NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY & NUCLEAR

ENERGY (PART 2)
 LEARNING OUTCOMES:

The student should be able to:

1. Identify the different types of nuclear reactions;
2. Discover the guidelines in writing nuclear equation;
3.Write nuclear equations;
4. Solve for Q-value or energy involved in nuclear
reactions;
5. Determine the various modes of radioactive decay; and
6. Solve problems on radioactive decay.
1 ENERGY
 TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION:

1. Kinds of Nuclear Reactions

2. Nuclear Equations and Guidelines in Writing Nuclear
Equations
3. Q-value or Energy involved in Nuclear Reactions
4. Radioactive Decay/Radioactivity, Radiation, Half-life

1 ENERGY
 KINDS OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS

FOUR MAIN TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS INCLUDE

1. Nuclear Fission
2. Nuclear Fusion
3. Radioactive Decay
4. Nuclear Transmutation

1 ENERGY
 NUCLEAR FISSION

NUCLEAR FISSION
• refers to the splitting of a massive or heavy atomic nucleus into two or
lighter nuclei.
• often releases a large amount of energy, which is accompanied by the
emission of neutrons and gamma rays (photons holding huge amounts of
energy, enough to knock electrons out of atoms).

1 ENERGY
 NUCLEAR FISSION

General Format of Fission Reaction

𝑿 + 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆 → 𝒀 + 𝒁 + 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆

Ex. 𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝟗𝟐𝐔 + 𝟏𝟎𝐧 → 𝟗𝟎
𝟑𝟖𝐒𝐫 + 𝟏𝟒𝟑 𝟏
𝟓𝟒𝐗𝐞 + 𝟑 𝟎𝐧

NOTE: The particle in the reactant is known as the projectile particle and
is usually a neutron and the products contain also product particles
which may also be a neutron.

1 ENERGY
 NUCLEAR FISSION

NUCLEAR FISSION
Examples
An important example of nuclear fission is the splitting of the uranium-
235 nucleus when it is bombarded with neutrons. Various products can
be formed from this nuclear reaction, as described in the equations
below.
• 235U + 1n → 141Ba + 92Kr + 3 1n
• 235U + 1n → 144Xe + 90Sr + 2 1n
• 235U + 1n → 146La + 87Br + 3 1n
• 235U + 1n → 137Te + 97Zr + 2 1n
• 235U + 1n → 137Cs + 96Rb + 3 1n
1 ENERGY
 NUCLEAR FUSION

NUCLEAR FUSION
• Involves at least two smaller atomic nuclei that combine/fuse into a single
nucleus.
• Subatomic particles such as neutrons or protons are also formed as products in
these nuclear reactions.

1 ENERGY
 NUCLEAR FUSION

NUCLEAR FUSION – a reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei are combined to
form one or more different atomic nuclei and subatomic particles (neutrons or
protons). The difference in mass between the reactants and products is manifested as
either the release or absorption of energy.

1 ENERGY
 NUCLEAR FUSION

General Format of Fusion Reaction

𝑨 + 𝑩 → 𝑪 + 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆

𝟐
Ex. 𝟏𝐇 + 𝟐𝟏𝐇 → 𝟒𝟐𝐇𝐞 + 𝟏𝟎𝐧

1 ENERGY
 NUCLEAR DECAY / RADIOACTIVE DECAY

NUCLEAR DECAY (RADIOACTIVE DECAY)

➢ the process by which an unstable isotope of a particular element
spontaneously transforms into a new element by emission of ionizing
radiation

1 ENERGY
 NUCLEAR DECAY / RADIOACTIVE DECAY

NUCLEAR DECAY (RADIOACTIVE DECAY).

General Format for Radioactive Decay Reaction

General Format
𝑨 𝑨−𝒂
𝒁𝑿 → 𝒂𝒛𝒙 + 𝒁−𝒛𝒀

A or a = mass number Z or z = charge; atomic number

X = original element x = radioactive emission
Y = new element

1 ENERGY
 NUCLEAR DECAY / RADIOACTIVE DECAY

Nuclear equations for alpha decay: Symbols:

𝑨 𝟒 𝑨−𝟒
• General format: 𝒁 𝑿 → 𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝒁−𝟐𝒀 For Uranium – 235: 𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝟗𝟐𝑼
𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟒 𝟐𝟑𝟏
• Example: 𝟗𝟐𝑼 → 𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝟗𝟎𝑻𝒉 For alpha particle: 𝟒
𝟐𝑯𝒆
𝟎
For beta particle: −𝟏𝒆
Nuclear equations for beta decay: For a neutron: 𝟏
𝟎𝒏
𝑨 𝑨 𝟎
• General format: 𝒁 𝑿 → 𝒛+𝟏 𝒀 + −𝟏𝒆 For positron: 𝟎
+𝟏𝒆
𝟐𝟑𝟒 𝟐𝟑𝟒 𝟎
• Example: 𝟗𝟎 𝑻𝒉 → 𝟗𝟏𝑷𝒂 + −𝟏𝒆

Nuclear equations for positron emission:

𝑨 𝑨 𝟎
• General format: 𝒁 𝑿 → 𝒁−𝟏 𝒀 + +𝟏𝒆
𝟑𝟕 𝟑𝟕 𝟎
• Example: 𝟏𝟗 𝑲 → 𝟏𝟖𝑨𝒓 + +𝟏𝒆

1 ENERGY
COMMON MODES OF NUCLEAR DECAY
COMMON MODES OF NUCLEAR DECAY
 NUCLEAR TRANSMUTATION

NUCLEAR TRANSMUTATION
• Transmutation is essentially the reverse of nuclear decay. It is a non-spontaneous
process where by one element is converted to another by bombarding it with high
energy radiation (or neutrons). This is generally an artificial process that allows the
creation of radioactive isotopes. For example, the Pd-103 that is use in the
treatment of prostate cancer is made in the laboratory is made by bombarding Pd-
102 with high energy neutrons.

• Transmutation involves increasing the mass of nuclei.

1 ENERGY
 NUCLEAR EQUATIONS

NUCLEAR EQUATIONS
• Are used to discuss nuclear reaction in depth and we must comprehend how
to write balanced equations
• It is slightly different from the chemical equation in the way we write it.
• In a chemical reaction, we write the symbols for various chemical elements
but in nuclear reaction, we must explicitly indicate protons, neutrons, and
electrons that are produced during the course of nuclear fission or fusion
reaction.
• A symbolic representation of nuclear reactions using nuclide symbols.

1 ENERGY
 NUCLEAR EQUATIONS

GUIDELINES IN WRITING NUCLEAR EQUATIONS

• A balanced nuclear equation is one where the sum of the mass numbers
(the top number in notation) and the sum of the atomic numbers balance on
either side of an equation.

• Nuclear equation problems will often be given such that one particle is
missing.

• Instead of using the full equations, in many situations a compact notation is

used to describe nuclear reactions.

1 ENERGY
 NUCLEAR EQUATIONS

BALANCING NUCLEAR EQUATIONS

A balanced nuclear reaction equation indicates that there is a rearrangement
during a nuclear reaction, but of subatomic particles rather than atoms.
Nuclear reactions also follow conservation laws, and they are balanced in two
ways:
1. The sum of the mass numbers of the reactants equals the sum of the mass
numbers of the product.
Σ A reactants = Σ A products A – Mass Number
2. The sum of the atomic numbers or charges of the reactants equals the sum
of the atomic numbers or charges of the products.
Σ Z reactants = Σ Z products Z – Atomic Number

1 ENERGY
 NUCLEAR EQUATION

BALANCING NUCLEAR EQUATIONS

Example:
The reaction of an α particle with magnesium-25 (25.12Mg) produces a
proton and a nuclide of another element. Identify the new nuclide produced.

Solution:
The nuclear reaction can be written as:
𝟐𝟓 𝟒 𝟏
𝟏𝟐𝑴𝒈 + 𝟐𝜶 ⟶ 𝟏𝑯 + 𝑨𝒁𝑿
Where: A is the mass number and Z is the atomic number of the new nuclide,
X. Because the sum of the mass numbers of the reactants must equal the
sum of the mass numbers of the products:

1 ENERGY
 NUCLEAR EQUATION

BALANCING NUCLEAR EQUATIONS

𝟐𝟓 𝟒
𝟏𝟐𝑴𝒈 + 𝟐𝜶 ⟶ 𝟏𝟏𝑯 + 𝑨𝒁𝑿
Balancing the mass numbers: ΣA reactants = ΣA products
25+4 = A+1, or A=28
Similarly, balancing the atomic number: ΣZ reactants = ΣZ products
12+2 = Z+1, and Z=13
Hence: The unknown nuclide in the example is identified based on its
atomic number and the use of the Periodic Table as follows:

𝑨 𝟐𝟖 𝟐𝟖
𝒁𝑿 = 𝟏𝟑𝑿 = 𝟏𝟑𝑨𝒍

1 ENERGY
 NUCLEAR EQUATION

Example : Balance the equation and determine the new element:

𝟐𝟐𝟔 𝟒
𝟖𝟖𝑹𝒂 → 𝟐𝑯𝒆 + ___________

Determine the mass number of the new element by subtracting:

A - a = 226 – 4 = 222
Find the atomic number by subtracting:
Z – z = 88 – 2 = 86
Using the periodic table we can see that the element with 86 atomic number is
Radon (Rn)
Therefore the balance equation is:
𝟐𝟐𝟔 𝟒 𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝟖𝟖𝑹𝒂 → 𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝟖𝟔𝑹𝒏

1 ENERGY
 NUCLEAR EQUATION

Example : Write a nuclear equation showing what forms when radon 222
decays?

Step 1: Determine the type of emission by looking on Table of

Radioactive Decay Chain –
The emission is an α- particle.

1 ENERGY
 TABLE OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY CHAIN
TYPE OF RADIATION NUCLIDE HALF – LIFE
alpha Uranium – 238 4.5 x 109 year
beta Thorium – 234 24.5 days
beta Protactinium – 234 1.14 minutes
alpha Uranium – 234 2.33 x 105 years
alpha Thorium – 230 8.3 x 104 years
alpha Radium – 226 1590 years
alpha Radon – 222 3.825 days
alpha Polonium – 218 3.05 minutes
beta Lead – 214 26.8 minutes
beta Bismuth – 214 19.7 minutes
alpha Polonium – 214 1.5 x 10 – 4 seconds
beta Lead – 210 22 years
beta Bismuth – 210 5 days
alpha Polonium – 210 140 days
----- Lead – 206 stable
 NUCLEAR EQUATION

Example : Write a nuclear equation showing what forms when radon 222
decays?

Step 1: Determine the type of emission by looking on Table N

The emission is an α- particle.

Step 2: Look up the atomic number of the known element

and write an equation showing the known information.

𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝟖𝟔𝑹𝒏 → 𝟒𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝟐𝟐𝟐−𝟒
𝟖𝟔−𝟐𝒀

1 ENERGY
 NUCLEAR EQUATION

Example : Write a nuclear equation showing what forms when radon 222
decays?
Step 3: Subtract the weight and charge of the emission from the
weight and charge of the original element to determine the
weight and charge of the new element
𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟏𝟖
𝟖𝟔𝑹𝒏 → 𝟒𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝟖𝟒𝒀
Step 4: Identify the new element based on the nuclear charge or
atomic number
𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟏𝟖
𝟖𝟔𝑹𝒏 → 𝟒𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝟖𝟒𝑷𝒐

1 ENERGY
 RADIOACTIVITY OR RADIOACTIVE DECAY

RADIOACTIVE DECAY is the spontaneous breakdown of an atomic nucleus

resulting in the release of energy and matter from the nucleus. ... In the process,
they will release energy and matter from their nucleus and often transform into
a new element.

NOTE: TRANSMUTATION – a general term given to nuclear reactions forming

different elements.

1 ENERGY
 KINDS OF RADIATION & TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY

KINDS OF RADIATION AND TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY:

1. Alpha radiation – emission of an alpha particle (a He nucleus), resulting in a
decrease in both mass and atomic number.

𝟐𝟑𝟖 𝟐𝟑𝟒
𝟗𝟐𝑼 → 𝟒𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝟗𝟎𝑻𝒉

1 ENERGY
 KINDS OF RADIATION & TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY

2. Beta radiation – emission of a beta particle (an electron from the nucleus),
resulting in an increase in atomic number

𝟏𝟑𝟏 𝟏𝟑𝟏 𝟎
𝟓𝟑𝑰 → 𝟓𝟒𝑿𝒆 + −𝟏𝒆

This is different from an oxidation reaction since the ejected electron is coming
from the nucleus
(A neutron has turned into a proton, thereby ejecting an electron)

1 ENERGY
 KINDS OF RADIATION & TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY

3. Gamma radiation – This is the photon that carries the energy that is emitted.
The wavelength is in the order of 10 – 11 to 10 – 14
m (higher energy than x-rays).

1 ENERGY
 KINDS OF RADIATION & TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY

4. Positron emission – emission of a positively charged electron (positron) from

the nucleus, resulting in a decrease in the atomic
number. A positron has the same mass as an electron,
but opposite in charge. In other words, inside the
nucleus, a proton is being converted into a neutron.

𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟎
𝟏𝟗𝑲 → 𝟏𝟖𝑨𝒓 + 𝟎𝟏𝒆

1 ENERGY
 KINDS OF RADIATION & TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY

5. K capture or electron capture – This happens in heavy atoms in which an

inner shell (1s) electron is captured by the
nucleus, resulting in a decrease in atomic
number.

𝟏𝟗𝟕 𝟎 𝟏𝟗𝟕
𝟖𝟎𝑯𝒈 + −𝟏𝒆 → 𝟕𝟗𝑨𝒖

1 ENERGY
A SUMMARY OF RADIOACTIVE PROCESSES
 THE THREE MAIN FORMS OF RADIOACTIVE EMISSIONS

Illustration of the relative abilities of three different types of ionizing radiation to penetrate solid matter.
Typical alpha particles (α) are stopped by a sheet of paper, while beta particles (β) are stopped by an
aluminum plate. Gamma radiation (γ) is damped when it penetrates lead.
 ENERGETICS OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS

Q VALUE FOR A REACTION is the amount of energy absorbed or released during

the nuclear reaction. The value relates to the enthalpy of a chemical reaction or
the energy of radioactive decay products. It can be determined from the masses
of reactants and products.

In nuclear and particle physics the energetics of nuclear reactions is determined

by the Q-value of that reaction.

The Q-value of the reaction is defined as the difference between the sum of the
masses of the initial reactants and the sum of the masses of the final products,
in energy units (usually in MeV).

1 ENERGY
 ENERGETICS OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS

Consider a typical reaction, in which the projectile a and the target A gives place
to two products, B and b. This can also be expressed in the notation that we
used so far,
a + A → B + b,
or even in a more compact notation, A(a,b)B.

The Q-value of this reaction is given by:

Method 1: Using Einsteins Mass – Energy Equation:
Q = [ma + mA – (mb + mB)]c2

Method 2 : Direct conversion of mass into energy units

1 ENERGY
 Q VALUE OR ENERGY INVOLVED NUCLEAR REACTIONS

For reactions in which there is an increase in the kinetic energy of the products
Q is positive. The positive Q reactions are said to be exothermic (or exergic).
There is a net release of energy, since the kinetic energy of the final state is
greater than the kinetic energy of the initial state.

For reactions in which there is a decrease in the kinetic energy of the products Q
is negative. The negative Q reactions are said to be endothermic (or endoergic)
and they require a net energy input.

1 ENERGY
 Q VALUE OF EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS

Example:
The DT fusion reaction of deuterium and tritium is particularly interesting
because of its potential of providing energy for the future.
Calculate the reaction Q-value for 3T (D, n) 4He

The atom masses of the reactants and products are:

m(3T) = 3.0160 amu
m(2D) = 2.0141 amu
m(1n) = 1.0087 amu
m(4He) = 4.0026 amu

1 ENERGY
 Q VALUE OF EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS

The atom masses of the reactants and products are: 3T (D, n) 4He

m(3T) = 3.0160 amu

m(2D) = 2.0141 amu
a + A → B + b,
m(1n) = 1.0087 amu or even in a more compact notation,
m(4He) = 4.0026 amu A(a,b)B.
Method 2: Using the mass-energy equivalence, we get the Q-value of this
reaction as:

Q = {(3.0160+2.0141) [amu] – (1.0087+4.0026) [amu]} x 931.481 [MeV/amu]

Q = 0.0188 x 931.481 = 17.5 MeV

1 ENERGY
 Q VALUE OF ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS

Calculate the reaction Q-value of the following reaction:

7Li (α, n) 10B

The atom masses of the reactants and products are:

m(4He) = 4.0026 amu
m(7Li) = 7.0160 amu
m(1n) = 1.0087 amu
m(10B) = 10.01294 amu
Using the mass-energy equivalence, we get the Q-value of this reaction as:
Q = {(7.0160+4.0026) [amu] – (1.0087+10.01294) [amu]} x 931.481 [MeV/amu]
= – 0.00304 x 931.481 = – 2.83 MeV

1 ENERGY
 ENERGETICS OF NUCLEAR REACTION

Sign Convention for Q- Value:

If Q-value = (+), energy is released or produce, exergonic nuclear reaction

If Q-value = (-), energy is absorbed, endergonic nuclear reaction

1 ENERGY
 HALF – LIFE

The rate of disintegration of radioactive isotopes is expressed in terms of the

half-life, which is the time that it takes for half of a given amount to disintegrate.
This rate is independent of external conditions, such as temperature and
pressure and depends only on the nature of the substance. It only gives the
probability of decay, and this probability is always the same for a given type of
nucleus, no matter how it was formed, what it is combined with, and so forth.

For isotopes with relatively short half-lives it is possible to find the half-life by
simply taking counts per minute and measuring the time it takes for this to be
reduced by one-half, for a given sample of the radioactive substance.

1 ENERGY
 AVAILABLE WORKING EQUATION
OR FORMULA FOR RADIOACTIVE DECAY

𝑵𝒐
a.) 𝐥𝐧 = 𝒌𝒕
𝑵
𝐍𝐨
b.) = 𝐞𝐤 𝐭
𝐍

c.) 𝐍𝐨 = 𝐍 𝐞𝐤𝐭
d.) 𝐍𝐨 − 𝐍 = 𝐍 𝐞𝐤𝐭 − 𝐍 = 𝐍 (𝐞𝐤𝐭 − 𝟏)
𝐥𝐧 𝟐 𝟎.𝟔𝟗𝟑
e.) 𝒕𝟏/𝟐 = =
𝒌 𝒌

1 ENERGY
 AVAILABLE WORKING EQUATION
OR FORMULA FOR RADIOACTIVE DECAY

where: No = initial amount (mass or moles) of radioactive material before decay occurs at t = 0

N = remaining amount of radioactive material LEFT UNDECAYED after time t elapsed, t = t

No – N = amount of material decayed

(No-N)/No = fraction of the radioactive material that decayed

k = radioactive decay constant = specific rate constant

= constant property of a radioactive material
= unit is 1/time or time – 1

t = time duration for decay

t1/2 = half-life of a radioactive material

= a constant or intensive property of a radioactive material
= time it takes for half of the initial amount of a radioactive material to decay.

1 ENERGY
 HALF – LIFE

Problem 1
The radioactive isotope 137Cs has a half-life of 30.0 years. Starting with 1.00 mg
of 137Cs, how much would remain after 90.0 years?
Solution:
At this time (0 years), we have 1.00 mg of the isotope, after 30.0 years, we shall have
one-half of the original or 0.500 mg after 60.0 years, we shall have one-half of 0.500 mg,
or 0.250 mg. Finally, after 90.0 years, we shall have one-half of 0.250 mg or 0.125 mg.
0 years – 1.00 mg
30.0 years – 0.500 mg
60.0 years – 0.250 mg
90.0 years – 0.125 mg

1 ENERGY
 HALF – LIFE

Problem 1
The radioactive isotope 137Cs has a half-life of 30.0 years. Starting with 1.00 mg
of 137Cs, how much would remain after 90.0 years?

Alternate Solution:
To account the number of half-lives (90.0/30.0 = 3), that have passed and
multiply (1/2)3 by the original amount to give

(1.00 mg) (1/2)3 = 1.00 mg (1/8) = 0.125 mg

1 ENERGY
 HALF – LIFE

Problem 2
At a given time there are 1.2 mg of a radioactive substance present. After 6
hours there is only 0.3 mg remaining. What is the half-life?

Solution:
Since there is only one-fourth of the initial amount present, two half-lives
must have passed [ ½ X ½ = ¼ ]
0 hr 1.2 mg
Therefore, the half-life must be 3 hours. 3 hr 0.6 mg
6 hr 0.3 mg

1 ENERGY