Earth and Life Science

Grade 11/12 • Unit 8: Plate Tectonics

LESSON 8.1
Evolution of Continental Drift Hypothesis
Table of Contents

Introduction 1

Learning Competency 2

Learning Objectives 2

Warm-Up 2

Learn about It 3
The Birth of the Continental Drift Hypothesis 3
Evidence Supporting the Continental Drift Hypothesis 5
Continental Fit 5
Fossil Evidence 6
Similarity of Rock Types and Mountain Ranges 7
Glacial Evidence 8
Plate Tectonics Theory 10
Evidence Supporting the Plate Tectonic Theory 11
Ocean Drilling 11
Hotspots 12
Paleomagnetism 12
Apparent Polar Wandering 13
Mechanism of Plate Motion 13

Key Points 16

Check Your Understanding 17

Bibliography 18
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Grade 11/12 • Unit 8: Plate Tectonics

Lesson 8.1
Evolution of Continental Drift
Hypothesis

Maps of the world can focus on either political features or physical features.

Introduction
What did you notice about the shape of the continents on the world map? Did you also
notice how some continents like South America and Africa fit perfectly with each other like a
jigsaw puzzle? If you thought so, you might consider exploring this observation through the
continental drift hypothesis. This hypothesis suggests that continents were originally
connected with each other and then drifted apart. What causes continental drift? What
are the pieces of evidence that support this hypothesis?

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Learning Competency
At the end of this lesson, the given enabling competency should be met by the
students.
Explain the continental drift theory.

Learning Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to do the following:
● Explain how the continents drift.
● Cite pieces of evidence that support continental drift.
● Explain plate tectonics as a unifying theory.

Warm-Up

Let’s Connect Them All

Materials
● puzzle pieces printouts
● scissors
● coloring materials

Procedure
1. Download and print the puzzle pieces from the link below.

● Wegener’s Puzzling Evidence

US Geological Survey. 2008. ‘Fossil Evidence.’
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1VgXoBFsXrMCeRJYMF7p0X
WPGwjWh0An_/view?usp=sharing.

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2. Cut out the following puzzle pieces.

3. Color the path area of the fossil areas. Please take note that you will use a different
color coding for each fossil: yellow for Glossopteris, green for European Flora, red for
Mesosaurus, blue for Cynognathus, and orange for Lystrosaurus.
4. Connect each puzzle piece to form the complete picture.
5. Answer the given guide questions.

Guide Questions
1. How can fossil records be utilized to determine the history of continental plates?
2. What does this activity suggest regarding the position of the landmass millions of
years ago? Cite evidence to support your answer.

Learn about It
During the early times, the prior knowledge of most geologists is that all continents and
ocean basins are in fixed positions. However, less than a decade after the 1960s, this idea
was changed due to technological advances which led to the discovery that Earth’s
continents are gradually moving resulting in the collision of continental blocks, splitting
apart of landmasses, and continuous creation and destruction of oceanic basins.

Essential Question
How did the continental drift hypothesis come about? Who is its
proponent?

The Birth of the Continental Drift Hypothesis

The scientific revolution, which involved the shift in the conception of the position and
movement of continents, started in the early 20th century as a proposal called the
continental drift hypothesis. Nevertheless, this idea was not readily accepted because of
some scientific concerns. For more than 50 years, the idea of moving continents has been
rejected by the scientific community.

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Fig. 1. Alfred Wegener (1881–1930)

The continental drift hypothesis was proposed by German meteorologist Alfred Wegener.
In 1915, he wrote The Origin of Continents and Oceans that contains the continental drift
hypothesis.

Fig. 2. The breakup of Pangea

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This idea was believed to be a product of Wegener’s observation during his expedition in
Greenland where he observed the breakup of ice in the sea. The continental drift hypothesis
states that all known landmasses on Earth were once joined in one supercontinent known
as Pangaea (meaning “all-lands”). It is surrounded by a huge ocean known as Panthalassa.
Wegener added that this supercontinent began to break into smaller land masses about 200
million years ago which is composed of Laurasia and Gondwanaland. The northern
supercontinent was the Laurasia which is the origin of North America and Eurasia except
India. On the other hand, the southern supercontinent Gondwanaland was previously
composed of South America, Africa, Australia, India, and Antarctica. Through time, Laurasia
and Gondwanaland broke into smaller land masses which gradually drifted to their present
positions in a span of millions of years.

Essential Question
What are the pieces of evidence that support the continental drift
hypothesis?

Evidence Supporting the Continental Drift Hypothesis

Wegener along with those people who supported his hypothesis collected and presented
several pieces of evidence to prove their idea. These pieces of evidence are continental fit,
fossil evidence, the similarity of rock types and mountain ranges, and glacial
evidence.

Continental Fit
Even before Wegener’s hypothesis, several people already noticed that some continents
remarkably fit, especially Africa and South America. Wegener noticed this pattern on the
coastlines of opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean. His claim was challenged by other
scientists because he used the present-day coastlines which are regularly changed by
erosional and depositional processes. Scientists later on determined that the use of the
seaward edge of the continental shelf as a continent’s boundary is the better way to
estimate the fit between continents.

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Fig. 3. The continents of South America and Africa fit like a jigsaw puzzle.

Fossil Evidence
Wegener’s pursuit of evidence for the continental drift hypothesis was strengthened when
he learned that similar fossil remains of organisms were found from both South America
and Africa. He thinks that there was some sort of land connection needed to explain the
similarity of life forms in widely separated continents. To prove his point, he recorded cases
wherein fossil organisms were found in a separate landmass. These fossils included
Glossopteris, European flora, Mesosaurus, Lystrosaurus, and Cynognathus.

Alfred Wegener cited the presence of “seed fern” fossils known as Glossopteris in Africa,
Australia, India, South America, and was later on recorded in Antarctica. Glossopteris
contains large seeds and leaves, hence, it's impossible that it could be carried by wind to
different continents that are greatly separated from one another. In addition, fossils of
European flora that were found to exist millions of years ago were found outside the
European continent.

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Fig. 4. Evidence of matching fossils

Mesosaurus is an aquatic fish-catching reptile found in black shales from eastern South
America and southwestern Africa was dated to be about 260 million years old. According to
Wegener, this is one of the confirmations that South America and Africa were once part of a
large landmass. Moreover, Lystrosaurus, a mammal-like herbivorous land-dwelling reptile
was found in Africa, India, and Antarctica. Lastly, Cynognathus, an advanced therapsid which
is a mammal-like land reptile, was also found in South America and Africa. This evidence
further supports the claim that current continents were once part of a bigger landmass.

Similarity of Rock Types and Mountain Ranges

Another evidence that Wegener found is the presence of 2.2-billion-year-old igneous rocks
in Brazil that is similar to the rocks found in Africa. Also, the characteristics of rocks in the
Appalachian mountain range in North America are similar to some of the mountains found
in the Alps mountain range in Europe including mountains in the British Isles and
Caledonian mountains in Scandinavia. Interestingly, these mountains could form a
continuous mountain belt.

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Fig. 5. Evidence of similar rock types and features

In line with this, Alexander du Toit, a South African geologist, further supported the
hypothesis of Wegener through additional geological evidence. He joined together the
landmasses comprising Gondwanaland and found similarities among the Andes mountain
range in South America and mountains of South Africa, Antarctica, and Australia. He thinks
that these mountain ranges were once part of a bigger structure in Gondwanaland and
named it as Samfrau mountain belt.

Glacial Evidence
Wegener learned that there was evidence showing the presence of a glacial period dated
about 300 million years ago in South Africa, South America, Australia, and India. This was
indicated by the presence of glacial striation and tillites. It means that during that time, ice
sheets cover huge areas in the Southern Hemisphere. Most of the areas found to have
glaciation in the past were located in subtropical or tropical climates today.

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Fig. 6. Paleoclimatic evidence

Additionally, fossils of coal seams were found in Antarctica yet this fossil could only exist in
tropical regions. This suggests that Antarctica was once located near the tropics.

Wegener’s proposal encountered a great deal of open criticism especially when his book
was translated into other languages. His inability to identify a credible mechanism for
how continents move is one of the main flaws that resulted in these criticisms. Wegener
suggested that the drifting of the continents was an effect of the tidal force. This idea was
opposed by Harold Jeffreys because the force needed to displace the continents through
this mechanism is enough to affect or even stop Earth’s rotation after a few years. In
addition, Wegener also incorrectly explained that larger and sturdier continents broke
through the thinner oceanic crust, but there was no scientific evidence that this is
possible. In addition, it also violated the principles of rock strengths which was a
well-known concept at that time. Wegener’s hypothesis is not enough to change the
established scientific views during his time as it contains several incorrect concepts.

In the emergence of modern instruments after World War II and with the cooperation of
different researchers and geoscientists, information about the features and tectonic
activities in the seafloor gradually emerged. In 1962, Harry Hess proposed the seafloor

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spreading hypothesis which suggested that the seafloor is moving away from the ridge
which is driven by mantle convection. There is a separate lesson that discusses this
hypothesis in detail.

Essential Question
Why is plate tectonics theory considered a unifying theory explaining the
known position of the continents and ocean floor?

Plate Tectonics Theory

With advances in instruments, as well as ocean exploration, a more comprehensive
explanation of the movement of continent and ocean floor, which is now known as the
theory of plate tectonics was conceived. According to plate tectonics theory, the
lithosphere (includes the uppermost mantle and the overlying crust) behaves as a strong,
rigid layer that is broken into segments known as plates.

The lithosphere is thinnest in the ocean which varies from a few kilometers and may reach
up to 100 kilometers. On the other hand, the lithosphere found in continents is generally
thicker than 100 kilometers and may even reach up to 200-300 kilometers in depth.
Underlying the lithosphere is a weak region in the mantle known as the asthenosphere
wherein the rocks are found to be very near the melting point thus making the layer ductile
and highly viscous. This characteristic of the asthenosphere permits the lithosphere above
to move as a separate component.

The lithosphere is broken into several irregularly-shaped segments called lithospheric

plates or tectonic plates that are in constant motion with respect to each other. Although
there are about two dozen lithospheric plates, there are only seven major plates which
include North America, South American, Pacific, African, Eurasian, Australian-Indian,
and Antarctic plates. There are also intermediate-sized plates which include the Caribbean,
Nazca, Philippine, Arabian, Cocos, Scotia, and Juan de Fuca plates. It is important to note
that these plates also include the ocean floor and are not only limited to continental
boundaries.

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Fig. 7. Lithospheric plates

Although the evidence for the continental drift hypothesis is compelling, it is still recognized
and supported by other scientists. As mentioned before, Wegener’s hypothesis was
opposed due to the presence of scientifically incorrect concepts. The proposal of a new
scientific model about Earth, which is the theory of plate tectonics, provided a more
detailed explanation of numerous geological events and the creation of geological
formations. The following paragraphs describe the pieces of evidence supporting plate
tectonics theory.

Evidence Supporting the Plate Tectonic Theory

Ocean Drilling
The Deep Sea Drilling Project, which operated from 1968 to 1983, was used to collect data
from the seafloor to establish its age and determine the processes involved in the
development of ocean basins.. This was spearheaded by Maurice Ewing together with Bruce

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Heezen and Marie Tharp. They mapped the ocean floor where they found the presence of
oceanic ridge and other features of the ocean topography. The data obtained from the Deep
Sea Drilling project showed that the ocean floor increases in age as it moves farther away
from the ridge crest which supports the seafloor spreading hypothesis.

Hotspots
Radiometric dating of the Hawaiian Island-Emperor Seamount chain proves that
volcanoes increase in age as they move away from the hot spot. A hot spot is an area of
volcanism, high heat flow, and crustal uplifting caused by the upwelling of hot rock known
as a mantle plume. The case of volcanic chains formed in Hawaii is one compelling
evidence that the plates are moving. As the Pacific plate moved over the hotspot, a chain of
volcanic structures was formed which also reflects how much time has passed since it was
situated above the mantle plume.

Fig. 8. Movement of the Pacific plate over a hotspot

Paleomagnetism
Paleomagnetism is the study of magnetism of ancient rocks. Magnetite is a
naturally-occurring magnetic mineral which is rich in iron and commonly found in basaltic
lava flows. These magnetite grains are initially nonmagnetic, caused by the extreme
temperature of lavas once they erupted at the surface. However, once it cooled down and

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reached about 580°C, the grains became magnetized and aligned themselves based on
Earth’s current magnetic field. This magnetism remains as the lava starts to solidify and can
be used to identify the position of the magnetic poles at the time of their formation. Several
paleomagnetic data were collected in rocks to determine the direction of the magnetic poles
at a specific time.

Apparent Polar Wandering

Data from the paleomagnetism of rocks in Europe and North America showed that there
was an apparent change in the position of magnetic poles over time. Based on Figure 9, it
can be observed that for the past 500 million years the magnetic pole in North America and
Eurasia seems to change its position. Nevertheless, it is impossible that there is a varying
magnetic pole in each continent. Rather, there is a fixed position of the magnetic pole, and
the continents together with the magnetized rocks are those that move. Plates move an
average of a few centimeters per year which can be compared to the growth of human
fingernails.

Fig. 9. Apparent polar wandering

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Mechanism of Plate Motion

There are different forces that drive the motion of tectonic plates. Remember in the past
units that although the mantle is composed of solid rock, it is hot, ductile, and weak making
it capable of fluid-like behavior making it possible to facilitate convection. Mantle
convection is driven by a combination of three thermal processes: (1) heating at the
bottom caused by the heat loss from Earth’s core; (2) heating due to radioactive decay
and; (3) cooling on the surface creating thick, cold lithospheric slabs denser than the
mantle. There are two models of plate-mantle convection proposed to explain the
mechanism of plate motion.

Some researchers proposed that the mantle is divided into two zones of convection which is
a thin layer in the upper mantle at a depth of 660 kilometers and a thick layer located below.
This model is known as the “layer cake” model.

Fig. 10. “Layer cake” convection model

Other researchers support the whole mantle convection where denser oceanic
lithosphere sinks and may even reach the core-mantle boundary. This material eventually
melts and rises toward the surface of Earth.

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Fig. 11. Whole mantle convection model

Aside from this heat-driven movement of plates, some geologists also believe that there are
also gravity-driven mechanisms referred to as “slab pull” and “ridge push” (shown in Fig.
12). It is important to note that these mechanisms go hand in hand and even if it is
governed by gravity, it still depends on the temperature differences of Earth’s interior.

Fig. 12. Slab-pull and ridge-push mechanisms

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Ridge push is the force that causes warm and less dense material to force itself up through
a ridge. On the other hand, slab pull is a pulling force which causes the oceanic plates to
move downward at subduction zones due to differences in density as well as the effect of
gravity. These models are still being developed and may still be improved to further explain
the mechanism but the concept which states that the plate-mantle motion is caused by a
type of thermal convection caused by the unequal distribution of heat within Earth is a
generally accepted fact.

Did You Know?

Aside from being a geophysicist, Alfred Wegener is also a meteorologist.
He pioneered the study of air movements using a weather balloon
together with his brother Kurt. Their weather balloon had the longest
continuous flight of 52.5 hours.

Key Points

● Alfred Wegener proposed the continental drift hypothesis using several pieces of
evidence such as similar fossils, continental fit, similar rock types, and glacial
evidence.
● The continental drift hypothesis proposed that known landmasses were once
joined in one supercontinent known as Pangaea (meaning “all-lands”) and began to
break into smaller land masses about 200 million years ago.
● The seafloor spreading hypothesis suggested that seafloor is moving away from
the ridge which is driven by mantle convection.
● Plate tectonics combines the idea of continental drift and seafloor spreading,
stating that Earth is divided into several lithospheric plates that move relative to each
other. It is supported by data obtained from ocean drilling projects,
paleomagnetism, and apparent polar wandering.
● Mantle convection is the rising of warm material and sinking of cold material in the

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mantle. There are two models of the mantle known as the layer cake model and
whole mantle convection.
● The gravity-driven mechanism includes slab pull and ridge push. Slab pull is the
force which causes the oceanic plates to move downward at subduction zones.
Meanwhile, ridge push is the force that causes warm and less dense material to force
itself up through a ridge.

Check Your Understanding

A. Identify which among the given set of words does not belong to the group. Encircle
the word of your choice. Then provide one to two sentences to explain your choice.

No. A B C

1 Cynognathus Mesosaurus Glossopteris

2 Tethys Laurasia Gondwanaland

3 Arabia Africa Antarctic

4 ancient climate magnetic reversal geologic fit

5 ocean drilling hotspot fossil evidence

6 Pacific Nazca Cocos

7 convection slab pull ridge push

8 Alexander du Toit Harold Jeffreys Alfred Wegener

9 layer cake whole mantle subduction

10 rock similarity paleomagnetism hotspot

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B. Identify which term is described in each statement.

1. It is the mineral found in lava which helps in mapping the magnetic orientation
of the ocean seafloor.
2. This proposes that the mantle is composed of a thick and thin convection layer.
3. It is the theory which states that the lithosphere is broken into smaller
fragments.
4. It is the upwelling of extremely hot molten material from the mantle.
5. These pair continents fit together like in a jigsaw puzzle.
6. This evidence explains that the area in the polar region was initially found in the
tropical region.
7. It is the ocean that surrounds Pangaea.
8. The fossil of this aquatic fish-catching reptile was used to support the
continental drift hypothesis.
9. This area has an active hotspot which is also the reason for the existence of
numerous volcanoes in this place.
10. It is the pulling force which causes the oceanic plates to move downward at
subduction zones due to differences in density as well as the effect of gravity.

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Bibliography

Carlson, Diane H. and Charles C. Plummer. 2009. Physical Geology: Earth Revealed, 8th Edition.
New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Coenraads, Robert R. 2005. Rocks & Fossils: A Visual Guide. Australia: Weldon Owen Inc.
Hamblin, W. Kenneth and Eric H. Christiansen. 2003. Earth’s Dynamic Systems, 10th
Edition.New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Monroe, James S. and Reed Wicander. 2012. The Changing Earth: Exploring Geology and
Evolution, 6th Edition, International Edition. United States: Brooks Cole Publishing.

Reynolds, Stephen J. et al. 2013. Exploring Geology, 3rd Edition. United States: McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc.

Tarbuck, Edward J. and Frederick J. Lutgens. 2015. Earth Science. New Jersey: Pearson
Prentice Hall.

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