Subject Name and Code: Water Resources Engineering (22501)

Academic Year: 2021-2022

Course Name: CE4I Semester: Fourth

A STUDY ON
Method of application of irrigation water.
MICRO PROJECT REPORT
SUBMITTED ON MAY/JUN BY THE GROUP OF 04 STUDENTS

SR. Roll No. Full name of Students Enrollment Seat No.

No. (Sem-5) No. (Sem-5)
1 09 GHODVINDE SUSHANT TANAJI 2009350090
2 10 YASHWANTRAO ADARSH 2009350091
ATMARAM
3 11 BHOIR VIVEK NILKANTH 2009350092
4 12 SHAHANE PIYUSH DEEPAK 2009350093

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

Mrs. Harshala M. Kabadi
IN 3 YEARS, DIPLOMA PROGRAMME IN ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

ISO 9001:2008(ISO/IEC-27001:2013)

SHIVAJIRAO S. JONDHLE POLYTHECHNIC, ASANGAON.

 Maharashtra State
Board of Technical Education
Certificate

This is to certify that Mr. Shahane Piyush Deepak Roll No. 12 of Fifth Semester of Diploma
in Civil Engineering at institute Shivajirao S Jondhle Polytechnic Asangaon (Code:-0935) has
completed the micro project satisfactorily in Water Resources Engineering (22501) for the
academic year 2022 to 2023 as prescribed in the curriculum.

Place: Asangoan Enrollment No:- 2009350093

Date / /2021 Exam. Seat No:-

Subject Teacher Head of the Department Principal

Seal of
institution
 INDEX

Sr.
Title Page No.
No.

1 Introduction 1

2 Main Content 2 - 22

3 Conclusion 23

4 Reference 24
 INTRODUCTION

Irrigation is the process of applying water to the crops artificially to fulfil

their water requirements. Nutrients may also be provided to the crops
through irrigation. The various sources of water for irrigation are wells,
ponds, lakes, canals, tube-wells and even dams. Irrigation offers moisture
required for growth and development, germination and other related
functions. For sustainable planning of the irrigation project especially in
terms of water use and water management, irrigation methods play a
significant role. The application method must ensure a uniform distribution
of water along the cropped field as well as in the root zone of the crop with
high application efficiency. The ratio of water stored in the root zone to that
delivered to the field should be maximum. There should be minimum or no
wastage of water either through surface run-off or deep percolation below
the root zone of a crop. Several water application methods are practised to
suit different soil types, water supply and its quantity, the topography of the
land, crops to be irrigated and costs.

There are many types of irrigation systems, in which water is supplied to the
entire field uniformly. Irrigation water can come from groundwater, through
springs or wells, surface water, through rivers, lakes, or reservoirs, or even
other sources, such as treated wastewater or desalinated water. As a result,
it is critical that farmers protect their agricultural water source to minimize
the potential for contamination. As with any groundwater removal, users of
irrigation water need to be careful in not pumping groundwater out of an
aquifer faster than it is being recharged.

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 MAIN CONTENT

1) Surface Irrigation :-

Surface irrigation is where water is applied and distributed over the soil surface
by gravity. It is by far the most common form of irrigation throughout the world
and has been practiced in many areas virtually unchanged for thousands of years.

Surface irrigation is often referred to as flood irrigation, implying that the water
distribution is uncontrolled and therefore, inherently inefficient. In reality, some

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of the irrigation practices grouped under this name involve a significant degree
of management (for example surge irrigation).

The process of surface irrigation can be described using four phases. As water is
applied to the top end of the field it will flow or advance over the field length.
The advance phase refers to that length of time as water is applied to the top end
of the field and flows or advances over the field length. After the water reaches
the end of the field it will either run-off or start to pond. The period of time
between the end of the advance phase and the shut-off of the inflow is termed the
wetting, ponding or storage phase.

As the inflow ceases the water will continue to runoff and infiltrate until the entire
field is drained. The depletion phase is that short period of time after cut-off when
the length of the field is still submerged. The recession phase describes the time
period while the water front is retreating towards the downstream end of the field.
The depth of water applied to any point in the field is a function of the opportunity
time, the length of time for which water is present on the soil surface.

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I) Flooding :-
Flood irrigation, the conventional method of irrigation in NW India, can be highly
inefficient where flow rates are inadequate to complete the irrigation quickly (a
couple of hours). The inefficiency is due to deep drainage below the rootzone.
Flood irrigation also causes temporary waterlogging, with adverse effects on
crops like wheat, maize, and legumes.

Waterlogging is more prolonged and more severe on heavy textured soils, and on
soils used for rice culture because of the well-developed, shallow, hard pan
(slowly permeable) as a result of puddling. This leads to aeration stress in upland
crops, especially in wheat.

i) Wild Flooding :-
It consists of applying water to the field without any bunds to guide the flow
of water wetting the soil surface completely. Generally it is practiced only
when irrigation water is abundant and where land levelling is not followed.
Sometimes it is also adopted in the initial stages of land development. This
method is most commonly used for irrigation of crops sown by broadcasting
method viz., rice, low value pastures, lawns and millets etc.

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➢ Advantages:

1. No land levelling & land shaping required

2. Low labour and land preparation costs

3. Less skill required by irrigator

➢ Disadvantages:

1. Applied water is lost by deep percolation & surface runoff

2. Low irrigation application efficiency

ii) Controlled Flooding :-

a) Free Flooding :-
The free flooding technique is performed by excavating ditches in the irrigation
land. As shown in the figure, from the main supply ditch, water is collected in the
subsidiary or lateral or contour ditches. These subsidiary ditches are excavated
either along the contour or above or below the slope of the area. The water from
the lateral ditches is allowed to flow freely without any sort of control and hence
it is also called wild flooding.

➢ Advantages :

1. No other field layout become necessary except the levelling and

preparation of impervious boundary bunds.
2. No land area is utilized for water distribution. As a result, wastage of land
becomes minimum
3. Labour supervision is required for application of water in the field.
4. Labour requirement is minimum.

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➢ Disadvantages :

1. It is the most inefficient methods of irrigation as only about 20 per cent of

water is actually used by plants and the rest is being lost as run off,
seepage and evaporation
2. Levelling of land increases cost of cultivation.
3. This method is unsuitable for crops that are sensitive to water logging.
4. Crop growth is not uniform as the water distribution by this method is
very uneven.
5. There is a possibility of soil erosion.

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b) Contour Flooding :-
This method is best suited to steeper terrain. The field is cut by a relatively
dense network of contour laterals. The space of contour laterals depends upon
the grade of land, uniformity of slope & type of soil.

➢ Advantages :-

~ It can be used in all types of soils

~ Low cost

➢ Disadvantages :-

~ Inefficient use of water.

~ Uneven distribution of land

~ Over-irrigation

~ Large percolation

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c) Border Strip Flooding :-

Border strip method is otherwise called border strip flooding method. The main
points regarding this are ;

➢ In the border strip flooding method, the farm is divided into a series of strips
10 to 20 metres wide and 100 to 300 metres long.

➢ These strips are separated by low levees or borders and run down the
predominant or any other desired slope.

➢ To irrigate, water is turned from the supply ditch onto the head of the border.
Water advances confined and guided by two borders in a thin sheet towards
the lower end of the strip.

➢ The surface is essentially level between two borders so that the advancing
sheet of water covers the entire width of the strip.

➢ The lengthwise slope varies from 0.2 to 0.8 %. The border strip should be level
cross wise.

➢ Cross slopes within border strips cause water to concentrate along the lower
side of the strip causing uneven irrigation.

This method is especially suited to forage crops, its advantage being that for a
relatively low investment a system can be developed which can afford the highest
irrigation efficiency and lowest labour requirements.

With highly mechanised farming, large area can be irrigated within a short time
by border strip method. The length of border strip depends upon how quickly it
can be wetted over its entire length. This depends upon,

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 • Infiltration rate of the soil
• Longitudinal slope of the land
• Size of irrigation stream available

The following lengths are suggested for moderate condition

Type of soil of border strip Length

Sandy soil or sandy loam 60- 90m

Medium silt loam 90-150

Clay loam or clay soil 150- 300

Length of border strip with type of soil

The first 6 to 12m length of the strip should be made level to ensure uniform
spreading of water. Water is diverted to the border strips from the following

➢ Warth or concrete ditches

These run at a flat longitudinal grade. The water is discharged into the strips via
border gates, aluminum syphons or plastic piping

➢ Underground concrete pipes through risers

In this method, water is let into the strips by concrete risers

That’s it about border strip method. Let me walk you through check flooding
now.

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d) Check flooding :-
Check flooding is a method similar to flooding where the water is controlled
by the surrounding check area that is formed by the construction of levees.
These levees can be short or long which are constructed along the contour.
Most of the check area has a measure varying from 0.2 to 0.8 hectares. In
check flooding, the water from the supply ditch is allowed to move to the
check area and is held for a period until desirable infiltration takes place.

Check flooding is suitable for both permeable and less permeable soil. If
applied for permeable soils, the water is quickly spread to the soil. While in
case of less permeable soil, the water is allowed to stay for longer period to
ensure adequate penetration.

The method is also known as irrigation by plots since the entire area is divided
into several plots obtained by subdividing the entire area by levees

Moving on to the main details,

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• Check flooding is similar to free flooding except that the water is controlled
by surrounding the check area with low, flat levees surrounding each check
while in free flooding no such levees are provided and the strips are divided
by field channels.
• Each plot is practically level. The size of levee depends upon the depth of
water to be applies as well as the stability of the soil when it is wet.
• Water is conveyed to the land by a system of supply channels as well as
laterals.
• Usually, there is one field channel for every two rows of plots. Water is
admitted to these plots at the higher end and the supply is cutoff as soon as
the lower part of the plot has received the sufficient depth of water.
• Oblong plots are preferred to the square plots. The size of the plots depends
on the porosity of the soil.
• In a levelled ground, the plots are generally rectangular, but if the ground
has same initial slope, the checks or levees may follow contours.
• Contour checks are prepared by constructing ridges along contours at
vertical intervals of 6 to 12 cm and connecting them with cross ridges at
intervals.
• Very little crop land is perfectly level, and the water does not stand at a
uniform depth over the entire check. This results in uneven distribution of
water within the plot.
• Low area will receive too much water and high gets too little.
• The size of check basins is dependent on the infiltration rate. It may vary
from 1m for growing vegetables and other intensive irrigation to 1- 2
hectares for growing rice under wet land conditions.
• However, the more common size varies from 0.03 to 0.06 hectares for
medium soils. The size of stream should be sufficient to cover the entire
basin in a relatively small portion of time required

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e) Basin Flooding :-
In this method the field is divided into square or rectangular plots of 4 to 4000 m²
guided by bunds on all the sides (Fig. 30.4). In some cases (ring basin) the plot
may also be circular. This method is usually practiced in nearly levelled lands and
hence the depth of wetting is more uniform in this method. However, it is
particularly useful on fine textured soils with low infiltration and percolation
ratesso that the water is retained on the surface and in the root zone for a longer
period of time. The field channels supply water to each basin, during which the
basins are filled to desired depth and water is retained until it infiltrates into the
soil. This method is most commonly used for irrigating crops like groundnut,
finger millet, sorghum, vegetable crops etc. Basin irrigation is generally not
suited to crops which cannot stand in wet or waterlogged conditions for periods
longer than one day. These are generally tuber and root crops like potato, cassava
beet and carrot. Basins are also used for leaching salts below the crop root zone
depth by percolating water in the reclamation of saline soils.

Basins are mainly of two types:

1. Check basin (square or rectangular in shape)

2. Ring basin (circular in shape)

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 1) Check Basin :-

The size of check basins may vary from one meters square, used for growing
vegetables and other intensive cultivation, to as large as one or two hectares or
more, used for growing rice under wet land conditions. The shape and design of
basins generally depends on the topography of the area it is being designed for.
Check basins can be further divided into rectangular and contour types.

➢ Advantages:

1. Water can be applied uniformly.

2. Even small streams can be used for irrigation of crops efficiently.

3. Simple and cheap when equipment is used for constructing bunds

➢ Disadvantages:

1. Unless the land is levelled, distribution of water in plot is uneven.

2. Considerable area is lost under field channels and bunds i.e. nearly 30% of
area.
3. Bunds interfere in working of inter-cultivation equipment

4. More labour is required for field layout and irrigation

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 2) Ring Basin :-

This method is a modification of check basin method and is suitable for sparsely
grown orchard crops and cucurbits. In this method a circular bund is constructed
around each tree/plant or group of plants to create a basin for irrigation. These
basins are suitably connected to irrigation conveyance channels in such a way
that either each basin is irrigated separately or a group of basins are irrigated at
once by flowing water from one basin to another through inter-

connections.

f) Zig – Zag method of flooding :-

It is special method of flooding where water takes circuitous route before

reaching the dead end of each plot.

• The whole area is divided into a number of square or rectangular plots;

each plot is then subdivided with the help of low bunds or levees.

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 • This method is suitable for relatively level plots. It is, however, highly
unsuitable for farming operations with modern farm machinery.

II) Furrow Method :-

Furrow irrigation system is primarily used for vegetables. Furrows are sloping
channels dug in the soil with the crops being planted on the ridges. It has
advantage that water is applied only in furrows instead of being applied on the
whole field. This saves water and at the same time the plant does not come in
direct contact with water which is an added advantage as some plants, like
vegetable crops, are very sensitive to ponded water. Infiltration occurs laterally
and vertically through the wetted perimeter of the furrow thus the root zone of
the crops gets the desired moisture.

15
On the basis of their alignment furrows may be classified into straight furrows
and contour furrows.

Based on their size and spacing furrows may be classified as deep furrows and
corrugations. In general, small plants need small furrows; like vegetables need
furrows of 7.5 to 12.5 cm depth while some row crops like orchards need much
deeper furrows. Corrugation irrigation consists of running water in small furrows
called corrugation which direct the flow down the slope. Corrugations (Fig 9) are
V-shaped or U-shaped channels about 6 to 10 cm deep, spaced 40 to 75 cm apart.

It is commonly used for irrigating non-cultivated crops like small grains and
pastures growing on steep slopes.

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2) Drip Irrigation :-

Drip irrigation or trickle irrigation is a type of micro-irrigation system that has

the potential to save water and nutrients by allowing water to drip slowly to the
roots of plants, either from above the soil surface or buried below the surface.
The goal is to place water directly into the root zone and minimize evaporation.
Drip irrigation systems distribute water through a network of valves, pipes,
tubing, and emitters. Depending on how well designed, installed, maintained, and
operated it is, a drip irrigation system can be more efficient than other types of
irrigation systems

Components used in drip irrigation (listed in order from water source) include:

• Pump or pressurized water source

• Water filter(s) or filtration systems: sand separator, Fertigation systems
(Venturi injector) and chemigation equipment (optional)
• Backwash controller (Backflow prevention device)
• Pressure control valve (pressure regulator)
• Distribution lines (main larger diameter pipe, maybe secondary smaller,
pipe fittings)
• Hand-operated, electronic, or hydraulic control valves and safety valves
• Smaller diameter polyethylene tube (often called "laterals")
• Poly fittings and accessories (to make connections)
• Emitting devices at plants (emitter or dripper, micro spray head, inline
dripper or inline drip tube)

In drip irrigation systems, pump and valves may be manually or automatically

operated by a controller.

Most large drip irrigation systems employ some type of filter to prevent clogging
of the small emitter flow path by small waterborne particles. New technologies

17
are now being offered that minimize clogging. Some residential systems are
installed without additional filters since potable water is already filtered at the
water treatment plant. Virtually all drip irrigation equipment manufacturers
recommend that filters be employed and generally will not honor warranties
unless this is done. Last line filters just before the final delivery pipe are strongly
recommended in addition to any other filtration system due to fine particle
settlement and accidental insertion of particles in the intermediate lines.

Drip and subsurface drip irrigation is used almost exclusively when using
recycled municipal wastewater. Regulations typically do not permit spraying
water through the air that has not been fully treated to potable water standards.

Because of the way the water is applied in a drip system, traditional surface
applications of timed-release fertilizer are sometimes ineffective, so drip systems
often mix liquid fertilizer with the irrigation water. This is called fertigation;
fertigation and chemigation (application of pesticides and other chemicals to
periodically clean out the system, such as chlorine or sulfuric acid) use chemical
injectors such as diaphragm pumps, piston pumps, or aspirators. The chemicals
may be added constantly whenever the system is irrigating or at intervals.
Fertilizer savings of up to 95% are being reported from recent university field
tests using drip fertigation and slow water delivery as compared to timed-release
and irrigation by micro spray heads.

Properly designed, installed, and managed, drip irrigation may help achieve water
conservation by reducing evaporation and deep drainage when compared to other
types of irrigation such as flood or overhead sprinklers since water can be more
precisely applied to the plant roots. In addition, drip can eliminate many diseases
that are spread through water contact with the foliage. Finally, in regions where
water supplies are severely limited, there may be no actual water savings, but
rather simply an increase in production while using the same amount of water as

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before. In very arid regions or on sandy soils, the preferred method is to apply the
irrigation water as slowly as possible.

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3) Sprinkler Irrigation :-

Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying irrigation water which is similar to

natural rainfall. Water is distributed through a system of pipes usually by
pumping. It is then sprayed into the air through sprinklers so that it breaks up into
small water drops which fall to the ground. The pump supply system, sprinklers
and operating conditions must be designed to enable a uniform application of
water.

Advantages

• Eliminates water conveyance channels, thereby reducing conveyance loss.

• Suitable in all types of soil except heavy clay.
• Water saving up to 30% - 50 %.
• Suitable for irrigation where the plant population per unit area is very high.
• Helps to increase yield.
• Reduces soil compaction.
• Mobility of system helps system operation easy.
• Suitable for undulating land.
• Saves land as no bunds required.
• Soluble fertilizers and chemicals use are possible.
• Provides frost protection & helps in alteration of micro climate.
• Reduces labour cost.

The uniformity of sprinkler applications can be affected by wind and water

pressure. Spray from sprinklers is easily blown about by even a gentle breeze and
this can seriously reduce uniformity. To reduce the effects of wind the sprinklers
can be positioned more closely together.
Sprinklers will only work well at the right operating pressure recommended by
the manufacturer. If the pressure is above or below this then the distribution will
be affected. The most common problem is when the pressure is too low. This

20
happens when pumps and pipes wear. Friction increases and so pressure at the
sprinkler reduces. The result is that the water jet does not break up and all the
water tends to fall in one area towards the outside of the wetted circle. If the
pressure is too high then the distribution will also be poor. A fine spray develops
which falls close to the sprinkler.
Application rate: This is the average rate at which water is sprayed onto the
crops and is measured in mm/hour. The application rate depends on the size of
sprinkler nozzles, the operating pressure and the distance between sprinklers.
When selecting a sprinkler system it is important to make sure that the average
application rate is less than the basic infiltration rate of the soil (see Annex 2). In
this way all the water applied will be readily absorbed by the soil and there should
be no runoff.
Sprinkler drop sizes: As water sprays from a sprinkler it breaks up into small
drops between 0.5 and 4.0 mm in size. The small drops fall close to the sprinkler
whereas the larger ones fall close to the edge of the wetted circle. Large drops
can damage delicate crops and soils and so in such conditions it is best to use the
smaller sprinklers.
Drop size is also controlled by pressure and nozzle size. When the pressure is
low, drops tend to be much larger as the water jet does not break up easily. So to
avoid crop and soil damage use small diameter nozzles operating at or above the
normal recommended operating pressure.

Irrigation sprinklers can be used for residential, industrial, and agricultural usage.
It is useful on uneven land where sufficient water is not available as well as on
sandy soil. The perpendicular pipes, having rotating nozzles on top, are joined to
the main pipeline at regular intervals. When water is pressurized through the main
pipe it escapes from the rotating nozzles. It gets sprinkled on the crop. In sprinkler
or overhead irrigation, water is piped to one more central locations within the
field and distributed by overhead high pressure sprinklers or guns.

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22
 CONCLUSION

Water is an essential input to agricultural production. However, if it is improperly

harnessed, it can also serve as a serious threat to sustainable agriculture.
Irrigation-induced salinity is but one consequence when a valuable resource such
as water, particularly irrigation water, is employed injudiciously.

• Volumetric water control and distribution uniformity, particularly in

surface irrigation, are essential factors in achieving accurate water
applications.
• Performance of sprinkler and drip irrigation systems prove strongly
dependent on the quality of design and materials selected. Inadequate
management and variations in pressure are other main causes of low
performance of these potentially efficient methods.
• Restrictions in flow deliveries in surface irrigation systems due to rotation,
fixed deliveries and unknown discharges, are the main constraints in
introducing accurate field applications and irrigation scheduling in those
systems.
• Field evaluation of field irrigation performance is an essential tool to
improve management and introduction of irrigation scheduling methods.

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 REFERENCE

1) https://www.google.com/

2) https://vikaspedia.in/

3) https://www.wordnik.com/

4) https://testbook.com/

Sr. No Title of Book Author

1. Irrigation Engineering Basak , N.N

Irrigation and water resource

2. Asawa, G. L.
engineering

Group Individual Total

Sign
(06) (04) (10)

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