EARTH SCIENCE

NOTES AND PRELIM REVIEWER

LESSON 1: PHYSICAL SCIENCE
WHAT IS PHYSICAL SCIENCE?
 Any of the natural sciences (such as Physics,
Chemistry, and astronomy) that deal primarily
with nonliving materials
BRANCHES OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE
ASTRONOMY
 Is the science that deals with the study of all
celestial objects and phenomena
CHEMISTRY
 Is the science that deals with the properties,
composition and structure of a matter.
PHYSICS
 Is the science that concerned with the nature
and a property of a matter and energy.
GEOLOGY
 Is the study of the composition, structure,
physical properties, and components, and the
processes by which the Earth is shaped.
METEOROLOGY
 Is the science which includes atmospheric
chemistry and atmospheric physics, with a major
focus on weather forecasting.
BARYONIC MATTER
 Comprises of 4.6% of all matter in the Universe.
 Consists of Proton, Electron and Neutrons.
 Also known as ‘Ordinary Matter’
 Can be seen, touch or heard
DARK MATTER
 Comprises of 24% of all matter in the Universe.
 Matter that has gravity but does not emit
light/heat.
 Holds the galaxies together
DARK ENERGY
 Comprises of 71.4% of all matter in the Universe.
 Source of ‘Anti-Gravity’
 Explains the observed acceleration of the
universe.
EARTH AGE – 4.5 BILLION YEARS OLD
COSMOLOGY – Science of the origin and development
of the universe, Study of the History and Future of the
Universe.
COMPOSITION OF THE UNIVERSE
HYDROGEN (H)
 Comprises of 74% of all element in the Universe.
 The most abundant element in the Universe

OCEANOGRAPHY HELIUM (He)

 Is the study of the physical and biological  Comprises of 24% of all element in the Universe
aspects of the Ocean  The second most abundant element in the
Universe.
Assignment #1 LITHIUM (Li)
 Comprises of ~2% of all element in the Universe
Fishers – Ichthyologist  The least abundant element in the Universe
Ichthyologist, scientific study of Fishes, GALAXIES – Cluster of billions of stars
Including, as is usual with a science that is
STARS – Building blocks of galaxies
concerned with a large group of organisms.
A number of specialized subdisciplines! LESSON 3: ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE
e.g., taxonomy, anatomy (or morphology)
Ancient Egyptian India
behavioral science (ethology), ecology and Non-Scientific
Thought
Physiology. Because of the great Mbombo
The Creationist
Theory
Origin of the
importance of fishes as human food, Universe
Steady State Oscillating
economic ichthyology is a significant Scientific Thought
Model Theory

segment of the field Big Bang

Theory

LESSON 2: STRUCTURE, COMPOSITION

AND THE AGE OF THE UNIVERSE NON-SCIENTIFIC THOUGHT
UNIVERSE
 13.8 Billion Years Old ANCIENT EGYPTIAN
 Cosmos – “Visible/Invisible”  Believed in many gods and myths which narrate
 It comprises all space and time, and all matter that the world arose from an infinite sea at the
and energy in it. first rising of the sun.
 91 Billion light years in diameter

MBOMBO (BUMBA)
 The Kuba people of Africa tells a story that this
STRUCTURE OF THE UNIVERSE
creator god who was alone in a dark and water-
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covered Earth, felt an intense stomach pain and

then vomited the stars, sun and moon

INDIA
 Believed that gods sacrificed Purusha, the primal
man whose head, feet, eyes and mind became
the sky, earth, sun and moon respectively.

THE CREATIONIST THEORY

 Monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity, SOLAR SYSTEM
and Islam claim that a supreme being created  The gravitationally bound system of the Sun and
the universe, including man and other living the objects that orbit it.
organisms.  4.6 Billion Years Old

SCIENTIFIC THOUGHT ENCOUNTER HYPOTHESIS

BUFFON’S COLLISION THEORY (1749)

 SUN – COMET encounter that sent matter to
form planets

JAMES JEANS TIDAL THEORY (1917)

 SUN – STAR encounter that would have drawn
from the sun matter that would condense to
STEADY STATE MODEL planets
 States that the universe is uniform throughout
both time and spaces. NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS
 The universe has always been essentially the
same as it is today and that it will continue that KANT – LAPLACE (1700)
way together.  A rotating gaseous cloud that cools and
 Proposed by Sir Fred Hoyle contracts in the middle to form the sun and the
rest into a disc that become the planets.
BIG BANG THEORY
 States that the universe expanded from a tiny, PROTOPLANET HYPOTHESIS
dense and hot mass to its present size and much
cooler state. WILLIAM MCCREA (1960)
 Justified by Edwin Hubble (Hubble’s Law).  It incorporates many of the components of the
 Proposed by George Lemaitre in the 1920s nebular hypothesis but add some new aspects
from modern knowledge of fluids and state of
 Advocated by George Gamow in the 1940s.
matter
BIG BANG THEORY EVIDENCES
NEBULAR THEORY – Our solar system was formed from
 Redshift Data
a Nebula
 Composition of the Universe
(Abundance of Light Elements)
NEBULA – Plural Term ‘Nebulae’ means cloud/clouds
 Age of stars
 Cosmic microwave radiation ROTATION REVOLUTION
PLANETS
OSCILLATING THEORY (DAY LENGTH) (YEAR LENGTH)
 States that the universe undergoes a never- 48.6 Earth Days /
Mercury 88 Earth Days
ending cycle from Big Bang to Big Crunch, vice 1,408 Hours
versa. 243 Earth Days /
Venus 225 Earth Days
5,832 Hours
 Proposed by Paul Steinhardt (2001)
Earth 24 Hours 365.25 Earth Days
Mars 25 Hours 687 Earth Days
12 Earth Years /
Jupiter 10 Hours
4,333 Earth Days
29.4 Earth Years /
Saturn 11 Hours
10,756 Earth Days
84 Earth Years /
Uranus 17 Hours
30,687 Earth Days
165 Earth Years /
Neptune 16 Hours
60,190 Earth Days

LESSON 4: ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR INNER SOLAR SYSTEM

SYSTEM
 Closer to proto-sun (warmer)
Buffon's Collision  Warm enough to vaporize lighter compounds.
Theory (1749) William
Encounter McCrea
Protoplanet
Hypothesis Hypothesis
James Jeans Tidal
Theory (1917)
Origin of the
Solar System
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 Metals and silicates stay as solids.
 Small planetesimals form.
 Planetesimals collect to form the terrestrial
planets.
 In-fall of particles produces molten spheres.
 sphere’s cool, early crusts form.
 Bombarded by remaining planetesimals.
 Formation of core, mantle and crust.
INNER SOLAR SYSTEM
 Build – up of large bodies in eddies.
 Farther from proto- sun (colder), more volatile
ices and gases = more mass
 Icy planetesimals form, lower condensation
temp. = more accretion
 Growth to few Earth masses.
FACTORS THAT MAKE A PLANET
HABITABLE
TEMPERATURE
 Influences how quickly atoms and how
molecules move.
 -17°C – Average temperature of Earth
ATMOSPHERE
 Traps heat, shields the surface from harmful
radiation and provides chemicals needed for life
such as nitrogen and C02.
 Earth’s Atmosphere – 78% Nitrogen, 21%
Oxygen and 7% other Gases
ENERGY
 Organisms use light or chemical energy to run
their life processes.
 Solar energy fuels life on earth
NUTRIENTS
 Used to build and maintain an organism's body
 Life needs certain chemical the building blocks of
life such as carbon, oxygen and nitrogen.
 Is the thin gaseous layer that envelopes the
lithosphere.
 Contains the gases that living things need for
survival.
 Transfers heat
 Ozone protects living things from UV radiation.
 Plays a part in weathering and erosion
LITHOSPHERE
 Includes the rocks of the crusts and mantle, the
metallic liquid outer core, and the solid metallic
inner core.
 Contributor of particulate matter to the
atmosphere.
 Ultimate Source Of the nutrients for all living.
 Important Contributor of atmospheric gasses.
 Movement of plates produces barriers that aid in
the Isolation of Population of organisms and
things therefore influences evolution.
BIOSPHERE
 Is the set of all life forms on Earth.
 Aids in weathering
 Important sink for certain elements
 Mediates the information of some minerals
 Photosynthesis maintains the oxygen content of
the atmosphere
HYDROSPHERE
 Includes all water on earth (Including surface
water and groundwater).
LESSON 6: PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL
PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
WHAT ARE MINERALS?
 A naturally occurring (not man-made or machine
generated), inorganic (not a byproduct of living
things) solid with an orderly crystalline structure
and a definite chemical composition.
MINERAL PROPERTIES

LESSON 5: EARTH SUBSYSTEM WHAT IS LUSTER?

EARTH SUBSYSTEMS  It is the quality and intensity of reflected light
 Atmosphere exhibited by the mineral
 Lithosphere
 Biosphere Types of Lusters:
 Hydrosphere a. Metallic – generally opaque and exhibit a
resplendent shine similar to a polished metal
EARTH SYSTEM
 All of the matter/energy and processes within b. Non-metallic – vitreous (glassy), adamantine
(brilliant/diamond-like)
Earth’s boundary.
WHAT IS HARDNESS?
SYSTEM
 It is a measure of the resistance of a mineral (not
 A group of related objects or part that work
specifically surface) to abrasion.
together to form a whole.

SUBSYSTEM
 A self-contained system within a larger system

ATMOSPHERE
 All of the matter/energy and processes within WHAT IS MOHS HARDNESS SCALE?
Earth’s boundary.  Is used as a convenient way to help identify
minerals it measures the scratch resistance of
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various minerals from a scale of 1 to 10, based
on the ability of a harder material/mineral to
scratch a softer tone.
WHAT IS COLOR AND STREAK?
 A lot of minerals can exhibit same or similar
color. While streak, on the other hand, is the
mineral’s color in powdered form.
Examples of streak: pyrite (FeS2) exhibits gold color but
has a black or dark gray streak.
WHAT IS CRYSTAL FORM / HABIT?
 The external shape of a crystal or groups of
crystals is displayed / observed as these crystals
grow in open spaces.
WHAT IS CLEAVAGE?
 The property of some minerals to break along
specific planes of weakness to form smooth, flat
surfaces.
WHAT IS FRACTURE?
 Some minerals may not have cleavages but
exhibit broken surfaces that are irregular and
non-planar.
WHAT IS SPECIFIC GRAVITY?
 The ratio of the density of the mineral and the
density of water.
OTHERS
 magnetism, odor, taste, tenacity, reaction to
acid, etc. For example, magnetite is strongly
magnetic; sulfur has distinctive smell; halite is
salty; calcite fizzes with acid as with dolomite but
in powdered form; etc.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF MINERAL
GROUPS
WHAT ARE SILICATES?
 Minerals containing the two most abundant
elements in the Earth’s crust, namely, silicon and
oxygen.
WHAT ARE OXIDES?
 Minerals composed of oxygen anion (O2-)
combined with one or more metal ions.
WHAT IS SULFATE?
 Minerals containing sulfur and oxygen in the
form of the (SO4)- anion.
WHAT ARE SULFIDES?
 Minerals containing sulfur and a metal; some
sulfides are sources of economically important
metals such as copper, lead, and zinc.
WHAT ARE CARBONATES?
 Minerals containing the carbonate (CO3)2- anion
combined with other elements.
WHAT ARE NATIVE ELEMENTS?
 Minerals that form as individual elements.
Types of Native Elements:
a. Metals and Intermetals – minerals with high
thermal and electrical conductivity, typically with
metallic luster, low hardness (gold, lead).
b. Semi-metals – minerals that are more fragile
than metals and have lower conductivity
(arsenic, bismuth).
c. Nonmetals – nonconductive (sulfur, diamond).
WHAT ARE HALLIDES?
 Minerals containing halogen elements combined
with one or more met.
LESSON 7: ROCKS CYCLE
WHAT ARE ROCKS?
 Rocks are aggregate of minerals; it can be
composed or single mineral (e.g., Quartze). A
mineral name can be used as a rock name e.g.,
Gypsum.
The Three Types of Rocks:
 Igneous Rocks
 Rocks that are formed from the
solidification of molten rock material
(magma or lava).
a. Plutonic or Intrusive Rocks from
solidified. magma underneath the
earth.
b. Volcanic or Extrusive Rocks - From
solidified lava at or near the surface of
the earth.
 Sedimentary Rocks
 These are rocks that formed through the
accumulation, Compaction and
cementation.
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 They form near the surface. by, time and
pressure.
a. Non-Gastic / Biochemical – These
rocks are derived from sediments that
precipitated from concentrated
solution.
b. Clastic / Terrigenous - From the
accumulation and Lithification of
sediments derived from the
breakdown of pre-existing rocks.
 Metamorphic Rocks
 Metamorphic rocks form from pre-existing
rocks (igneous, rudimentary, or even
other metamorphic rocks) that undergo
heat, pressure, or chemically induced
changes within the earth's crust.
LESSON 8: EXOGENIC PROCESS
WHAT IS EXOGENIC PROCESS?
 The geologic processes that occur on the
Surface of the earth such as weathering,
erosion, mass wasting and sedimentation.
 They are genetically related to the atmosphere
hydrosphere and Biosphere, and therefore to
processes of weathering, erosion,
transportation, deposition, denudation etc.
WHAT IS WEATHERING?
 The disintegration and Decomposition of rock at
or near the Earth Surface.
 Is the deterioration of rocks soils and minerals
through contact with water, atmospheric gases,
sunlight, and biological organisms.
There are two main categories of weathering Process:
WHAT IS PHYSICAL OR MECHANICAL
WEATHERING?
 Causes rocks to crumble water, in either liquid
or solid form, is often a key agent of mechanical
weathering. For instance, liquid water can seep
into cracks and crevices in rock.
 Examples: Frost wedging and biological
activity
WHAT IS CHEMICAL WEATHERING?
 When rocks are broken and chemically altered.
 For instance, carbon dioxide from the air or soil
sometimes combines with water in a process
called carbonation. This produces a weak acid,
called carbonic acid, that can dissolve rock.
 Example: Oxidation, Dissolution and
Hydrolysis
AGENTS OF EROSION
1. Running Water
 Heavy rainfall or the melting of mow creates
running water which removes soil by sheet, rill,
or gully erosion.
 Moving water is a major cause of erosion. Rain
carries away bits of soil, and washes away
pieces of rock. Rushing streams and rivers
wear away their banks and create larger
valleys.
 Overland Flow
 Runoff that flows down the land.
slopes in broadly distributed sheets
are called overland flow.
 Stream Flow
 Which the water runs along a narrow
channel between banks.
Overland flow eventually creates streamflow. We can
define a stream as a long, narrow body of water Flowing
through a channel and moving to lower levels under the
force of gravity the stream channel is a narrow trough,
shaped by the forces of Flowing water.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT STREAM
EROSION AND DEPOSITION
1. Velocity
 Dictates the ability of stream to erode and
transport, controlled by gradient, channel size
and shape, channel roughness, and the amount
of water flowing in the channel.
2. Discharge
 Volume of water passing through a cross-section
of a stream during a given time; as the discharge
increases, the width of the channel. the depth of
flow, or flow velocity increase individually or
simultaneously.
2. Ocean or Sea waves
 Waves are classified based on generation force:
a. Wind-driven Waves or Surface Waves
 They are created by the friction
between wind and surface water. As
the wind blows across the surface of
the ocean or a lake the continual
disturbance creates a wave crest.
These types of waves are found
globally across the open ocean and
along the cost.
b. Tsunami
 Is a series of waves caused by
earthquakes or undersea volcanic
eruptions.
c. Tides
 Are very long period waves that
moves through the ocean in response
to the forces exerted by the moon and
sun.
3. Glaciers
 A glacier is a persistent body of dense ice that is
constantly moving under its own weight. A
glacier forms when the accumulation of snow
exceeds its ablation over many years, often
centuries.
There are three types of glaciers:
1. Valley Glaciers or Alpine Glaciers
 A glacier that is surrounded by mountains is
called an alpine or mountain glacier They are
a persistent body of snow that moves under
its weight at a slow pace Alpine glaciers are a
sheet of snow that forms over a cirque or
high rock basin. The iceberg's uppermost
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layer is brittle, but the ice beneath behaves
like a plastic substance flowing gently.
2. Ice Sheets or Continental Glaciers
 An ice sheet is a mass of glacial ice more
than 50,000 square kilometers (19.000
square miles). Ice sheet Contain about 99%
of the fresh water on Earth, and are
sometimes called continental glaciers as
ice sheets extend to the extend to the coast
and over the bean. They become Ice
shelves unconfined by topography modern
ice sheets cover Antarctica and Greenland.
3. Ice Shelves
 An ice sheet is a mass of glacial ice more
than 50,000 square kilometers (19.000
square miles). Ice sheet Contain about 99%
of the fresh water on Earth, and are
sometimes called continental glaciers as
ice sheets extend to the extend to the coast
and over the bean. They become Ice
shelves unconfined by topography modern
ice sheets cover Antarctica and Greenland.
4. Wind
 Wind erodes by:
a. Deflation
 Is a form of wind erosion in
which fine, dry soil particles are
blown away, removing the top
layer of the fine sediment or soil
and leaving behind rock
fragments that are too heavy to
be lifted. by the wind.
b. Abrasion
 Is the process of erosion
produced by the suspended
particles that impact on solid
objects. Windblown grains of
sand, carried along at high
speed, are a very effective tool
that can sandblast away rocks
by abrasion.
5. Groundwater
 The main erosional process associated
with groundwater is a solution. Slow-
moving groundwater cannot erode rocks
by mechanical processes, as a stream
does, but it can dissolve rocks and carry
these off in solution.
 Groundwater is a strong erosional force,
as it works to dissolve away solid rock.
Carbonic acid is especially good at
dissolving the rock limestone. Over many
years, groundwater travels along small
cracks.
6. Gravity
 Is responsible for erosion by flowing water and
glaciers. That's because gravity pulls water and
ice downhill. These are ways gravity causes
erosion indirectly.
a. Mass Wasting
 The downslope movement of soil, rock, and
regolith under the direct influence of gravity,
rock falls, slumps, and debris flows are all
examples of mass wasting. Often lubricated
by rainfall or agitated by seismic activity,
these events may occur very rapidly and
move as a flow.
LESSON 9: ENDOGENIC PROCESS
WHAT IS ENDOGENIC PROCESS?
 The word “endogenic”, contains the prefix
endo-, which is defined as “inside”, or “within.”
The next would be the suffix -genic, which
means “producing.” Therefore, we can literally
define endogenic processes as the processes
within.
 Endogenic Processes are:
- The processes that occur inside the earth.
- These processes also occur because of
the earth’s heat from the core.
- The temperature from the core causes
tectonic plates to move, which can result in
the creation of mountains and other types
of landforms
WHAT IS PRIMORDIAL HEAT?
 Primordial Heat are heat that was present
during the early stages of earth’s development.
 One of the factors that explain core’s
temperature.
WHAT IS RADIOACTIVE HEAT?
 Radioactive Heat are heat from radioactive
isotopes that have been decaying (radioactive
decay).
 Isotopes from the elements Uranium,
Potassium, and Thorium is responsible for
radioactive decay
 Responsible for 50% of earth’s internal heat.
WHAT ARE THE ESTIMATED TEMPERATURES OF
EARTH’S INTERNAL HEAT?
 Core-mantle boundary: 3,700°C
 Inner-core – outer-core boundary:
6,300°C±800°C
 Earth’s center: 6,400°C ± 600°C
Note: The mantle and asthenosphere are considerably
hotter than the lithosphere, and the core is much hotter
than the mantle.
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- This kind of melting often occurs in

subduction areas, wherein water is
WHAT IS MANTLE CONVECTION? present
 Is known as the slow rising of the mantle to
earth’s crust.  Transfer of Heat
- Happens when the mantle rises to
the crust, losing its temperature but
is gained by the rocks around it,
causing it to melt.

Since magma will continue to rise due to its temperature

and lighter density, it can escape the mantle and
eventually to our crust. This can happen in two ways:
intrusive and extrusive.

WHAT IS MAGMA AND HOW IS IT FORMED? WHAT IS INTRUSIVE / PLUTONISM?

 Magma is often involved in endogenic, after all,  This occurs when magma makes it to earth’s
these processes would not occur without earth’s crust but does not make it to the surface.
internal heat.  This is also referred to as plutonism, which are
 It is simply defined as “a molten rock material igneous geological activities that occur
within the earth.” underneath earth’s surface.
 It is formed by the melting of rocks in the mantle
and crust layer. Additionally, it can be found in
the lower part of the crust and upper part of the
mantle.
 Magma is formed by partial melting. In partial
melting, some of the minerals in the mixture of
rocks melt, while some don’t, due to the
differences of melting points. And so, this
creates a combination of molten and solid rocks
or minerals. There are also two other
mechanisms in how partial melting occurs
 Decompression melting
- Is the movement of the mantle WHAT IS EXTRUSIVE / VOLCANIC?
upwards in places with low  This happens when magma makes its way to
pressure, while containing constant the earth’s surface.
temperature.  This often happens with volcanoes, which
- Which causes magma to form causes earth’s geography to change.
because of the melting of the
surrounding rocks. WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF ENDOGENIC
- This often happens in places with PROCESSES?
diverging plates.

Note: Areas of lower pressure always have a lower

melting point than areas of high pressure

 Flux melting
- Is the exposure of water or volatiles
to rocks that are almost at their
melting point
- This eventually reduces the
temperature of the rock and causes
it to melt, forming magma.
 Diastrophism is practically the deformation of
the earth’s crust, often caused by folding and
faulting
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 WHAT IS EXPEIROGENIC
PROCESSES?
- Also called continent forming
movements, which can either uplift or
submerge landmasses
- The first image shows a lifted beach
while the second one shows an island
slowly submerging.
 WHAT IS OROGENIC PROCESSES?
- Also called the mountain-forming
movement.
- This type of movement causes
faulting (tension) and folding
(compression).
- Both occur horizontally, unlike
epeirogenic processes.
WHAT IS FOLDING?
 It refers to the compression of tectonic plates
deep in the crust that results in the folding of the
plate.
 Folding occurs when the rocks that are being
compressed are flexible.
 Folding is also formed because of stress.
WHAT IS FAULTING?
 Happens when fissures or cracks form because
of tensional pressure caused by tectonic plates.
 This process causes faults.
 There are three types of faults, which are:
divergent, convergent, and strike-slip fault.
 Faulting occurs when the rocks are brittle, unlike
with folding that have ductile rocks.
WHAT IS SUDDEN MOVEMENT?
 From the word itself, sudden movement is what
occurs when there is movement within the
tectonic plates. This results in volcanoes and
earthquakes.
 Underneath this category lies earthquakes and
volcanoes
 Earthquakes are natural disasters caused by the
stress caused by the movement of tectonic
plates.
 Volcanoes are formed by magma escaping
earth’s crust through volcanic vents or creating
volcanoes themselves.
LESSON 10: DEFORMATION OF THE
EARTH’S CRUST: THE INTERNAL
STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
Magma is a molten or semi-molten rocks beneath the
earth’s surface that the temperature ranges from 700C to
1300C.
WHAT IS DENSITY CONTRAST?
 Magma is less dense than the surrounding
country rock. Magma rises faster when the
density contrast between the magma and the
country rock is greater
 At deeper levels, magma passes through
mineral grain boundaries and cracks in the
surrounding rock. When enough mass and
buoyancy is attained, the overlying
surrounding rock is pushed aside as the
magma rises. Depending on surrounding
pressure and other factors, the magma can
be ejected to the Earth’s surface or rise at
shallower levels underneath.
 At shallower levels, magma may no longer
rise because its density is almost the same
as that of the country rock. The magma
starts to accumulate and slowly solidifies.
When the magma solidifies at depth, it can
form different types of plutonic bodies.
WHAT IS VISCOSITY?
 Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to
flow.
 Magmas with low viscosity flow more easily (like
water) than those with high viscosity (like
toothpaste).
 Low Viscosity flow more easily because
its molecular makeup results in very little
friction when it is in motion. While, High
Viscosity resists motion because its
molecular makeup gives it a lot of internal
friction.
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 Additionally, Viscosity is used by
volcanologist to predict volcanic eruptions.
When the magma is very thick (high
viscosity) and have high gas content it will
cause explosive eruptions.
 Temperature, silica content and volatile content
control the viscosity of magma.
WHAT IS MAFIC MAGMA?
 Is less viscous than Silicic (Felsic) magma
because it is hotter and contains less silica.
 Mafic magma is formed within the upper
mantle.
 Mafic Magma produces high volume, slow
moving, effusive eruptions
 Mafic Magma tends to produce volcanic cones
with gentle slopes, called shield volcanoes.
WHAT IS THE BOWEN’S REACTION SERIES?
 It describes the sequence of mineral
crystallization in a cooling magma.
 It helps geologists understand the relationship
between temperature and the mineral
composition of igneous rocks and predicts the
order that minerals melt.
 Through Bowen’s Reaction Series, it indicates
that mafic minerals form first, then silicate
minerals form after mafic minerals form.
a. Certain minerals are stable at higher
melting temperature and crystallize
before those stable at lower
temperatures.
 Minerals that form at higher temperatures are
found at the top of the series, while those
forming at lower temperatures are at the bottom.
This helps geologists understand the cooling
history of a particular igneous rock.
b. This series explain how minerals are
formed under different temperature
conditions, given that all the required
elements for certain minerals are
present.
 In order for a mineral crystal to grow, the
elements needed to make it must be present in
the appropriate proportions, the physical and
chemical conditions must be favorable, and
there must be sufficient time for the atoms to
become arranged.
 There are two branches, the discontinuous
and continuous branches which happen
simultaneously. The minerals in the
discontinuous branch include olivine,
pyroxene amphibole and biotite mica. In the
discontinuous branch, there is only
plagioclase, but the Calcium and Sodium
content changes from high temperature to low
temperature.
 Bowen found that in the discontinuous branch.
At a certain temperature a magma might
produce olivine, but if that same magma was
allowed to cool further, the olivine would "react"
with the residual magma, and change to the
next mineral on the series (in this case
pyroxene).
 A single “parental magma” can produce various
kinds of igneous rocks through magmatic
differentiation.
 When magma cools and solidifies beneath the
Earth’s surface, it forms intrusive igneous rocks
that takes thousands of years of cooling time
while Extrusive igneous rocks cool very quickly
on the earth’s surface.
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT MAGMATIC
DIFFERENTIATION PROCESSES?
MAGMATIC DIFFERENTIATION
 Is the process of creating one or more
secondary magmas from a single parent magma
due to cooling, crystallization, and other
geological processes within the Earth's crust,
contributing to the variety of igneous rocks.
CRYSTAL FRACTIONATION
 A chemical process by which the composition of
a liquid, such as magma, changes due to
crystallization. Common mechanism for crystal
fractionation is crystal settling. This means that
denser minerals crystallize first and settle down
while the lighter minerals crystallize at the latter
stages.
 The Crystals are removed from the melt and
settle at the bottom of the system due to the fact
that they are denser than the liquid, thus due to
gravity they will sink and get to be accumulated
at the bottom layer. But if the formed crystals
are less dense than the melt, they will rather
float in this case
PARTIAL MELTING
 As described in Bowen’s reaction series, quartz
and muscovite are basically the most stable
minerals at the Earth’s surface, making them the
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first ones to melt from the parent rock once

exposed in higher temperature and/or pressure.

 During partial melting, the liquid differs from the

source rock and from coexisting residual LESSON 11: ENDOGENIC PROCESS –
minerals in composition and in physical METAMORPHIC ROCK
properties such as density and viscosity.

WHAT ARE METAMORPHIC ROCKS?

MAGMA MIXING
 This may occur when two different magma rises
up, with the more buoyant mass overtakes the
more slowly rising body. Convective flow then
mixes the two magmas, generating a single,
intermediate (between the two parent magmas).
Relationship of the different igneous rock types and the
environment of formation:
a. Basalt and basaltic magma
 Basalt
- a dark volcanic rock rich in iron and
magnesium, commonly found in
volcanic regions.
 Basaltic Magma
- Form when hot rocks in the earth’s
mantle slowly rise and encounter lower
pressures.
- This leads to decompression melting
(melting due to reduced pressures).
Forming basaltic magma, it cools and
solidifies it creates basalt.
b. Rhyolite and Rhyolitic magma
 Rhyolite
- Is silica-rich magma that is extruded
from a volcanic vent and cools rapidly
on the surface rather than slowly
underneath.
 Rhyolitic Magma
- Is formed by either (1) melting of mantle
fluxed by water and sediments carried
into the mantle in subduction zones;
and or (2) interaction of mantle derived
basaltic magmas with continental crust.
- The magma is highly viscous with
relatively high silica, low iron and high
volatile (H2O) contents.
 Formed through the alteration of pre-existing
rocks (protoliths) due to changes in
temperature, pressure, or the presence of
chemically active fluids.
 Metamorphic rocks started out as some other
type of rock, but have been substantially
changed from their original igneous,
sedimentary, or earlier metamorphic form.
 Happens when rocks are exposed to high heat,
high pressure, or hot mineral-rich fluid.
 Usually happens in temperatures above 150°C,
but metamorphism do occur at temperatures
lower than those at which the parent rock
formed.
WHAT ARE THE KEY FEATURES OF METAMORPHIC
ROCKS?
MINERALOGICAL CHANGES
 Metamorphic rocks exhibit changes in mineral
composition compared to their parent rocks
(protoliths). New minerals, known as index
minerals, may form under specific temperature
and pressure conditions
RECRYSTALLIZATION
 The process by which minerals in the rock
undergo rearrangement and grow into new,
stable crystals
 It often leads to the obliteration of the original
texture of the protolith.
PRESENCE OF FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS
 Slates exhibits a well-developed cleavage,
typically formed from the metamorphism of
shale.

c. Andesite and Andesitic magma

 Andesite
- Is an extrusive igneous rock with a
mineral composition between granite
and basalt.

 Andesitic Magma
- May be formed in a variety of ways:
some are formed when water and
sediments on the ocean floor are  Schist displays visible mineral grains, often rich
pushed into the mantle along
in mica or chlorite.
subduction zones, leading to melting in
the mantle.
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metamorphism, while chlorite may indicate

lower-grade conditions.

WHAT ARE THE TEXTURAL CHANGES IN ROCKS

 Gneiss exhibits alternating layers of light and
dark minerals, resulting in a banded
appearance.
THAT ARE SUBJECTED TO METAMORPHISM?
WHAT IS METAMORPHISM?
 Is the recrystallization of minerals in rocks due
to a change in pressure and temperature
conditions.

There are three (3) basic types of metamorphic

environments
[[[[
a. Regional Metamorphism - occurs when parent
rock is subjected to increased temperature and
pressure over a large area, and is often located
in mountain ranges created by converging
continental crustal plates.

b. Contact metamorphism - Contact metamorphism

 Metamorphic rocks are generally harder than occurs when rocks are subjected to high
their parent rocks due to the recrystallization temperatures and pressure due to contact with
and compaction of minerals. They may exhibit molten magma. This type of metamorphism is
increased resistance to weathering and erosion typically localized around igneous intrusions

HARDNESS AND RESISTANCE c. Dynamic (Cataclastic) metamorphism - Dynamic

 Metamorphic rocks are generally harder than
their parent rocks due to the recrystallization
and compaction of minerals.
 They may exhibit increased resistance to
weathering and erosion
WHAT IS THE INDEX MINERALS FOR METAMORPHIC
ROCKS?
 They are specific minerals that form under
certain conditions when rocks undergo
significant changes.
 These minerals act as indicators, leaving clues
for geologists about the intense processes the
rock has experienced during metamorphism.
a. Minerals become unstable and change into
another mineral without necessarily a
compositional change in response to heat,
pressure, and chemically active fluids.
Examples include diamond and coal
wherein only the mineral structure is
affected.
metamorphism, also known as cataclastic
metamorphism, occurs due to intense
mechanical deformation along fault zones or
other areas of significant rock movement.
Most metamorphic textures involve foliation which is
caused by differential stress.
WHAT IS DIFFERENTIAL STRESS?
 Is formed when the pressure applied to a rock at
depth is not equal in all directions.
 Differential stresses are generated by the
movement of lithospheric plates. Stress
indicates a type of force acting on rock.
 Differential stress occurs at much lower
pressures and does not generate chemical
reactions that change mineral composition and
atomic structure

b. The mineral composition of the resulting

metamorphic rock is influence by: the
mineral composition of the original rock, the
composition of fluid phase that was present
and the attained pressure and temperature
during metamorphism. The type of minerals
present in the original rock (protolith) plays
a significant role in determining which
Effects of differential stress in the rock’s texture if present
minerals might form during metamorphism
during metamorphism include:
i. Rounded grains can become flattened in the
c. Certain minerals identified as index direction of the maximum compressional stress.
minerals are good indicators of the
metamorphic environment or zone of
regional metamorphism in which these
minerals are formed. For example, garnet is
commonly associated with high-grade
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Metamorphic comes from the Greek words: Meta –

i. Minerals that crystallize or grow in the “Change” and Morph – “form”
differential stress field may develop a preferred
orientation.

WHAT IS FOLIATION?
 "Foliation" comes from the word comes from the
Latin folium, meaning "leaf", and refers to the
sheet-like planar structure is a word we use to
describe rocks that look like they have layers.
 It happens when certain minerals, especially
ones like mica that are naturally flat, line up next
to each other.
 Foliation in geology refers to repetitive layering
in metamorphic rocks. Each layer can be as thin
as a sheet of paper, or over a meter in
thickness.

a. Metamorphic rocks are like groups of small

crystals joined together. As these rocks
undergo more changes, the crystals inside
them tend to get larger. But as the changes
become more intense (these minerals start
feeling uneasy, and new minerals begin to
appear. When the metamorphism reaches
its peak, the original minerals can't handle
the pressure anymore—they become
unstable. At this point, not many minerals
are left that like to line up neatly.
Everything becomes a bit messy, like a mix
of different-sized crystals without a clear
order.

WHAT ARE NON-FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS?

 Non-foliated metamorphic rocks are a type of
metamorphic rock that does not exhibit a
layered or banded structure, known as foliation.
Non-foliated metamorphic rocks are typically
composed of just one mineral, and therefore,
usually show the effects of metamorphism with
recrystallization in which crystals grow together,
but with no preferred direction. Non-foliated
metamorphic rocks are generally of two types
a. Those made up of mainly one mineral like
quartzite (from medium- to high-grade
metamorphism of quartz-rich sandstone)

b.
Marble (from low- to high-grade metamorphism
of limestone or dolostone), and those in which
the different mineral grains are too small for the
naked eye, such as hornfels
Two Types of Metamorphic Rocks
a. Foliates
b. Non-foliates

Agents of Metamorphism
a. Temperature
b. Pressure, or the
c. Presence of chemically active fluids.