Fig. 2. Typical “cup and cone” fracture of a ductile annealed 1035 steel in a cylindrical tensile specimen. This type of fracture originates near the center of the section with multiple cracks that join and spread outward until the 45° shear lip forms at the end of fracture. (Photo courtesy of Packer Engineering Associates, Inc.)The bolt at left was annealed; when pulled, it had much deformation as ev idenced by the necking and thread separation. Fracture was of the cup-and-cone type with a large shear lip, similar to that in Fig. 2 The bolt at right was austenitized, then brine quenched to a high hardness. The bright, transverse fracture and lack of deformation characterize a brittle fracture Fig. 3. Two identical steel bolts which had been given different heat treatments, then pulled to fracture in a tensile test.(a) (b) (a) When hose is slit longitudinally, each side of the slit slides along the other side when the hose section is twisted back and forth. The sliding represents pure longitu- dinal shear stresses, since there is no opening (tension) or closing (compression). Trans- verse shear can be demonstrated similarly by rotating the smooth ends of two cylinders against each other. (b) When hose is slit at a 45° angle to its axis, then twisted as shown, opening represents tension, closing represents compression forces. Imagine tiny rubber bands in line with the white marks; when twisted as shown, they are stretched in tension. When twisted in the opposite direction, compression forces are generated after the slit closes. Note that no sliding shear occurs when the 45° slit is opened and closed. Fig. 4. Slit radiator hoses used to demonstrate concentrated “pure” shear stresses.Final rupture was slightly off-center because of a relatively slight bending force in addition to the torsional force. The fracture face is severely rubbed and distorted in a rotary direction by contact with the mating fracture surface at the moment of separa- tion. Fig. 5. Single-overload torsional fracture on the transverse shear plane of a shaft of medium-carbon steel of moderate hardness. Note that the originally straight splines have been twisted in a counterclockwise direction.Fig. 6. Single-overload torsional fracture of a shaft of ductile steel similar to that in Fig. 5. Hole in center is the lathe center from the original machining on the part. not change with the slippage on the transverse shear planes. Even- tually, fracture occurs on one of these transverse shear planes, which is essentially the interface between two adjacent disks. Deformation also occurs on the longitudinal shear plane, but this Note that the black 45° brittle-fracture cracks (emphasized by the hot etching) are in the opposite direction to the twisting. This is because the cracks are always per- pendicular to the tensile stress component that caused them, whereas the grain-flow distortion tends to proceed in the same direction as the tensile component. The black arrow on the spline indicates the direction this end was twisted. Fig. 7. Torsional fracture of 1'/2-in-diam case-hardened steel shaft, il- lustrating cracking of the hard, brittle case and transverse shear frac- ture at the right end across the relatively soft, ductile core. Hot etched to reveal twisting and distortion of the originally straight grain flow in the cylindrical shaft (white arrows).A compressive force perpendicular to the case-hardened surfaces caused cracking (arrows) in the very hard (HRC 66) cases on both surfaces. The soft, ductile cores simply bulged under the compressive force but did not fracture. As sketched in Fig. 1(c), these composite specimens illustrate behavior of both brittle and ductile metals and dramatically show the difference in properties of the case and core. (These one- square-inch compression blocks were made from low-carbon alloy steels. They were water quenched and had /;6-in. case depth; both were compressed to 180,000 psi.) Fig. 8. Compression test of two steel cubes deep case hardened only on top and bottom surfaces. (Photo courtesy of Xtek Corp., TSP Mill Products Div.) Figure 8 shows steel test specimens containing both brittle and duc- tile regions that illustrate axial cracking of the hard, brittle regions and lateral bulging of the soft, ductile region between the hard layers.