MODULE 4

DEVICES:-

What is device and example?

“A device can be any electronic element with some computing ability that
supports the installation of firmware or third-party software.” Your computer
speakers, disk drive, printer, microphone, modem, and mouse are examples
of devices.

KEY BOARDS AND KEY PADS:

What Is a Keyboard?

Unless you’ve never used a laptop or keyboard before, you’re already well-
acquainted with the keyboard. Whether it be the keyboard on your laptop,
a traditional keyboard that plugs into your computer’s usb port (for those
who use desktops), or a more ergonomic keyboard product designed to
reduce common wrist injuries and offer a more streamlined experience,
you already use a keyboard for day-to-day tasks in your professional life.
Keyboards are great for typing long documents, but when it comes to
number crunching, they’re not the best option out there. Keyboards
feature numbers on a top row of the keyboard, and also some have
numbers on the right side of the keyboard that share a key with a letter
key and are engaged with Num Lock. Some keyboards also feature a built
in keypad on the right side of the device. But a built in numeric keypad
isn’t always the best option for your keyboard. This is where numeric
keypads come in.

What Is a Numeric Keypad?

An external numeric keypad, on the other hand, is a piece of tech

featuring all of the essential number keys as well as additional keys that
many might need to have quick access to (enter, backspace, +,-, etc.).
Numeric keypads remove the difficulty of having to access numbers via a
traditional keyboard and allow for faster input with a dedicated number
pad that’s much easier to operate in comparison.

What Are the Benefits of a Numeric Keypad?

Making the decision to use a numeric keypad instead of continuing to rely
on your keyboard for numeric data entry comes with a host of benefits.
Some of the most notable benefits include:
 A keyboard without a built-in numeric keypad means you can mouse
closer to your keyboard as you work on various projects. Why is this
important? This setup reduces the possibility of musculoskeletal
impingements that can be caused by mousing too far away from your
keyboard, which can happen when the keyboard is too long causing a
user to have to mouse further away. It may not seem like a big change
in the beginning, but compounded movements all day, every day, can
cause pains over time. This is why an external keypad separate from
your keyboard is key.
 Speaking of positioning, a numeric keypad is an easier product to use.
During your regular business activities, you have your keyboard and
your mouse next to each other. Adding a keypad is as simple as
keeping it plugged in and above your mouse on your desk. When you
need it to crunch numbers, you simply move your mouse over, pull
your numeric keypad down to where you can easily access it, and get
to work with a tool designed specifically for your numeric data needs.
 While lightweight keys and quiet operation are a big selling point for
today’s workers, those engaging in data entry want to have the peace
of mind they need knowing that all the work they’re doing is being
properly logged. Numeric keypads offer this by incorporating
mechanical keys into their design. Mechanical keys have switches
 instead of rubber, which means that you feel the feedback each time
you punch in numbers .

KEYBOARD LAYOUTS:

Function Keys on keyboard

If you are daily user of computer or laptop, then you should know about functions
of functions keys present on keyboard. They are very important nowadays.
Function Keys are keys on keyboard which cause operating system to command
interpreter or an application to perform certain actions on the screen. There are 12
keys on the keyboard from F1 to F12. All keys are having different functions to
perform. If you are using Laptop then you have to press Fn key along with other
keys from F1 to F12 for use.
How to enable Fn Keys to use with Function Keys ?
Start laptop, then go to Bios setting and then move your cursor to system
configuration. You will find option of Actions Key Mode and on same screen, you
will get information about how to disable or enable Fn Key. If you will not enable
Fn key, then also function keys will work but not in manner they are made to. So,
enabling Fn Key is good idea, and pressing Fn Key with function keys will work
better together.
Keys from F1 to F12 are also known as Action Keys. One by one, we will get to
know about functions of these keys.

Key Function

This key is used to open help center. If you are using

keyboard of your computer, then only pressing F1 will work,
but if you are using your laptop keyboard then pressing
F1
Function key (FN) with F1 will open help center. With this
help center, if you want to know about any software or
application or anything you can get help from there.

This key is used to rename folder or file. If you want to

change name of folder, then you don’t have to right-click on
F2 it, and then find rename option. You can simply click F2, and
it will work properly. This function key will save time of
use.
Key Function

This key is used to search application on computer or laptop.

If you are doing it on your laptop, then pressing function key
(FN) and F3 together will work. It will take you to search box
F3
where you can search application. Another use of F3 is that if
you want to search text while using web browser, then also
this key is used to search text.

This key does not work alone. Pressing only F4 will not work
whether it is on computer or laptop. Pressing Alt + F4
F4 together works to close current application which is open on
screen. Also, pressing both keys together while on desktop
screen, then there shut down, restart option appears.

This key is used to refresh screen. When you want to refresh

screen, you have to go to desktop screen and then click
F5 refresh button, but F5 will simply do this work. Going to web
browser, you want to refresh that website or that screen, F5
will refresh that. This will save time of user.

This key is used to decrease volume if you are using this on

F6 laptop. If you are searching on web browser, and want to jump
to any URL, then F6 will work.

This key is used basically in MS Office apps like powerpoint,

F7
excel to find grammar mistakes in it.

This key is used to go in safe mode. For example, if you are

starting your laptop, then pressing F8 there will help you to
F8
go in safe mode. If you are using this key on Word, then all
text in Word will be selected.

This key alone has no work in Windows. It is basically used in

F9
MS Word with Alt and Shift.

This key also does not have any use in Windows. It is used in
F10 MS Word with Shift. Pressing these both keys together,
shortcut menu appears on screen.

This key is used for full screen. If you want to use your
F11 browser then open that browser and press F11, for full-screen
mode and can be get back to original screen by pressing ESC.
Key Function

When pressed, without FN key on laptop, then laptop will go in

flight mode. This key basically does not have any use on
F12
computers. It is used in MS Word. When pressed, it
automatically shows dialog box to save file.

ACCESSIBLE TEXT ENTRY:-

Labels need to describe the purpose of the form control. This section of the
tutorial describes how to provide labels that are properly associated with
form controls. Later sections explain how to provide instructions, validate
user input, and provide feedback to help users complete your form.

A label and a form control should be associated with each other either
implicitly or explicitly. Web browsers provide the label as a larger clickable
area, for example, to select or activate the control. It also ensures that
assistive technology can refer to the correct label when presenting a form
control.

Associating labels explicitly

Whenever possible, use the label element to associate text with form
elements explicitly. The for attribute of the label must exactly match
the id of the form control.

Example
窗体顶端
First name:
Subscribe to newsletter
窗体底端
Code Snippet
<label for="firstname">First name:</label><input type="text"
name="firstname" id="firstname"><br>
<input type="checkbox" name="subscribe" id="subscribe"><label
for="subscribe">Subscribe to newsletter</label>

Hiding label text

A label for a form control helps everyone better understand its purpose. In
some cases, the purpose may be clear enough from the context when the
content is rendered visually. The label can be hidden visually, though it still
needs to be provided within the code to support other forms of presentation
and interaction, such as for screen reader and speech input users. The
method used in this tutorial to hide an element visually but make it
available for assistive technologies is explained in Note on hiding element.

In the example below, the search field is positioned directly beside the
search button. The purpose of the text input field is evident from the
context in most situations.

Example
窗体顶端
Search: Search
窗体底端

Hiding the label element

In this approach, the <label> element is provided to identify a form control

within the code, but it is visually hidden to avoid redundancy for users who
can derive the purpose from the visual cues.

Code Snippet
<label for="search" class="visuallyhidden">Search: </label><input
type="text" name="search" id="search"><button
type="submit">Search</button>

Using aria-label

The aria-label attribute can also be used to identify form controls. This
approach is well supported by screen readers and other assistive technology,
but, unlike the title attribute (see below), the information is not conveyed
to visual users. The approach should therefore only be used when the label
of the control is clear from the surrounding content, like the button in the
example below.

Code Snippet
<input type="text" name="search" aria-label="Search"><button
type="submit">Search</button>

Using aria-labelledby

The aria-labelledby attribute can also be used to identify form controls.

This approach is well supported by screen readers and other assistive
technology, but, unlike the title attribute (see below), the information is
not conveyed to visual users. The approach should therefore only be used
when the label of the control is clear from the surrounding content, like the
button in the example below.

The id of the element containing the label text is used as the value of
the aria-labelledby attribute.
Code Snippet
<input type="text" name="search" aria-
labelledby="searchbutton"><button id="searchbutton"
type="submit">Search</button>

Using the title attribute

The title attribute can also be used to identify form controls. This
approach is generally less reliable and not recommended because some
screen readers and assistive technologies do not interpret
the title attribute as a replacement for the label element, possibly
because the title attribute is often used to provide non-essential
information. The information of the title attribute is shown to visual users
as a tool tip when hovering over the form field with the mouse.

Example
窗体顶端
Search
窗体底端
Code Snippet
<input title="Search" type="text" name="search"><button
type="submit">Search</button>

Note on hiding elements

Screen readers and other assistive technology, just as web browsers, hide
elements from their users when they are styled using display:
none; and visibility: hidden;.

The common approach used to hide information visually but keep them
available to screen reader and other assistive technology users is to use CSS
that will keep the information technically visible but practically hidden. For
example, presenting the label in a 1-by-1 pixel area, as demonstrated with
the CSS class visually hidden

Code Snippet
.visuallyhidden {
border: 0;
clip: rect(0 0 0 0);
height: 1px;
margin: -1px;
overflow: hidden;
padding: 0;
position: absolute;
width: 1px;}

Note that interactive elements are still active when using this code, so it is
not suitable to hide other parts of forms but the labels.

Associating labels implicitly

In some situations, form controls cannot be labeled explicitly. For example,
a content author might not know the id of a form field generated by a
script, or that script might not add an id at all. In this case,
the label element is used as a container for both the form control and the
label text, so that the two are associated implicitly. Generally, explicit
labels are better supported by assistive technology.

Code Snippet
<label>
First name:
<input type="text" name="firstname"></label><br><label>
<input type="checkbox" name="subscribe">
Subscribe to newsletter</label>

Labeling buttons
The label of a <button> element is set inside the element and can include
markup. This allows more advanced accessibility hints to be included, like
marking up language change. When using the <input> element to create
buttons, the label is set in the value attribute of the element.

Example
<button type="submit">Submit</button><button
type="button">Cancel</button>
<input type="submit" value="Submit"><input type="button"
value="Cancel">.

Every text field expects a certain type of text input, such as an email address,
phone number, or plain text. You must specify the input type for each text field
in your app so the system displays the appropriate soft input method, such as
an on-screen keyboard.

Beyond the type of buttons available with an input method, you can specify
behaviors such as whether the input method provides spelling suggestions,
capitalizes new sentences, and replaces the carriage return button with an
action button such as Done or Next. This page shows how to specify these
characteristics.

MOBILE TEXT ENTRY:-

Specify the keyboard type
Always declare the input method for your text fields by adding
the android:inputType attribute to the <EditText> element.
 Figure 1. The phone input
type.

For example, if you want an input method for entering a phone number, use
the "phone" value:

<EditText
android:id="@+id/phone"
android:layout_width="fill_parent"
android:layout_height="wrap_content"
android:hint="@string/phone_hint"
android:inputType="phone" />

Figure
2. The textPassword input type.

If the text field is for a password, use the "textPassword" value so the text field
conceals the user's input:

<EditText
android:id="@+id/password"
android:hint="@string/password_hint"
android:inputType="textPassword"
... />

There are several possible values documented with

the android:inputType attribute, and you can combine some of the values to
specify the input method appearance and additional behaviors.
Enable spelling suggestions and other
behaviors

Figure
3. Adding textAutoCorrect provides auto-correction for misspellings.

The android:inputType attribute lets you specify various behaviors for the input
method. Most importantly, if your text field is intended for basic text input—
such as for a text message—enable auto spelling correction with
the "textAutoCorrect" value.

You can combine different behaviors and input method styles with
the android:inputType attribute. For example, here's how to create a text field that
capitalizes the first word of a sentence and also auto-corrects misspellings:

<EditText
android:id="@+id/message"
android:layout_width="wrap_content"
android:layout_height="wrap_content"
android:inputType=
"textCapSentences|textAutoCorrect"
... />

Specify the input method action

Most soft input methods provide a user action button in the bottom corner
that's appropriate for the current text field. By default, the system uses this
button for either a Next or Done action unless your text field supports multi-
line text—such as with android:inputType="textMultiLine"—in which case the action
button is a carriage return. However, you can specify other actions that might
be more appropriate for your text field, such as Send or Go.

To specify the keyboard action button, use the android:imeOptions attribute with
an action value such as "actionSend" or "actionSearch". For example:
 Figure 4. The Send button
appears when you declare android:imeOptions="actionSend".
<EditText
android:id="@+id/search"
android:layout_width="fill_parent"
android:layout_height="wrap_content"
android:hint="@string/search_hint"
android:inputType="text"
android:imeOptions="actionSend" />

You can then listen for presses on the action button by defining
a TextView.OnEditorActionListener for the EditText element. In your listener,
respond to the appropriate IME action ID defined in the EditorInfo class, such
as IME_ACTION_SEND, as shown in the following example:

KotlinJava
findViewById<EditText>(R.id.search).setOnEditorActionListener { v, actionId, event ->
return@setOnEditorActionListener when (actionId) {
EditorInfo.IME_ACTION_SEND -> {
sendMessage()
true
}
else -> false
}
}

POINTING TASKS AND CONROL MODES:

A pointing device is a type of input devices that allows a user to interact with a
computer by moving a cursor on a monitor to select icons and trigger desired actions.
The de facto pointing device for desktop computers is a mouse, which was invented
by Douglas England in 1967 [1]. To manipulate the cursor, a user moves a mouse on a
flat surface; the cursor’s motion is proportional to the relative change in position of
the mouse. A similar pointing device designed for desktop computers is a trackball—
an upside-down mouse that allows a user to control the cursor by rotating the ball in
the direction of desired cursor motion. Unlike most hardware devices, the mouse has
endured for several decades [2]. However, a mouse is ineffective if a user is unable to
operate it on a flat and steady surface. Thus, the emergence of an increase in the use
of laptops resulted in the development of touchpads and isometric joysticks.

A touchpad is a small rectangular pad that responds to touch and is found on a laptop;
moving a finger across a touchpad moves the cursor in the same direction [2].
An isometric joystick senses the force vector applied to it to determine which
direction and how fast the cursor has been moved [2]. It is mounted on the center of a
laptop computer’s keyboard and is referred to generally as a trackpoint. A touchpad
and/or trackpoint is embedded into the chassis of a laptop allowing a user to operate
each while viewing the laptop’s monitor. A trackpoint is especially suitable for small
laptops since it has a tiny footprint (i.e., it is much smaller than a touchpad) [1]. The
touchpad and trackpoint are the de facto pointing devices for laptops.

A wearable computer is a body-mounted device that a user can access at any time.
The adjective “wearable” refers to “the use of the human body as a support
environment for the product” [3]. The portability of wearable computers allows them
to be used not only pervasively, but also while engaged in other activities (e.g., in the
battlefield or operating room) [4]. Since traditional pointing devices (i.e., mouse,
touchpad, trackpoint, and trackball) were designed to be used with desktop and laptop
computers, which were not intended to be used in concurrence with other activities,
they are inappropriate for wearable computers. Just as the advent of laptops resulted
in the development of the touchpad and trackpoint, the emergence of wearable
computers is leading to the development of pointing devices designed for them.

People operate wearable computers from different body positions under different
environmental conditions for different uses. Possible positions include standing,
walking, and prone. Possible environmental conditions include illumination, acoustic
noise, and temperature. Possible uses include surgery, combat, and sports. These
aspects (i.e., positions, environmental conditions, and uses) may change as a user
operates a wearable computer [4]. We summarize this contextual landscape for
pointing devices for wearable computers asThis wide cross-product has led to the
development of a variety of innovative wearable pointing devices.

We survey a representative set of pointing devices for wearable computers and

classify them using an “adaptation of traditional devices” versus “new devices”
dichotomy. Adaptations of traditional devices consist of traditional pointing devices
adapted for use with wearable computers. In contrast, we refer to pointing devices for
wearable computers that are not adaptations of traditional devices as new devices.

Three Categories of Direct Entry Devices

1. Pointing Devices -An input device used to move the pointer (cursor) on screen.

Mouse- The most common 'pointing device' used in PCs. Every mouse has two buttons
and most have one or two scroll wheels.

Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot be used to
enter text into the computer.Advantages-Easy to use-Not very expensive-Moves the
cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.-Touch screen-A display screen that is
sensitive to the touch of a finger or stylus. Used in myriad applications, including ATM
machines, retail point-of-sale terminals, car navigation and industrial controls. The

touch screen became wildly popular for smart phones and tablets.
Digitizer Tablet -A graphics drawing tablet used for sketching new images or tracing
old ones. Also called a "graphics tablet," the user contacts the surface of the device
with a wired or wireless pen or puck. Often mistakenly called a mouse, the puck is
officially the "tablet cursor."

Light Pen -A light-sensitive stylus wired to a video terminal used to draw pictures or
select menu options. The user brings the pen to the desired point on screen and presses
the pen button to make contact.

Joystick :-Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a
monitor screen.It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends.
The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The Joystick can be moved in all four
directions.The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in
Computer Aided Designing(CAD) and playing computer games.

2. Scanning Devices-A device that can read text or illustrations printed on paper and
translates the information into a form the computer can use.

Bar Code Reader is used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light and dark
lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labeling goods, numbering the books etc. It
may be a hand held scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.Bar Code
Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value which is then fed
to the computer to which bar code reader is connected.

3. Voice- Input Devices -Audio input devices also known as speech or voice
recognition systems that allow a user to send audio signals to a computer for
processing, recording, or carrying out commands.Audio input devices such as
microphones allow users to speak to the computer in order to record a voice message
or navigate software.

INDIRECT CONROL POINTING DEVICES:-

An indirect-input pointing device is not at the same physical

position as the pointer but translates its movement onto the
screen (e.g., computer mouse, joystick, stylus on a graphics
tablet).

Indirect Input Devices

If the data is in human readable form, it must be converted into machine readable
form so that a computer can process it. This process of data conversion is time
consuming and error prone that causes a major bottleneck in data processing. Some
examples of indirect input devices are: keyboard, mouse and joystick. When you press
any key on keyboard, it converts that character into series of electronic pulses and
sends to CPU.
Keyboard

Keyboard is a standard input device. It is a data entry platform of a computer. A

computer key board is a sophisticated electromechanical component designed to
create specialized electronic codes (scan codes) when a key is pressed. These codes
are transmitted along the cables to computer system unit or terminal, where the
incoming code is analyzed and converted in to the appropriate computer usable code.

Keyboards have five distinct groups of keys:

 Standard type writer keys: resembles a typewriter

 Function keys: The top row keys from F1 to F10 or F12
 Cursor movement keys: Arrow keys, Home, End, PageUp, PageDown
 Numeric keys: a keypad at the right to make it easy to enter numbers
 Special purpose keys: Ctrl, Alt, Shift, Del, Insert

Keyboard Layout defines the position of keys in a keyboard. QWERTY is the most
popular keyboard layout. Dvorak, Colemak, JCUKEN are other keyboard layouts for
Latin scripts. Similarly, we have Traditional, Romanized and Nepali keyboard layout
for typing Unicode Nepali script. You can change keyboard layout from Regional and
Language Settings in Control Panel.

Why are traditional keyboard layout places keys in the QWERTY order? Why they
are not alphabetically ordered like ABCDEF….? You’ll really surprise to know that it
was developed to make typing harder and inefficient (do some Googling on this
topic). Devorak layout is far better in keys arrangement and improves the speed and
accuracy of typing, but the more surprising thing is that it is not much common
compared to traditional QWERTY.
 Dvorak Keyboard

QWERTY Keyboard

COMPARISON OF POINTING DEVICES:-

Mouse

Everybody who can access this blog has used a mouse so I will skip the ramblings.
 Holding a standard mouse
 High pointing precision
 Potentially many buttons
 Thumb is free to use buttons
 Variety of models
 Unnatural arm and wrist posture
 Lots of arm movements
 Need a fair amount of flat, solid space
 Might be tiring to use
An alternative I have not tried myself is the VerticalMouse. The name tells you really all you need
to know and people claim it is great.

Trackball

Due to space restrictions on my desk I switched to a Logitech TrackMan Wheel some years ago. I
was very sceptical at first and was rewarded with lots of pain. But once I found a comfortable
position I liked using the trackball a lot. Especially on big or with multiple screens it helps that you
can let the ball spin and move around quickly; getting it right needs some training, though. My
biggest problem has been the lack of precision.

Using Trackball
 Ball spinning cuts distances
 Arm stays still
 Space efficient
 Can be used on any surface
 Unnatural arm and wrist posture
 Strains thumb joint exclusively
  Few models, especially for lefties
 Precision is harder to achieve
 Have to keep ball clean
Graphics Tablet

Only some months ago, I purchased a Wacom Bamboo Pen because I wanted to use image
editing software and online whiteboards more. Graphics tablets are unrivaled for this task; you just
cannot draw or write properly with a mouse let alone a trackball. I tried using it as main pointing
device then and have not stopped since; I feel very comfortable navigating my computer with a
stylus and miss it every time I cannot use it. Note that I prefer tablet over touch screen because I
do not like my hand interfering with the screen. Note also that you appearently have to buy a
certain level of quality; in particular, stay clear of tablets whose styli have batteries. The weight of a
Wacom stylus is about the same as for any pen, as it should be. The main problem with stylus
input in general is maybe the lack of easily accessible buttons. If you are quick with keyboard
shortcuts you should be fine, though. I also installed a FireGestures which inreases navigation
effiency in Firefox a lot.

Holding Wacom Stylus

 High drawing precision
 Natural arm and wrist posture
 Enables use of drawing and gesture software
 Pressure, tilt and rotation sensors possible
 Absolute positioning possible
 Tablet might double as touchpad
 Few buttons, maybe awkwardly placed
 Lack of pointing precision
 Lots of wrist movements
 Need a fair amount of flat, solid space
 Stylus can be fragile, pin wears off

FITT’S LAW:

Fitts's law (often cited as Fitts' law) is a predictive model of human movement primarily
used in human–computer interaction and ergonomics. The law predicts that the time
required to rapidly move to a target area is a function of the ratio between the distance to
the target and the width of the target. Fitts's law is used to model the act of pointing,
either by physically touching an object with a hand or finger, or virtually, by pointing to an
object on a computer monitor using a pointing device. It was initially developed by Paul
Fitts.
Fitts's law has been shown to apply under a variety of conditions; with many
different limbs (hands, feet, the lower lip, head-mounted sights, manipulanda (input
devices), physical environments (including underwater and user populations (young,
old, special educational needs, and drugged participants.

NOVEL POINTING DEVICES:-

A handheld camera is used to control the mouse cursor on a computer display

just like a laser pointer controls a laser dot using real time computer vision
techniques.
We present a novel approach for man machine interaction applying real time
computer vision techniques. We use a handheld camera to control the mouse
cursor on a computer display. The camera captures an image of the display in
its eld of view and this can be used to judge the camera’s position and
orientation relative to the display. The problem is modelled as a plane-to-
plane projection (homography). Once the mapping of the display in the
camera view to the real world display is known, the intersection between the
central axis of the camera and the surface of the display can be computed.
The mouse pointer is then moved to the corresponding display position. This
calculation can be iterated continuously to update the mouse cursor position
as the camera position and orientation changes. The camera can then be
used to control the mouse cursor just like a laser pointer controls a laser dot
DISPLAYS:-
Display is a device used to present visual information. The
main aim of any display technology is to simplify the
information sharing. Today, there are different types of
displays used for different applications. These displays can be
categorized as Video Displays, Non- Video Displays and 3D
displays.

DISPLAY TECHNOLOGY:-

Video Displays
Video Displays are two-dimensional displays that cover a full area, basically a
rectangle. The different types of video displays are discussed below
Electroluminescent Display

Electroluminescent display is a flat panel display that works on the principle of

electroluminescence. Electroluminescence is a phenomenon where materials can
emit light in response to the electric current. To make use of this phenomenon,
electroluminescent display uses gallium arsenide (GaAs) as an electroluminescent
material. The basic structure of electroluminescent display consists of electrode
layers at the top and bottom. Active Matrix, Thin Film and Thick Dielectric are the
three types of electroluminescent displays.

Advantages

Thin and compact.

Good writing speed.

Low voltage operation.

Disadvantages

Low efficiency.

High cost.

High voltage drivers.

Electronic Paper

Electronic Paper also known as e-paper is a term for display technologies resembling
a paper. The popularity of the display is due to its contrast, thickness, readability and
flexibility.

E Ink is now one of the popular e-paper display technologies. It was developed by E
Ink Corporation and today they are used by different companies in their products and
e-readers. E Ink displays are made of some tiny capsules which consist of black and
white particles. With the help of electricity either the black or white particles rise up
towards the capsule and thereby change the color of the pixel. In order to make an e-
ink display, first the ink is printed to a sheet made of plastic which acts as the front
plane of the e-ink display. The plastic sheets are thereafter laminated onto the active
matrix backplanes forming the e-ink display. To control the pattern of the pixels in the
display, controllers and integrated circuits are added.

Advantages

Less power.

Easy to read at outdoors.

Disadvantages

Can’t display full videos.

Cannot be read in dark.

Gyricon is a type of e-paper display. It was developed by Xerox PARC. The main
features of the display are its flexibility, wide angle of view etc. Gyricon sheet is a
transparent plastic which consists of many beads that are distributed randomly.
When the voltage is applied, beads will rotate to present the colored side to the
viewer.

LED Display

It is a type of display that uses light emitting diodes.

LED is short for Light Emitting Diode. An LED emits light as a result of electric
luminescence. It is also known as “cold light” as, unlike with old-fashioned
incandescent bulbs, the light is not produced by heating a metal filament. The diode,
on the other hand, emits light when flowing through two specially coated silicon
semiconductors. It is one of the most energy-efficient and power-saving ways to
produce light.

An LED consists of solid materials without movable parts and is often moulded into
transparent plastic. This ensures high durability. When an LED is on, it emits almost
zero heat. This reduces the problem of cooling the electronic parts.
The first LED was created by Russian inventor Oleg Losev in 1927. For many years,
it was only possible to produce infrared, red and yellow LEDs. These diodes were
found in everything from remote controls to clock radios.

It was not until 1994 that Japanese scientist Shuji Nakamura was able to
demonstrate an efficient blue LED. White and green LEDs soon followed, laying the
foundation for the LED revolution we have seen in lighting and display technology.

An LED display consists of many closely-spaced LEDs. By varying the brightness of

each LED, the diodes jointly form an image on the display.

To create a bright colour image, the principles of additive colour mixing are used,
whereby new colours are created by mixing light in different colours. An LED display
consists of red, green and blue LEDs mounted in a fixed pattern. These three colours
combine to form a pixel. By adjusting the intensity of the diodes, billions of colours
can be formed. When you look at the LED screen from a certain distance, the array
of coloured pixels are seen as an image.

ADVANTAGES:

Long Service Life

Good environmental performance

Low heat generation

Low Power

Many Color Choices

DISADVANTAGES:

Sensitive to Voltage Spike

Heat dissipation in some applications

Not true full spectrum White LED (unless tri-color)

This flat panel display is today used in many applications like to display traffic signs,
displays of railway stations, television display etc. One of the largest LED display in
the world is located in China, which is 500m long. Also the largest LED television is
the Center Hung Video Display at Cowboys Stadium. This television has dimensions
of 49m x 22m.

Liquid Crystal Display(LCD)

This display generally depends upon the light modulating properties of liquid
crystals. The low power consumption makes it good to use in all types of electronic
equipments that are battery powered. LCDs are electronically modulated and are
made of liquid crystals which are arrayed in front of the light source to produce
images in color.

LCDs are commonly used in systems, such as calculators and laptop computers.
These non-emissive devices produce a picture by passing polarized light from the
surrounding or from an internal light source through a liquid- crystal material that can
be aligned to either block or transmit the light. A liquid crystal display consists of an
array of tiny segments (called pixels) that can be manipulated to present information.
The main advantage of LCD is size. There is no huge picture tube. The drawbacks
with LCDs are viewing angle, contrast ratio, and response time.

TFT LCD Display

TFT LCD displays are another type of LCD display that uses the thin film transistor
technology. This display helps to improve the quality of the image, contrast,
addressability. Generally, TFT LCD is an active matrix LCD display.

Plasma Display

Plasma panels, also called gas discharge displays, are constructed by filling the
region between two glass plates with a mixture of gases that usually include neon. A
series of vertical conducting ribbons is placed on one glass panel, and a set of
horizontal ribbons is built into the other glass panel. Firing voltages applied to a pair
of horizontal and vertical conductors cause the gas at the intersection of the two
conductors to break down into a glowing plasma of electrons and ions. Picture
definition is stored in a refresh buffer, and the firing voltages are applied to refresh
the pixel positions (at the intersections of the conductors) 60 times per second.

Plasma Displays is one of the display technologies that provides large screen sizes
and better flat screen presentation. Good image qualities are one of its characteristic.
Basically, plasma screens compose of large number of cells sandwiched between
the panels made of glass. Between the glass panels there are display and address
electrodes which form the grid. Electrodes intersect at a particular cell will get
charged and excites neon and xenon gas within each cell. When the gas gets
excited, it creates plasma and releases the UV light and thereafter releases the
phosphor electrodes which are located on the sides of the cell. When these
electrodes come back to the original state, light is emitted.

Plasma panel displays text or graphics using the light from large number of tiny
plasma cells. Each pixel is made up of three sub cells which emit red, green and blue
lights for colour display. Plasma display is thinner than its CRT counter parts and
wider display panels can be created using plasma technology.

Plasma is an ionized gas containing free-flowing ions and electrons. Under normal
condition, gas inside the chamber is neutral. Plasma is created by applying very high
voltage across the electrodes on the sides of the gas chamber. Structure of a single
plasma cell is shown in the figure.

When a voltage is applied between two electrodes, free electrons are introduced into
the gas. These free electrons collide with the electrons in the gas atoms. Electrons
will get enough energy to break its bond, therefore, more free electrons and positive
ions are created. Electrons then move towards the positive charged area and
similarly positive ions move towards the negatively charged area.
Random movements of charged particles increase the rate of collision and therefore,
more and more charged particles get released. Each exited electrons after some time
go back to the lower energy state by emitting energy in the form of photons.

Xenon and Neon are most commonly used gases to make plasma. When they are
excited, photons are created in UV range. Ultraviolet rays are invisible to human eye
and therefore they need to be converted into visible spectrum. For which ultraviolet
photons are guided to hit a phosphorus layer on the surface of the gas chamber.
Incident ultraviolet rays excite phosphorus electrons to a higher energy state. The
electron later returns to the ground state and releases energy in the form of photon in
visible spectrum.

Construction of Plasma Display

A large number of tiny plasma cells are arranged in a matrix format. Each cell is
addressed by grid structure (rows and columns) of long electrodes which reaches
both sides of the cell. When voltage pulse is applied across any two electrodes, gas
cell at the intersection electrodes are excited.

Ultraviolet photons in each cell interact with phosphor material coated on the inside
wall of the cell to emit photons in the visible spectrum. In a small fraction of a second,
thousands of such cells are excited to display a particular graphics on the screen.
Since each pixel lights individually, no separate back light is required for plasma
display.

Colour Display

In colour display every pixel is made up of three separate sub pixels. Each sub pixels
is coated with three different phosphors to emit red, green and blue lights. Colours
from each sub pixel blend together to create the overall colour of the pixel.

OLED DISPLAY
OLED means Organic Light Emitting Diode. As the name indicates that it relies on
organic materials. Organic Light Emitting Devices (OLED) emit light from active
luminescent material in each display pixel.

OLED panels are made from organic materials that emit light when electricity is
applied through them. Since OLEDs do not require a backlight and filters (like LCD
displays do), they are more efficient, simpler to make, and much thinner - and in fact
can be made flexible and even rollable.

The main component in an OLED display is the OLED emitter - an organic (carbon-
based) material that emits light when electricity is applied. The basic structure of an
OLED is an emissive layer sandwiched between a cathode (which injects electrons)
and an anode (which removes electrons).

There are various type of OLED like PHOLED (phosphorescent OLED), TOLED
(Transparent OLED), FOLED (Flexible OLED), WOLED (White OLED), AMOLED
(Active matrix OLED). OLED’s basic structure consists of organic materials
positioned between the cathode and the anode, which is composed of electric
conductive transparent Indium Tin Oxide (ITO).

Modern OLED devices use many more layers in order to make them more efficient
and durable, but the basic functionality remains the same.

An OLED panel itself is made from a substrate, backplane (electronics - the driver),
frontplane (the organic materials and electrodes as explained above) and an
encapsulation layer. OLEDs are very sensitive to oxygen and moisture and so the
encapsulation layer is critical.

The substrate and backplane of an OLED display are similar to those of an LCD
display, but the front plane deposition is unique to OLEDs. There are several ways to
deposit and pattern the organic layers. Currently most OLED displays are made
using vacuum evaporation, using a Shadow Mask (FMM, Fine Metal Mask) to
pattern. This is a relatively simple method but it is inefficient (a lot of material is
wasted) and very difficult to scale up to large substrates.
Some OLED materials are soluble, and these can be deposited using printing
methods - mostly ink-jet printing. OLED makers hope that ink-jet printing may be a
scalable, efficient and cheap way to deposit OLEDs.

The organic materials compose a multi-layered thin film, which includes the Hole
Transporting Layer (HTL), Emission Layer (EML) and the Electron Transporting
Layer (ETL). By applying the appropriate electric voltage, holes and electrons are
injected into the EML from the anode and the cathode, respectively. The holes and
electrons combine inside the EML to form excitons, after which electroluminescence
occurs. The transfer material, emission layer material and choice of electrode are the
key factors that determine the quality of OLED components.

ADVANTAGES

Vibrant color

High Contrast

High Viewing angle

Rapid Response Time

Full motion videos

Low Cost

AMOLED DISPLAY

The full form of AMOLED is Active Matrix OLED. It has better display quality, thin
form factor, and lower power consumption. In this display technology a very thin film
has been used which was coated with several organic electroluminescent
compounds. The whole technology is too dealt with the pixel quality of the displays.
As of now this display technology has been implanted very successfully in small
screens like in smart phones. This technology is not only very affordable, but also
available with improved quality picture. In very near future AMOLED will be used for
bigger screens.
The active matrix OLED in AMOLED technology produces a light after it is properly
electrically activated. It requires a continuous flow of electricity and that is controlled
by two TFTs. The benefit of this technology over others is immense. AMOLED
technology consumes lesser power and also the refresh rate is very high than other
counterparts. The response time of touch displays developed using this technology is
far better compared to others. In future it is going to be used not only in portable
electronics devices, but also in large screens such as more than 50 inches. Already
several big names in the electronics world have started using an AMOLED including
Samsung.

ADVANTAGE

Wide Temperature operation

Fast Response

High and constant Gamut color

Wide viewing angle

Peak brightness

Low power consumption

Very slim design

Digital Light Processing Technology

DLP technology basically uses an optical semiconductor device known as Digital

Micromirror Device. This device is a small light switch that can modulate the light
through many microscopic mirrors arranged in a rectangular array. By using a DMD,
digital video, light source, projection lens and mirrors this DLP system can reflect a
digital image to the surface. When the mirrors tilt towards the light source, they are in
the ON state otherwise they are OFF. Depending upon the state of the micromirrors,
they project light or dark pixels to the screen. A digital signal is used to instruct the
micromirror to switch on or off. With the help of this method, the DMD can produce
grayscale images.

In order to produce color images, a color wheel is placed between the mirror and the
light source. When the wheel spins, white light generated will filter into red, green and
blue light which then fall onto the mirrors. The coordination of the colored light and
switching of the DMD, the DLP system helps to produce colored images. For
example, a purple pixel will be produced when the mirror is switched ON when red or
blue colored light is produced.

Liquid on Silicon (LCoS)

Liquid crystal on silicon (LCOS) is a reflective microdisplay technology that is based

on a silicon backplate. It is a combination of digital light processing (DLP) and liquid
crystal display (LCD) projection technologies as it is reflective, but instead of using
mirrors as in DLP, it uses liquid crystals that are applied on a reflective silicon
backplate. Light is reflected off the backplate, while the liquid crystals open and close
to modulate it.

LCOS microdisplay is constructed with a liquid crystal layer sandwiched between a

thin-film transistor (TFT) and a silicon semiconductor with a reflective coating, hence
the name. Like in DLP technology, light passing through a polarizing layer is
reflected, but in the case of LCOS, it uses a reflective semiconductor instead of
mirrors, while the liquid crystals act as gates that control the amount of light that
passes and reaches the reflective surface, modulating the light and creating the
image. As with LCD technology, LCOS modulates light in the RGB channel, so there
are still three separate subpixels of red, green and blue.

Parts of an LCOS microdisplay starting from the top:

Glass cover -- Seals and protects the system.

Transparent electrode -- Completes the circuit with the liquid crystal and the silicon.

Alignment layer -- Aligns the liquid crystal in order for them to accurately direct light.
Liquid crystal -- Controls the amount of light that reaches and leaves the reflective
layer.

Reflective coating/layer -- Reflects light that creates the picture.

Silicon or chip -- Controls the liquid crystal in a one-to-one ratio between pixel and
transistor using data from the display driver.

Printed circuit board -- Carries instructions from the television or computer into the
devices.

LCOS offers the following advantages:

High brightness while maintaining a contrast ratio of 2,000:1

High light efficiency as 70-80% of light is reflected

High-quality image as there is no "screen door" between pixels

High heat efficiency

Field Emission Display

This is another popular flat panel display technology. It uses filed emission electron
sources. These electron sources will strike the phosphor to produce colored images.
Generally, FED consists of CRTs to form the RGB pixels. High contrast ratio, fast
response time, less power, better packaging are some of its features.

Laser TV

Laser color television (laser TV), or laser color video display utilizes two or more
individually modulated optical (laser) rays of different colors to produce a combined
spot that is scanned and projected across the image plane by a polygon-mirror
system or less effectively by optoelectronic means to produce a color-television
display.
Thus, Laser TV also known as Laser color video display uses laser rays of different
colors in order to produce a spot. The spot is scanned and projected across the
image plane. This process is done by using a polygon mirror set up.

The systems work either by scanning the entire picture a dot at a time and
modulating the laser directly at high frequency, much like the electron beams in a
cathode ray tube, or by optically spreading and then modulating the laser and
scanning a line at a time, the line itself being modulated in much the same way as
with digital light processing (DLP).

Laser TV technology began to appear in the 1990s. In the 21st century, the rapid
development and maturity of semiconductor lasers and other technologies gave it
new advantages.

Quantum Dot Display

Quantum dot display is a type of display technology similar to the OLEDs. Here the
light is supplied earlier, so that more efficient displays are obtained. Quantum dots
are considered to be electro-active and photo-active which makes them to be a better
display technology.

A quantum dot display is a display device that uses quantum dots (QD),
semiconductor nanocrystals which can produce pure monochromatic[a] red, green,
and blue light.

Photo-emissive quantum dot particles are used in LCD backlights and/or display
color filters. Quantum dots are excited by the blue light from the display panel to emit
pure basic colors, which reduces light losses and color crosstalk in color filters,
improving display brightness and color gamut. Light travels through QD filters with
red/green QD color converters and blue pass through. Although the QD color filter
technology is primarily used in LED-backlit LCDs, it is applicable to other display
technologies which use color filters, such as blue/UV AMOLED/QNED/MicroLED
display panels.
LED-backlit LCDs are the main application of photo-emissive quantum dots, though
blue OLED panels with QD color filters are being researched.

Interferometric Modulator Display

IMOD displays are a particular type of electronic visual displays that helps to create
different colors by the interference property of the reflected light. One of the smart
watches named Qualcomm Toq uses this type of display. IMOD displays consist of
mirrors that can be made into ON or OFF states. Each of these mirrors will reflect
only one wavelength of light when turned ON. When the mirrors are in the OFF state,
they absorb the light. Generally the mirrors here are arranged in a rectangular array
to make up a display screen.

Flexible Display

A flexible display is referred to the display of the screen which is actually quite
flexible by nature. These sorts of screen are quite different from the usual rigid flat
screens that can be explored in the world of electronics today. With the increase in
the popularity of these types of screens, many manufactures have intended to
include this style of display in mobile phones, e-readers and many more electronical
devices that have flat screen. The concept of this technology is derived from the age
old flexible electronic paper.

A flexible electronic paper is a paper that is often termed as the e-paper and this
paper has the ability to bend and is even structured as the prototype of the current
technology. Though, there were several companies who tried formulating this
concept with the help of smart skills and competence, but only in the year 2013 the
world could discover the first and the most beautiful screen which is flexible and easy
to use. This concept was first identified by the Xerox PARC (Palo Alto Research
Company) in the year 1947. Scientists like Nicholas K. Sheldon had made major
contribution in the development of this screen.

Working of Flexible Display for E-Devices

Dubbed Gryicon was the technology that could make flexible display what it is
today. This new display technique was designed using e-paper and the dynamic
touch of the digital display. Soon, this idea was well structured with the help of
Organic thin film transistors. These organic thin film transistors acted as a
semiconducting compound that provided adequate amount of mobility to the display.
The worked in bringing a brighter and vibrant display on the screen and even
increased the response time of the screen.

Conducting Mechanism of Organic Thin Film Transistors

The Organic semiconductors typically hold low intermolecular force, which means
the Vander Waal Force of attraction between them is as low as 10kcal/mol. This
means that the bonding that is present between the atoms of the organic thin
film transistors are quite low, even lower than the inorganic compounds like Silicon,
Gallium, and Germanium that hold quite a strong bonding in between them. So, the
low bond value that was present in between the organic compounds, especially in the
thin film transistors allowed the display screen to bend without breaking. Since, the
intermolecular force is not too strong any type of damage was never caused to the
screen.
How different are Flexible Display from Rollable Display?

Every Rollable display is a type of flexible display, but on the contrary every flexible
display is not a type of Rollable display. This clearly, means that any display that is
flexible does not mean that it can be rolled over too. As a matter of fact, there are
only few such display that are flexible and Rollable too. The common Rollable display
is almost like a thin piece of paper that can be rolled into any direction, and was
developed with the help of E-paper that had E-ink. Currently, there is only one phone
by Samsung which is named as Youm, and this phone holds both flexible and
Rollable display too.

The phone was enthralled by Samsung in the year 2013, and was crafted as an
unnamed product. This was the time, when the brand engineers announced their
developments for creating display screen that is both flexible and Rollable but, it can
be purchased by everyone at affordable rates. After that, Samsung brought an official
name that was Youm to the first curved OLED screen phone that was Rollable and
 flexible too. This OLED display enhanced the battery life of the phone and soon
made the phone a new revolution in the world of Smartphone.

Advantages of Flexible and Rollable Display

 The first advantage of these display is that they are durable than glass.
 Secondly, these screens are quite light in weight, which makes them easy carry.
 It can be curved and used on a plethora of devices.
 The display of these types of screens can be bigger than the device too.
Disadvantages of Flexible and Rollable Display

 The development in these screens has somehow been static these years.
 Companies have not yet decided the launching dates of these phones worldwide.
Future Developments of Flexible and Rollable Display

For now, there has been lot of talk in the air about flexible display and the features
that they hold. This has definitely increased the anticipation of the people and now
they are waiting when they will be able to use such kind of phone, which is based on
the smart technology of today. It’s interesting that Samsung has brought a phone
that can achieve the same standards of that of OLED with display that is flexible, but
it has not yet announced the launch date of this phone.

IPS DISPLAY

The full form IPS is In-Plane Switching. It is a technology that addresses the two
main issues of a standard twisted nematic (TN) TFT display: color and viewing angle.
With IPS, the crystals are aligned horizontally to the screen rather than vertically, and
the electrical field is applied between each end of the crystal molecules –termed a
lateral electric field. In this way, the crystals are kept parallel to the electrode pair,
and thus the glass substrate of the screen. The liquid crystal molecules are not
anchored to the lower glass substrate, so move more freely into the desired
alignment.

Curved screens theoretically provide a larger field of view and a more “immersive”
experience.
LARGE WALL DISPLAYS:

As smartphones continue to improve at rapid rates, tasks that used to

be inconceivable on small touchscreens have become (often) quite
simple and acceptable. We can read, buy, work, and collaborate…
well sort of. Sharing information via a phone is easy, but sharing the
small screen itself with the person by your side is not. If we need to
look at the same item at the same time together, a larger screen or
even a large print will easily win out over a 4-inch display. But maybe
in the not-too-distant future tiny powerful projectors will come built in
on all of our phones and watches, facilitating group viewing on any
plain wall. In this scenario, the input device may still be the phone as
a remote control. Or maybe we will be able to use the human body or
a gestural device, , for easier input, enabling us to “touch” the links
on the wall and have the UI react.

Heads-up and head-mounted display:

A head-up display, or heads-up display, also known as a HUD (/hʌd/) or Head-up
Guidance System (HGS), is any transparent display that presents data without requiring
users to look away from their usual viewpoints. The origin of the name stems from
a pilot being able to view information with the head positioned "up" and looking forward,
instead of angled down looking at lower instruments. A HUD also has the advantage that
the pilot's eyes do not need to refocus to view the outside after looking at the optically
nearer instruments.
Although they were initially developed for military aviation, HUDs are now used in
commercial aircraft, automobiles, and other (mostly professional) applications.
Head-up displays were a precursor technology to augmented reality (AR), incorporating a
subset of the features needed for the full AR experience, but lacking the necessary
registration and tracking between the virtual content and the user's real-world
environment.
Other than fixed mounted HUD, there are also head-mounted displays (HMDs). These
include helmet-mounted displays (both abbreviated HMD), forms of HUD that feature a
display element that moves with the orientation of the user's head.
Generations:
HUDs are split into four generations reflecting the technology used to generate the
images.

 First Generation—Use a CRT to generate an image on a phosphor screen, having

the disadvantage of the phosphor screen coating degrading over time. The majority of
HUDs in operation today are of this type.
 Second Generation—Use a solid state light source, for example LED, which is
modulated by an LCD screen to display an image. These systems do not fade or
require the high voltages of first generation systems. These systems are on
commercial aircraft.
 Third Generation—Use optical waveguides to produce images directly in the
combiner rather than use a projection system.
 Fourth Generation—Use a scanning laser to display images and even video imagery
on a clear transparent medium.
Newer micro-display imaging technologies are being introduced, including liquid crystal
display (LCD), liquid crystal on silicon (LCoS), digital micro-mirrors (DMD), and organic
light-emitting diode (OLED).

Mobile device displays:

While buying a mobile phone we might have heard these words – IPS
LCD display, TFT LCD display, OLED display, Super AMOLED display,
etc. We often get confused as to which is the best. So, let us explain each
of the displays.
Displays are mainly categorized into three types –
1. LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
2. LED (Light Emitting Diode)
3. Retina
These are explained as following below.
1. LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) :
LCD means Liquid crystal display. In the LCD display, there is a light in
the background of pixels which is called a backlight that provides light to
the pixels for projecting the content. If there is no light in the background
we could not able to see the content which is displaying on the screen.
There are a few types of LCD panels. In the LCD panel, we have CCFL
backlighting which means Cold Cathode Fluorescent Lamp. These are
explained as following below.
 Twisted Nematic (TN) –
Twisted Nematic displays are widely used in computer monitors in
some industries. These displays are commonly used by gamers for a
better experience. Because they are inexpensive and faster response.

 Vertical Alignment (VA) –

The vertical alignment panel falls under the middle of the TN panel
and IPS panel. This display has better viewing angles and better color
reproduction as compared to the TN display.

 Advanced Fringe Field Switching (AFFS) –

This type of display used for commercial purposes in cockpits. AFFS
display is extremely quality of LCD display as of now because they
have good color reproduction, best viewing angles than the IPS panel
and TN panel. It also minimizes color distortion.
As for mobile displays, we mostly see these three displays in LCD –
 TFT LCD Panel –
Thin Film Transistor display is the cheapest display in LCD. In this
display, every pixel is attached to a capacitor and transistor. The main
advantage of this display is the high contrast ratio and very cheap to
 build by the way we see this type of displays in budget mobiles below
10K price.
 IPS LCD Panel –
In-Plane Switching is the most popular display between the 10k to 20k
price range in mobiles. By the way, this is the best display on LCD.
They are very much the best than the TFT display. This display can
produce better viewing angles, best color reproduction, and direct
sunlight visibility.
 1LCD Panel –
Super LCD is the marketing term of HTC. Generally, it is also a type of
IPS LCD but there is a slight change. In the IPS LCD display, there is
some gap between the outer glass and the touch sensor. In the SLCD
display, there is no gap between the outer glass and touch sensor.
2. LED (Light Emitting Diode) :
In the place of CCFL, we use LEDs. In LCD display we use CCFL as
backlighting and in the LED display we use LED bulbs as backlighting.
Advantages :
 Consumes Very less power.
 Best color reproduction.
 Best viewing angles.
 No limitations for aspect ratios.
 Better contrast levels.
 Best sunlight visibility.
 True black colors.
Disadvantages :
 Costly to build.
There are so many types of LED displays. Generally, we may see these
two displays in the flagship category mobiles. they are, OLED and
AMOLED displays. Technology is almost the same, but OLED is
developed by a company named LG, and AMOLED is developed by a
company called Samsung.
1. AMOLED (Active-Matrix Organic Light Emitting Diode) –
This technology completely belongs to Samsung. They took patients
also. The main function of the AMOLED display is the individual pixel
act as an LED bulb. Which means they do not require backlighting.
This technology helps in power saving and projecting true black
colors. The pixels stop projecting light when the video has black color.
The black portion in the video is projected like a true black color. So, it
saves power when the content has black color. And we could enjoy true
black colors. The main difference between AMOLED and Super AMOLED
is like IPS LCD and SLCD. AMOLED has a gap between the glass and
touch sensor. Super AMOLED has no gap between the glass and touch
sensor (negligible gap).
2. OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode) –
This technology belongs to LG. LG took patents on the OLED panel. It
is like the LGs trademark. This display is also like an AMOLED
display. OLED has a series of organic thin-film between two
conductors. When the current is applied, light is emitted. These are
more efficient than LCD displays.

3. Retina Display :
Retina display is the trademark of the company named APPLE.
Actually, the retina display is an IPS LCD display only. APPLE
modified the IPS LCD display and renamed it. In retina display, we
can more PPI (Pixel per inch) than IPS LCD displays. It is not a
separate technology. It is a modification of the IPS LCD display. We
can see retina displays in apple mobiles.

We use interlinked 3D printed panels to fabricate deformable surfaces that are

specifically designed for shape-changing displays. Our exploration of 3D printed
deformable surfaces, as a fabrication technique for shape-changing displays, shows
new and diverse forms of shape output, visualizations, and interaction capabilities.
This article describes our general design and fabrication approach, the impact of
varying surface design parameters, and a demonstration of possible application
examples. We conclude by discussing current limitations and future directions for
this work.

Introduction-Deformable and shape-changing displays:

Shape-changing displays are an emerging technology enabling active shape input and
output through computationally controlled actuation. The dynamic movement of the
display's surface enables new forms of data representations, such as active elevated
physical topography, and novel tangible interactions, such as physical sculpting, that
are beyond the capabilities of conventional flat-screen 2D displays (Alexander et al.,
2018). Current implementations focus mainly on pin array actuators, where each
actuator represents a physical pixel in a 2D array that changes its vertical position
based on input or output. Conventional fabric surfaces are also used to create
continuous fluid surface deformations .

We aim to expand the design space of fabrication approaches for shape-changing

displays through the exploration of interlinked 3D printed surfaces that deform using
both vertical and horizontal actuation. 3D printed fabrics and textiles are becoming
an emergent application area in digital fabrication . By mimicking interlinking textile
structures, we can create surfaces with the combined qualities of flexibility and
rigidness for moving shape forms. These surfaces can be adapted in scale and
resolution via computer-aided design (CAD) for diverse uses, from small scale
wearables to larger scale installations.
User experience (UX) design is the process design teams use to create
products that provide meaningful and relevant experiences to users.
UX design involves the design of the entire process of acquiring and
integrating the product, including aspects of branding, design,
usability and function.

Designing an experience includes not only making the software easy

to use but also designing the other experiences related to the product,
for example, the marketing campaign, the packaging and after-sales
support. Most importantly, UX design is concerned with delivering
solutions that address pain points and needs. After all, no one will use
a product that serves no purpose.

Design Issues - Advancing the User Experience - Display Design:

What UX Designers Do Goes Beyond UI Design

“User Experience Design” is often used interchangeably with terms
such as “User Interface Design” and “Usability.” However, while
usability and user interface (UI) design are important aspects of UX
design, they are subsets of it.

A UX designer is concerned with the entire process of acquiring and

integrating a product, including aspects of branding, design, usability
and function. It’s a story that begins before the device is even in the
user’s hands.

“No product is an island. A product is more than the product.

It is a cohesive, integrated set of experiences. Think through
all of the stages of a product or service – from initial intentions
through final reflections, from the first usage to help, service,
and maintenance. Make them all work together seamlessly.”

— Don Norman, inventor of the term “User Experience.”

Products that provide a great user experience (e.g., the iPhone) are
thus designed with the product’s consumption or use in mind and the
entire process of acquiring, owning and even troubleshooting it.
Similarly, UX designers don’t just focus on creating usable products;
they concentrate on other aspects of the user experience, such as
pleasure, efficiency and fun. Consequently, there is no single
definition of a good user experience. Instead, a good user experience
 meets a particular user’s needs in the specific context where they use
the product.

Field layout:

When you set the Display value to true, a business rule sets the Display value
to false for all other fields on the table. In previous versions, you must manually
ensure that no other fields on the table have a value of true in the Display column.
Note: Extended tables inherit the display value of the parent table.
Setting a separate display value for the extended table overrides the
parent table's display value.

Procedure
1. Navigate to All > System Definition > Dictionary.
2. Filter on [Table] [is] [<name of the referenced table>].
3. Locate the desired field and set Display to true.
For best results, choose a field that is required and unique in each record as the
display value field.
Empirical Results:

Empirical evidence is information that can be gathered from

experience or by the five senses. In a scientific context, it is
called empirical research. Empirical analysis requires
evidence to prove any theory. An empirical approach gathers
observable data and sets out a repeatable process to produce
verifiable results.

What is empirical analysis?

Empirical analysis is an evidence-based approach to the study and
interpretation of information. Empirical evidence is information that can be
gathered from experience or by the five senses. In a scientific context, it is
called empirical research.

Empirical analysis requires evidence to prove any theory.

An empirical approach gathers observable data and sets out a repeatable
process to produce verifiable results. Empirical analysis often
requires statistical analysis to support a claim.

The word empirical comes from the ancient Greek word empeiria, meaning
experience.
Table highlighting empirical data approaches in the real world and in
IT
How to conduct empirical analysis
Empirical analysis is based on observable data. It is mainly concerned with
what can be experienced and directly observed. Well-conducted empirical
analysis sets out what was initially observed, what it expects to observe
during testing and what was observed during testing. If the observed results
do not match the expected result, then the hypothesis is not supported by the
observed data. Empirical research is concerned only with what is observed,
not with what makes sense or follows logically. It is closely related to
the scientific method.

SEQUENCE OF DISPLAYS:

Screen Sequences
Use

For the user, an application program consists of a series of screens that are displayed one after
the other. The major difference between the program flow of an executable program and a dialog
program is that, in a dialog program, you can program screens to appear in any sequence you
want. In executable programs, the screen sequence is controlled by events, which occur in a fixed
order. In a dialog program, the programmer is free to program any sequence of screens, and the
user can affect the program flow by his or her actions. However, it is still possible to call a freely-
defined screen sequence within an executable program and thus to branch into a form of dialog
program.

Screens always belong to an ABAP program. The dialog modules in an ABAP program can only
be called from screens in the same program. The system field sy-dynnr always contains the
number of the current screen. You can create any number of complex screen sequences from the
screens in a single program . For example, you can navigate from one screen to any other
screen in the same program, or repeat part of a sequence any number of times.

To start a screen sequence, you have to call its first screen. You can do this either by starting a
transaction (the first screen is contained in the transaction definition), or by using the CALL
SCREEN statement in an ABAP program. When you call a screen sequence using the CALL
SCREEN statement, you nest it within the screen sequence that was already running at the time.

The actual sequence of screens is defined by setting the next screen for each screen in the chain.
The attributes of every screen in the Screen Painter contain a statically-defined next screen. This
forms a static screen sequence . You can overwrite the value of the static next screen
dynamically in the ABAP processing logic. This enables the definition of any dynamic screen
sequences that can depend on user actions.

You can also run a screen sequence without displaying all of the screens. The SUPPRESS
DIALOG statement allows you to prevent a screen from being displayed. You include it in a PBO
module of the screen concerned. When you use SUPPRESS DIALOG, the entire PBO and PAI
logic is processed, even though the screen itself is not displayed. Suppressing a screen is useful
when you need to display a list within a screen sequence .

Screen sequences always end when they reach the next screen number zero. For this reason you
cannot create screens with number 0. Instead, you use 0 to terminate a screen sequence. When a
screen sequence ends, the system returns to the point from which the first screen in the sequence
was called. If you started the screen sequence using a transaction code, this is the point from
which you started the transaction. If you started it using CALL SCREEN , it is the point in the ABAP
program where the statement occurred..

VIEW MANAGEMENT:

A view is a set of tasks that a particular type of user can do in the user
interface. If you give a user or group a view, you do not give permissions to
the user or group to do the functions within that task. You must also define
access control items to give the user or group the necessary permissions for
the task.

 Creating a view
As an administrator, you can create a view of tasks that Identity
Manager provides. For example, you might restrict the set of tasks that group
members have.
 Changing a view
As an administrator, you can change a view of tasks that Identity
Manager provides. For example, you might restrict or expand the set of tasks
that group members have.
 Deleting a view
As an administrator, you can delete a view of tasks that Identity
Manager provides. For example, you might delete a view after creating an
alternative view of tasks that group members can use.
 Defining a custom task
As an administrator, you might want to create a custom task for your
 business or organization. You must define these custom tasks before you can
assign them to a view.
 Changing a custom task
As an administrator, you can change the task parameters that you specified
for a customized task.
 Deleting a custom task
As an administrator, you can delete fromIdentity Manager custom tasks that
you created. For example, you might delete a custom task you no longer
need it or after you create an alternative custom task that group members
can use.

COORDINATING MULTIPLE VIEWS(WINDOWS):

Multiple Coordinated Views is a specific exploratory visualization technique

that enables users to explore their data. In fact, the overall premise for the
technique is that users understand their data better if they interact with the
presented information and view it through different repre- sentations

BROWSING LARGE VIEWS:-

Page views: Examine page performance

The Page views page in browser monitoring provides insight into the performance of
your site's pages. Sort options help you find details about percentage of page load
time, average page load time, or throughput. Detailed information about the top
webpages viewed, timing and throughput details, and links to browser traces or
session traces also are available.

ANIMATION:

Animation is a method by which still figures are manipulated

so that they appear to be moving images. In traditional
animation, images are drawn or painted by hand on
transparent celluloid sheets to be photographed and exhibited
on film. Today, many animations are made with computer-
generated imagery (CGI).

WEB PAGE DESIGN:

Web design is the process of planning, conceptualizing, and arranging content
online. Today, designing a website goes beyond aesthetics to include the website’s
overall functionality. Web design also includes web apps, mobile apps, and user
interface design.
Choosing a Web Design Tool
There are two main ways to design a website: using a desktop app or using a
website builder. The tool you decide to use will vary greatly based on your
team size, your budget, and the type of site you wish to build and its
technical requirements.

1. Desktop Apps

Desktop apps require designers to create their design and send it to a development
team who can then convert the design to code. The most popular desktop apps for
designing websites are Photoshop and Sketch.

Typically, this is the standard for large and/or complex websites because it allows
the designer to focus on the overall look and feel, while all the technical
challenges are transferred to the development team. Unfortunately, this process
can be expensive and time-consuming because multiple resources, skill sets, and
team members are required.

To avoid involving a developer, it is beneficial to use a website builder to design a

website with fewer technical requirements.

2. Website Builders

There are many website builders on the market today that offer a wide range of
features and services. Wix, Squarespace, Webflow, and Pagecloud, are just a few
examples of popular website builders that vary in design capabilities, template
options, price, and overall editing experience. Be sure to do your research,
experiment with free trials, and determine which platform best fits your website
needs.

Website builders create either adaptive or responsive websites, which offer

different building experiences. These concepts will be discussed in more detail
below so you can best understand which builders will work for you. If you don’t
know how to code, becoming familiar with the freedoms and limitations of various
website design tools is essential. For example, although Wordpress is the most
used website platform, it’s not popular with visual designers because of its limited
customization options.

Before you start building a website, determine your website needs: Are you
creating a photo gallery? How often will you update your site? Do you need a
contact form? Choose a website builder that can help you effectively accomplish
those goals.
Web Design Elements
When designing a website it’s important to consider both the site’s appearance and
functionality. Integrating these elements will maximize the site’s overall usability
and performance. Your site’s usability includes elements such as an easy-to-
navigate interface, appropriate use of graphics and images, well-written and well-
placed text, and a color scheme. Your site’s performance refers to its speed,
ranking, searchability, and ability to capture your audience.

Color:

Colors Influence Clarity.

The right selection of colors is an important aspect for

readability and accessibility of the web products. Aesthetically
stimulating color palette and balanced color stories influence
usability, navigation, interactions and provide clarity of content
to users.