.269(1.46)+0.05
0.090+0.269(0.090) +0.05
sin 4.57
m= =
0. 8
0.090 0.090 sin 4.57+0.269 (sin 𝟒𝟒.𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓) +0.05
= = = 0.50 0.080 0.080
0.090+0.0393+0.050 0.179 =
0.8 0.080+0.269(0.133)+0.05
0.080+0.269(0.080) +0.05
(iii) L = (l/22) m 0.080 0.080

0.50 = = = 0.48
L= (18|22) = (0.82)0.50 = 0.91 0.080+0.03566+0.050 0.1657
120 0.48
(iv). Calculating for ‘S’ factor and using the L=(
22
) = 2.26
condition for slope longer than 4 m and ≥ 9%
The maximum L to reduce loss to 7 Mg/ha is:
i.e. 𝑺𝑺 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟖 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜽𝜽 − 𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 7
𝑺𝑺 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟖 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝟓𝟓. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 − 𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 L = 2.26 × = 0.99
16
= 16.8 * 0.090 – 0.50
= 1.512 – 0.50 = 1.012 or 1.01.
Calculate l to achieve the above L factor value:
(v) P = Pc × Ps × Pt
𝑙𝑙
0.99 = ( ) 0.48
Where Pt = 0.2 (grass outlet); Pc = 0.5 (from table); 22
Ps = (was not indicated/ not necessary)
∴ P = Pt × Pc = 0.2 × 0.5 = 0.10 i.e., l = 0.99 1/0.48 × 22 = 21.5 m
∴ Substituting into ‘A’ To calculate for the vertical interval (VI);

R = 2314; K = 0.18; L = 0.91; S = 1.01; C = 0.2;
𝑆𝑆 8
P = 0.10 V.I, = ×l= × 21.5 = 1.7 m
100 100
24
(iii) L = (l/22) m
From V.I. = Xs + Y = 0.15 × 8 + 0.6 = 1.8 L= (24|22) 0.24 = 1.02
m.
(iv) Calculating for ‘S’ factor and using the
Note: since the permissible spacing based on soil condition for slopes longer than 4m and S ≤ 9%: 𝑺𝑺 =
loss takes into account more of the erosion variables, a V.I 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟖 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜽𝜽 + 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
of 1.7 m is preferred.
i.e. 𝑺𝑺 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟖 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜽𝜽 + 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
5. Suppose rain index reservoir is 300, LS = 1, C = 𝑺𝑺 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟖 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 + 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
0.2, K = 0.32 and P = 0.5. Estimate soil loss. = 10.8 * 0.02 + 0.03
= 0.25.
Solution:
A = RKLSCP (v) P = Pc × Ps × Pt
= 300 × 0.33 × 1 × 0.5 × 0.2 = 9.9 t/a Where Pc = 0.6; Ps = 1.0; Pt = 1.0
∴ P = Pt × Pc = 0.6 × 1.0 × 1.0 = 0.6
A = 2.24 RKLSCP S. I Unit (Mg/ha)
A = 2.24 9.9 = 22.18 Mg/ha-yr. (soil loss is ∴ Substituting into ‘A’
high). ∴ A = 1600 × 0.16 × 1.02 × 0.25 × 0.18 × 0.6
= 2.64 Mg/ha-yr.
Thus, we can manipulate ‘P’ or ‘C’ by bringing down the
soil tolerance. How do we use ‘P’ or ‘C’ to reduce soil loss?
By
• Planting cover crops – C
• Crop rotation (P)
• Use of fertilizer
• Zero tillage, etc.
6. If the soil loss for up and down slope farming at

Gidan Kwanu Campus with a cover management
factor of 0.18 was 35 Mg/ha from a field having a
slope of 2% and length of 120 m with erodibility
factor of 0.06 and runoff index of 1600. What will
be the soil loss if the field is to be contoured with
horizontal spacing of 24 m. Assume that the cover
management conditions remain unchanged?
Given that:
𝒔𝒔 𝟐𝟐
(i) 𝜽𝜽 = 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭−𝟏𝟏 (𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏) = 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭−𝟏𝟏 (
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
) = 1.15◦
sin 𝜽𝜽
(ii) m =
0.8
sin 𝜽𝜽+0.269 (sin 𝜽𝜽) +0.05
sin 1.15
m= =
0.8
sin 1.15+0.269 (sin 1.15) +0.05
0.02 0.02
=
0.8 0.02+0.269(0.044)+0.05
0.02+0.269(0.02) +0.05
0.020
= = 0.24
0.082
25
CHAPTER 4
CONTROL OF WATER EROSION
4.1. Introduction
Soil conservation is a preservation measure that is used to minimize or control soil deterioration and its losses by using it within
its capacities and applying conservation techniques for protection and improvement of the soil.
There are many different measures today through a combination of measures is needed to reduce the effects of the processes
that cause erosion and to stimulate land use so that the soil is kept permanently productive,
It must be bore in mind that none of these measures have universal application. In selecting from possible measures, the
following issues must be considered:
• Any method must be suitable for the intended land use and cropping systems
• The objectives must be related to rainfall and soil, i.e. in high-rainfall areas, a common goal is to lead unavoidable
runoff safely off the land using drains and ditches. In semi-arid regions the objective is that of slowing down the
runoff to no scouring velocities to encourage infiltration or deposition of silt
• The inputs, especially of labour must be affordable and the benefits must be sufficient to justify the inputs
At all times, the final choice, among possible conservation procedures, should depend on the social and economic conditions
of those involved.
4.2. Aims/Objectives of water erosion control
The aim of erosion control is to:

• Protect natural resources and
• Prevent the occurrence of unfavourable consequences which their deterioration could have for agriculture, water
management and for human environment.
4.3. Methods of water erosion control
The many different measures can be grouped into:

(i) Biological and
(ii) Mechanical methods
4.3.1.2. Crop Management
4.3.1. Biological measures The aim of crop management for erosion control is to
This is the use of vegetation and manipulation of farming minimise splash erosion by providing maximum protective
practices to reduce runoff and soil loss. The two common vegetative cover for the soil. This will ensure that the plant
methods are land use and crop management. nutrients in the soil are not depleted and the crop yield does
not fall.
4.3.1.1. Land Use The manipulation of the slope length, S, conservation
Land use refers to the actual activity for which a particular practice, P, and crop management factor, C help to
piece of land is used for. The correct use of land can be reduce soil loss and runoff. The following crop
defined as the most intensive use of land without management practices can be used:
degradation. That is to say, a land will be regarded as
correctly used if maximum output can be obtained from the (i). Grazing pasture
land without undermining the structure, texture and fertility This is such that grasses are grown on a piece of land and
status of the land. Incorrect use of land can be both the are used by animals. To avoid soil loss/erosion, the pasture
cause of severe soil erosion and unprofitable investment. must be well handled. There must be correct animal
For example, the planting of tree crops on slope is a correct population and on no account must the land be over grazed.
land use while growing cereals on slope is incorrect land When the pasture is over-grazed the animals stamp on the
use. Tree crops grown on steep slopes provide adequate soil with their limbs and remove some of the grass roots.
cover and reduce runoff and soil loss while maize grown The soil could equally be compacted resulting in reduced
on steep slopes may not be able to withstand the speed of infiltration capacity and increased runoff and soil loss.
runoff water. Maize and other arable crops are best grown Fertilizer could be applied to the soil to improve plant
on rolling or undulating lands. condition.
26
(ii). Plant population Mechanical conservation works are very expensive. They
This is defined as the number of plant stand per unit area make farms more complicated and they need regular
of land. For example, maize which is a row crop has often maintenance.
been regarded as a degrading crop but recent studies have They are often used on arable lands where lands are more
shown that maize could be a soil conserving plant if it valuable and vulnerable to erosion. Arable lands are more
planted at various populations. In an experiment, maize vulnerable to erosion because they do not have permanent
grown at 25,000 plants per hectare caused a loss of 12.3 vegetation.
tonnes/hectare in one year but when the population was Mechanical methods can be subdivided into contouring,
increased to 37,000 plants/ha, the soil loss was reduced to terraces, strip cropping, tillage practices, vegetated
0.7 tonnes/hectare in one year. Therefore, maize can be a waterways and stabilizing structures.
soil degrader or conserver depending on the population at
which it is planted. Thus, any small increase in plant 4.3.2.1. Contouring/ contour farming or contour
density has a big effect on the amount of bare soil and soil cultivation
loss. This is the practice of tilling sloped lines of consistent
elevation in order to conserve rainwater and to reduce soil
(iii). Residue management losses from surface erosion. Contour farming is growing
These are either the left over after harvest (called crop crops on the level across or perpendicular to a slope rather
residue) or ordinary vegetation cut and left on the soil than up and down the slope. The rows running across the
surface. They can be handled in a number of ways: slope are designed to be as level as possible to facilitate
• The residue can be left on top of the surface to tillage and planting operations on the contour.
decay. This is a very good practice because apart
of performing the numerous functions of natural
vegetation, the residue decay and add nutrients to
the soil.
• The residue could be either completely or
partially ploughed into the soil in which case they
still act as surface vegetation but to a lesser
degree.
• The residue can be burnt and removed completely
from the soil surface. This is a bad practice as it
exposes the soil surface to the agent of soil
erosion.
The type of treatment to which residue in a particular area
is subjected determines the nature of soil erosion and the
extent of soil loss.
Fig. 4.1. Contouring/contour farming.
(iv). High yielding varieties of crops
This is also a measure by which soil erosion can be It also refers to all tillage practices or field operations or
reduced. For instance, in order to produce 100 tonnes of mechanical treatments like ploughing, planting, cultivation
maize, two varieties of maize are needed – a low and high and harvesting performed nearly on the contour of the area,
yielding varieties. The low yielding variety produced 4x applied across the land slope. It reduces runoff by
soil loss per unit area compared to that of the high yielding impounding water in small depressions and decreases the
variety. This was because the high yielding crops have development of rills.
bigger leaves due to photosynthesis and this provided
better soil coverage. Thus, the high yielding variety would In low rainfall regions, the primary purpose of contour
reduce both the soil loss per unit area and the total soil loss cultivation is to conserve the rainwater into the soil as
from an entire farmland. much as possible while in the humid regions, its basic
purpose is to reduce soil erosion/loss by retarding the
4.3.2. Mechanical methods overflow. In farming system, the furrows between the
ridges made on the contours, hold the runoff water and
Mechanical methods deal with using structures to direct
store them into the soil. In this way, they reduce runoff and
runoff water at non-erosive rate or small manageable rates
soil loss.
which can be lead-off to streams and rivers. This method
refers to all techniques that involve earthmoving, such as
digging drains, building banks, and levelling sloping land.
27
4.3.2.2. Strip cropping
This is the practice of growing alternate strips of different crops in the same field on the contour for the control of water erosion.
Strip cropping is more effective when it is followed by crop rotation. It checks surface runoff and water easily infiltrate into
the soil. Strip cropping is a more intensive practice for conserving rainwater than contouring but does not involve greater effect
on soil erosion as terracing and bunding. Thus, strip cropping is very effective in:
• Reducing the runoff flowing through the close-growing sod strips and
• Increasing the infiltration rate of the soil under cover condition.
Fig. 4.2. Strip cropping.
There are three general types of strip cropping: contour strip cropping; field strip cropping and buffer strip cropping.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 4.3. Types of strip cropping: (a). Contour, (b). Field and (c). Buffer.
(i). Contour strip cropping

In contour strip cropping, crops are presented along the
contour at right angle to the direction of natural land
slope. Layout and tillage are held closely to the contour
and the crops follow a definite rotational sequence. Strip
cropping on the contour, plays a key role in conserving
the soil and water when combined with terracing. The
width of these strips depend s on the topographical
features of the area.
Fig. 4.4. Contour strip cropping.
28
(ii). Field strip cropping

Field strip cropping is a modified form of contour strip
cropping, in which crop strips are laid parallel, across the
land slope, but not always exactly on the contour. Field
strip cropping is frequently used only where the
topography is either too irregular or undulating, as it
makes accurate layout of the contour strip cropping
impractical. Field strip cropping may also be used for
wind erosion control.
Fig. 4.5. Field strip cropping.
(iii). Buffer strip cropping

In buffer strip cropping, strips of grasses or legume crops provides a favourable environment suitable for better
are laid between contour strips in regular rotation. Buffers seed germination and effective plant growth: to control
may be even or irregular in width or placed on critical weeds; to maintain infiltration capacity and soil aeration.
slope areas of the field. Their main purpose is to give
In addition, it also protects and maintains a strong soil
protection from erosion or allow for areas of deposition.
The type of strip cropping used depends on cropping structure to fight against erosion.
system, topography and types of erosion hazard.
The destruction of soil structure either by excessive
tillage or tillage operations at improper soil moisture
condition tends to increase soil erodibility, causing
significant soil loss. To achieve a best result for soil
conservation, these should be considered for tillage
operations:
• Till no more than necessary

• Till only, when soil moisture is in a favourable
limit and
• Vary the depth of ploughing.
The different types of tillage practices are: mulch

tillage; minimum tillage; secondary tillage, ridge tillage
and conventional tillage.
Fig. 4.6. Buffer strip cropping.
4.3.2.3. Tillage practices
Tillage is defined as mechanical manipulation of soil to

provide a favorable environment for good germination of
seeds and crop growth to control and maintain infiltration
capacity and soil aeration. Tillage may consists of many
types of soil manipulations, such as ploughing, disking,
harrowing and cultivating. A well planned tillage practice
Fig. 4.7. Tillage practice
4.3.2.4. Vegetated waterways

Vegetated or grassed waterways are broad, shallow channels, vegetated with grass or legumes. They are designed to carry
large volumes of water from parcels of land to nearby water bodies and to prevent rills and gully formation. A vegetated
waterway involves constructing an area for planting typically grasses and shrubs along a farm 'ditch', road or other area which
drains a cropped field and provides a pathway for concentrated surface runoff.
The vegetation in the channel slows the water flow, traps sediment and nutrients and helps improve water quality in
downstream water bodies. With proper fertilization and moisture conditions, a grassed waterway can provide both effective
soil cover and a productive forage area. Wider grassed waterways are easier to cross with farm equipment and are more
effective in controlling erosion.
Fig. 4.8. Vegetated waterways
Advantages of vegetated waterways

• Slows water movement and reduces sediment carried in surface flows
• Reduces ditch erosion
• Protection from overland flows
• May reduce farm input residues in drainage water (through filtration and biological action) when
vegetation is properly maintained.
Disadvantages of vegetated waterways

• Requires annual maintenance
• Acreage out of production
• Can potentially harbour pests
• Grass seeds can be spread to other fields if tail water is recirculated
Factors affecting size of waterway
The size of the waterway will depend on the volume of runoff it must handle. The volume of runoff, in turn, depends on
three aspects:
(a) Soil and crop factors such as soil texture, slope, kind and extent of vegetative cover, and whether the soil is frozen or has
a shallow impermeable layer;
(b) Rate of snowmelt or duration and intensity of rainfall;
(c) The total drainage area.
Selection of a typical grassed waterway cross section area

A properly designed and constructed grassed waterway should be at least 0.3 meter deep to prevent overflows and the
formation of rills outside the channel. In addition, it should have a minimum 3-metre wide channel bottom with side slopes
rising no more than 25 per cent (1 metre vertically to 4 meters horizontally).
This type of cross-section spreads the water, slows its velocity and reduces its power to erode. In addition, the waterway
permits farm machinery to cross the channel and allows for easier mowing of the vegetation. Figure 4 shows a typical cross-
section. Some farm equipment may require the construction of flatter side slopes for easier crossing of the channel.
Generally, it is recommended that the channel top or bottom width not be less than 5 and 3 metres, respectively, or channel
depth be less than 0.30 metres. Waterways that are too small, too narrow or that have a V-shaped cross section will generate
a high flow velocity and will lead to gully formation.
Stabilization of waterways on steeper slopes

The resistance of grass waterways to erosion is limited by the velocity of the flowing water. The permissible velocity of the
channel depends on the type and condition of grass cover, soil texture, bed slope and depth of flow. Most grassed waterways
that have a 3 metre bottom width and less than 3 per cent bed slope (3 metres fall per 100 meters of channel length) and
carry less than 0.20 metres depth of water generate acceptable flow velocities.
30
If the slope of the constructed watercourse has a section steeper than 3 per cent and the estimated depth of flowing water
greater than 0.20 metres, erosion control blankets should be use to prevent rills/gully development and to help establish grass
cover.
Many erosion control mats are commercially available; they can provide either temporary or permanent erosion control
measures. A permanent erosion mat installed to the manufacturer and engineering specifications can provide adequate
protection on slopes up to 15 per cent.
In some instances, when a channel conveys a large amount of water on steep slopes and choosing a new channel direction
with a gentler slope is not possible, the construction of channel stabilization structures made of concrete or steel may be
necessary. Generally, these structures are more difficult to design and technical assistance should be obtained from a local
engineering firm.
Fig. 4. 9. Cross section of a typical vegetated waterway (not to scale)
Selection of suitable vegetation

Suitable vegetation is essential for a durable and effective grassed waterway. The grasses must be erosion-resistant but must
also allow water to flow down the channel. The best grasses for grassed waterways are dense, tough, long lived, short-
growing, sod-forming grasses. Bunch grasses do not typically form a good sod cover and are not the best grasses for
waterways. Tall grasses can block water flow, may not be erosion-resistant at the soil surface and may require periodic
cutting; however, mixed stands of tall forages may be suitable where there is the secondary goal of hay production.
Maintaining grassed waterways

To remain functional, grassed waterways must be properly maintained as follows:
• Repair and reseed any bare or eroded spots as soon as possible. Check the waterway after spring runoff and heavy
rains. Damage noticed early can be repaired before it becomes a major problem.
• Before spring snowmelt, clear a path through the snow in that waterway. This prevents misdirection of spring runoff
water to unprotected areas.
• Trim grass to promote a good, strong sod and to prevent the waterway from becoming blocked. Cutting for hay is an
added bonus.
• Keep cattle out of the waterway. Their hooves can puncture the sod, giving erosion a place to start.
• Do not use your waterway as a road. Tire ruts damage the sod and give erosion a place to start.
• Take care when cultivating next to the waterway so that runoff drains into the waterway and not alongside it.
Cultivation should include a final lengthwise pass with a cultivator and a harrow along both sides of the waterway to
eliminate dead furrows and soil mounds.
• Apply nitrogen fertilizer for the best possible grass growth.
• Control ground squirrels and other burrowing animals that may live in the waterway. Their activities can create weak
spots where new erosion problem can start.
• Keep an uncultivated strip, at least 3 metres wide, on each side of the waterway for stability.
• Control weeds in the waterway, especially perennial broad-leaved weeds, to stop them from spreading downstream or
onto surrounding fields.
• Do not dump rocks, dead trees, old cars or other items into the waterway. Flowing water will swirl around these objects,
increasing the water’s ability to erode.
31
4.3.2.5. Terracing
Terracing is a method of soil erosion control accomplished by constructing broad channels across the slope of rolling land.
Terracing reduces the effective length of slope to a large extent.
Terraces are earth embankment, channels or combinations of both constructed across the slope of suitable spacing and with
acceptable grades for one or more of the following reasons:
(i) To reduce soil erosion

(ii) To provide for maximum retention of moisture for crop use
(iii) To remove surface runoff water at non-erosive velocity
(iv) To reform land surface and improve farmability
(v) To reduce sediment content in runoff water
(vi) To reduce peak runoff rates to installation downstream
(vii) To improve water quality.
Fig. 4.9. Terrace
32
4.3.2.5.1. Types of terrace
Terraces are classified into three main classes on function: diversion; retention and bench terraces.
(i) Diversion terraces
Diversion terraces (sometimes called contour terraces)

are built with a non-erosive slope, leading the excess
water to a safe outlet. It breaks up a long, sloping field
into a series of fields with shorter slopes, in order to
divert runoff and encourage infiltration. This is done to
conserve water for plant growth and to reduce runoff-
related soil erosion. They are used to intercept the
overflow and channel it across the slope to a suitable
outlet. They are constructed on a small gradient, usually
1:250 to the contour. Fig. 4.10. Diversion terrace
Diversion terrace is sub-classified into magnum,

Nichols, broad based type and narrow based.
• Magnum: this is constructed by taking the soil
from both sides of the embankment
• Nichols: this is formed by taking the soil from
upslope side of the embankment. They are
broad-based, with the embankment and
channel occupying a width of about 15 m.
• Broad based: this is constructed with
embankment and channel occupying a width of
about 15 m.
• Narrow based: these terraces are only 3 to 4 m
wide, the banks have steeper slope which Fig. 4.11 Types of diversion terrace
cannot be cultivated. For cultivation to be
possible, bank should not exceed 140 slope for
use of small machines and 8.50 for large size
machines.
(ii) Retention terrace

This type of terrace is built specifically to store runoff
or conserve water. Retention terraces are used where it
is necessary to conserve water by storing it on the
hillside. They are therefore ungraded or level and
generally designed with the capacity to store runoff
volume expected with a ten-year return period without
overtopping. These terraces are usually recommended Fig. 4.12 Retention terraces
for permeable soils on slopes of less than 4.50.
(iii) Bench terrace stones or concretes. Unprotected risers can be the source
Bench terraces are a series of level or virtually level of most of the erosion in terraced systems.
strips running across the slope at vertical intervals, The objectives of bench terraces are:
supported by steep banks or risers. Bench terraces • To reduce run-off or its velocity and to
consist of a series of alternating shelves and risers. They minimize soil erosion.
are employed where steep slopes, up to 300, need to be • To conserve soil moisture and fertility and to
cultivated. The risers are vulnerable to erosion and facilitate modem cropping operations i.e.
should be protected by a vegetation cover or faced with mechanization, irrigation and transportation on
sloping land.
• To promote intensive land use and permanent

agriculture on slopes and reduce shifting
cultivation.
Fig. 4. Bench terrace (a). Schematic diagram and (b). Construction of a bench terrace by some farmers in Thailand.
4.3.2.5.2. Classification of terrace
Terraces can be classified by alignment, cross section, grade and outlet.
1. Classification by alignment:
Parallel or nonparallel. Nonparallel terraces follow the contour of the land regardless of alignment. Parallel terraces are
preferred for row cropping. Parallel terraces aid in farming operations and should be installed wherever possible. However,
they require more cut and fill volumes during construction than nonparallel systems.
2. Classification by cross section:

There are numerous shapes of terrace cross sections. These includes three-segment section broad base; conservation bench
broad base; bench etc.
The bench has improved farmability under very steep (20 to 30%) conditions where labour is cheap or land is in short
supply. The bench terrace provides for efficient distribution of water under both irrigated and dryland production. Bench
type systems can be constructed on nearly flat lands to improve irrigation efficiency.
The broad based shape includes the 3-segment section, the conservation bench and the grassed back slope terrace. The 3-
segment section is more common on mechanized farming systems on moderate slopes (6 to 8%). The slopes are sufficiently
flat for the operation of farm machinery.
34
The conservation bench broad base terrace incorporates a wide, flat channel uphill of the embankment to provide a
maximum area for infiltration of runoff water.
The grassed back slope terrace is constructed with a 2:1 back slope that is usually seeded to permanent grass. This terrace
reduces land slopes between terraces and improves farmability.
3. Classification by grade:
The channels in terraces can be graded toward an outlet or level. Graded or channel-type terraces are designed to remove
excess water in such a way as to minimise erosion. Terraces control erosion by reducing the slope length of overland flow
and then by conducting the intercepted runoff to a safe outlet at a non-erosive velocity. The reduced flow velocities in the
channel also allows for deposition of eroded sediment.
Level terraces are constructed to conserve water and control erosion. Frequently, it is necessary to excavate soil from both
sides of the embankment to achieve sufficient height to store the designed runoff without overtopping or piping through the
35
embankment by the entrapped water. The channel is level and is sometimes closed at both ends to ensure maximum water
retention.
4. Classification by outlet:
Terraces may be classified as:
Blocked outlets (all water infiltrates the terrace channel);
Permanent vegetated outlet (grassed waterway or vegetated area) or
Underground outlet (water is removed through subsurface drains)
Combinations of outlets may be employed to meet specific problems.
Planning of a terrace system

• Selection of outlets
• Terrace location
Design of terraces:
• Terrace spacing.
This is expressed as the vertical distance between the channels of successive terraces. For the top terrace, the spacing is the
vertical distance (vertical interval or V.I) from the top of the hill to the bottom of the channel. The horizontal interval (H.I) is
found by dividing V.I. by the slope (m/m).
Graded terrace spacing is often expressed as a function of land slope by the empirical formula:
V. I. = Xs × Y (4.1)
Where:
V.I. = vertical interval between corresponding points on consecutive terraces or from the top of the slope to the bottom of the
first terrace in m.
X = constant for geographic location (ranges from 0.12 to 0.24)

Y = constant for soil erodibility and conditions during critical erosion periods
= 0.3, 0.6, 0.9, or 1.2 with the low value for highly erodible soils with no surface residue and the value for erosion resistant
soils with conservation tillage
S = average land slope above the terrace in percent.
• Terrace grades
Grades may be uniform or variable. In uniform-graded terrace, the slope remains constant throughout its entire length.
Grades may range from 0.1 to 0.6%, depending on soil and climatic factors. However, a grade of 0.4% is common in many
regions. Steeper grades are recommended for impervious soils and short terraces.
The variable graded terrace is more effective because the capacity increases toward the outlet with a corresponding increase
in runoff. The grade may vary from a minimum at the upper portion to a maximum at the outlet end to reduce the velocity in
36
the upper reaches. This reduction provides for greater absorption of runoff and more deposition of sediment. Variable gradient
makes flexibility in design possible.
• Terrace length
The factors that influence terrace length are:
1. Size and shape of field

2. Outlet possibilities
3. Rate of runoff as affected by rainfall and soil infiltration and
4. Channel capacity.
• Terrace cross section

The terrace cross section should provide adequate capacity, have broad farmable side slopes, and be economical to construct
with available equipment.
For design purposes, the cross section of a broad base terrace can be considered a triangular channel. The flow depth d is the
height to the top of the ridge h less a freeboard of about 0.08 m. After smothering, the ridge and bottom widths will be about
1 m, which will give a cross section that approximates the shape of a terrace after 10 years of farming.
In designing the cross section, the front slope width Wf is specified to be equal to the machinery width ordinarily used for
row-crop operations. The depth of the flow is determined from the runoff rate for a 10-year return period storm or for the
required runoff volume for storage-type terraces.
When the side slope widths are equal (Wc = Wf = Wb = W), cuts and fills from the geometry are:
c + f = h + SW (4.2)
where c = cut (L)

f = fill (L)
h = depth of channel including freeboard
W = width of side slope (L)
For a balanced cross section, cut and fill are equal. Fill soil may be obtained from the lower sides of the terrace, which tend
to reduce the land slopes between terraces.
Exercise.
For a channel depth of 0.33 m and for eight-row (0.75-m row width) equipment 6 m wide on 7% land slope, compute the cut
and fill heights and the slope ratios for the front slope and the backslope assuming a balanced cross section.
Solution:
Since it is a balanced cross section, then the cut = the fill
i.e., c = f = (h + sW)/2
= (0.33 + 0.07 x 6)/2
= 0.38 m.
By geometry for the front slope,
Sf = 6/0.33 = 18.2 or round to 18:1 slope ratio
Similarly, for the backslope or cut slope

Sb = 6/ (0.33+0.07 x 6) = 8.0 or 8:1 side slope ratio.
Other design criteria are:

• Pipe outlets
Pipe outlets eliminates the need for grassed waterways. Pipe outlets can have orifice plate to restrict the outflow. This
restriction ensures that drains are not overloaded, and sediment in the runoff has time to settle in the terrace channel,
improving the quality of the runoff water.
37
A variation of the pipe outlet terrace is a sediment and water control basin. These structures can be less expensive and better
suited to greater variations in topography than terrace systems. They are constructed across waterways to prevent or reclaim
gullies, reduce sediment leaving the farm, or conserve water.
• Terrace channel capacity

Terrace channel acts as a temporary storage reservoir subjected to unequal rates of inflow and outflow. The Manning velocity
equation is suitable for the design of terrace channel. A large roughness coefficient of 0.06 is recommended to ensure that
the channel will carry the design runoff under the most severe channel conditions without overtopping. The maximum design
velocity will vary with the erosiveness of the soil but should rarely exceed 0.6 m/s for soil devoid of vegetation. The channel
depth should permit a freeboard of about 20% of the total depth after allowing for settlement of the fill.
• Layout procedure
In planning a terrace layout, topographic maps are especially very helpful, a tripod level, application of surveying techniques
and field experience are sufficient.
Terrace maintenance
Proper maintenance is as important as the original construction of the terrace. However, it need not be expensive since normal
farming operations will usually suffice. The terrace should also be carefully watched especially during the first year after
construction
THE END
AND
THANK YOU FOR YOUR TIME AS WELL AS YOUR ATTENTION.
ALL THE VERY BEST
WITH ALL YOUR ENDERVOUS!
38

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ABE 512: SOIL & WATER CONSERVATION ENGINEERING

CONSERVATION H. I. Mustapha, PhD

Soil & Water Conversation Engineering Syllabus (Part 1)

Course Lecturers: Publications:

Office Location Course Materials:

WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS MODULE

The module is made up of four units, covering areas such as:

Week Topic Division

INTRODUCTION TO SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION ENGINEERING

Soil and water conservation:

• prevention or reduction of soil erosion, compaction, salinity;

Reasons why soil conservation is so important:

Ways to conserve soil through agricultural means:

What is soil and water conservation engineering?

Drainage is the removal of excess water from wet land.

1.1. Mechanics of Soil Erosion

1.2. Water Erosion Processes:

SRi = Pi - (I + DS + RS) (1.1)

with Pi - rain volume of storm i [mm]

1.1 Factors Affecting Soil Erosion

2.0. TYPES OF EROSION

2.1. Water Erosion. It is sub classified as:

E = 0.119 + 0.0873 log10 I (2.1)

With E = kinetic energy [MJ/ha-mm]

Fig. 2.1. Splash erosion

2.1.2. Sheet erosion:

Fig. 2.2. Sheet Erosion

2.1.3. Rill erosion:

Fig. 2.3. Rill erosion

2.1.4 Gully erosion:

2.1.4.1. Gully Erosion in Nigeria

2.1.4.2. Causes of Gully Erosion

Pictures of gully erosion sites across Nigeria:

Fig. 2.4. Gully erosion sites across Nigeria.

2.1.4.3. The role of topography

2.1.4.4. The influence of vegetation

2.1.4.5. The influence of soil factor (erodibility)

2.1.4.6. Impacts of gully erosion

2.1.4.7. Proposed solutions to gully erosion in Nigeria

2.1.5. Streambank erosion

Streambank erosion refers to the removal of soil and

Rapid bank erosion leads to loss of valuable land,

UNIVERSAL SOIL LOSS EQUATION (USLE)

with A = average annual soil loss [Mg/ha]

3.2. Component of USLE

3.2.1. The erosivity of rain (R factor)

with R - long term mean annual erosivity [N/h]

The energy of a storm is calculated by:

E = ∑𝑛𝑛𝑗𝑗=1(11.89 + 8.73 log 𝐼𝐼 i ) * Pi * 10-3 [kJ/m2] (3.3)

n - number of storm intervals i with equal intensity [-]

- In some countries erosivity is calculated for single sites.

3.2.2. Soil erodibility (K factor)

With cl – clay [%]

Table 3.3. definition of permeability classes as

On low slopes, m becomes smaller because low obstacles

in which 𝜃𝜃 = field slope steepness in degree, 𝜃𝜃 = 3.2.4. Crop management factor, C:

3.2.5. Conservation practice factor, P: 3.3.2. Disadvantages:

In which W = a Rst + (1 - a) 0.40 Qqp ½

In which A = soil loss

R = rainfall/runoff erosivity = 1.05 – 0.85 * 0.819323\

2314. What will be the soil loss if the field is to be

(iii) L = (l/22) m 0.080 0.080

∴ Substituting into ‘A’ To calculate for the vertical interval (VI);